微观经济学第14章ppt
《微观经济学》PPT课件
〔2〕比较静态分析法：只分析 始点和终点的经济变量的 状 况
〔3〕动态分析法 引入时间因 素,分析某一时期内经济变量 的过程状况 .
三、经济模型
1、 经 济 模 型 〔economic
model>：用来表述经济
P price
变量之间的依存关系的理
李嘉图发展了亚当、斯密的思想,建立起了以劳动价 值论为基础,以分配论为中心的理论体系.并提出了 比较成本学说.他认为：每个国家都可以通过生产具 有相对优势的商品,通过国际贸易获得利益.
３、萨伊<Say>〔法〕 〔1767-1832〕
让·巴蒂斯特·萨伊
代表作《政治经济学概论》1803年
他认为：供给创造需求,储蓄必然转化 为投资,生产就是消费,供给就是需求, 生产过剩的危机是不会发生的.一个 国家生产者越多,产品越多,企业越多, 贸易越多社会财富越多.主张发展生 产.
2、按研究经济问题判断标准的不同可分为：
• 实证经济学<positive economics>：用事 实说明经济现象的现状如何？回答是什么 〔What is>如：某一时期的经济增长率为 8%,失业率是6%.
•规范经济学<normative economics>：以一 定的判断标准为出发点,力求回答应该是 什么〔What ought to be>.如：要实现8%的 年经济增长速度,政府应采取什么样的财 政政策和货币政策.某国的收入分配是不 是公平.
亚当、斯密的《国富论》
在《国富论》的序论中的第一句话就是： "被看作政治家或立法家的一门政治经济学 提出两个目标： 第一,给人民提供充足的收入或生计, 第二,给国家或社会提供充足的收入. 总之,其目的在于富国裕民".
微观经济学--消费者剩余 ppt课件
CS
x
0
p
t d t
xp
x
C S p x t d t p
➢ 注意：如此计算“消费者剩余的变化”，意味 着当价格上升时消费者剩余的变化为正值。
第14章 消费者剩余
• 思考：
➢“消费者剩余”的变化是否在任何情况下都 能完全准确地衡量由商品价格变动导致的效 用（福利）水平的变化呢？
➢如果不是，那么，“消费者剩余”的变化在 什么情况下能够完全准确地衡量由商品价格 变动导致的效用（福利）水平的变化呢？
第14章 消费者剩余
• 教学目的：掌握测度价格变化的效用影响的三种 方法及相关概念。
• 主要内容：1、消费者剩余 2、补偿变化 3、等价变化 4、生产者剩余
第14章 消费者剩余
1、消费者剩余
（1）含义 （2）拟线性偏好情况 （3）一般性偏好情况
第14章 消费者剩余
• 消费者剩余的含义 ➢需求曲线下方、价格线上方的面积
（2）几何表示
第14章 消费者剩余; 2
u1
x
' 1
x1
x2
x
" 2
x
' 2
x
" 1
p1变动到p1”
u1
u2
x
' 1
x1
x2
EV
x
" 2
x
' 2
x
'" 2
x
" 1
x
'" 1
x
' 1
u1 u2
x1
• 举例：
例1：柯布－道格拉斯偏好下的补偿变化和等价变化 （第212页）
➢尽管在一般情形下，消费者剩余变化对于效 用水平变化的度量不是精确的，但当“收入 效应”较小时，这一度量是足够近似的。
微观经济学.ppt
第四，研究方法是个量分析。
微观经济学的内容
第一，均衡价格理论。研究商品的价格如何决定，以及价 格如何调节整个经济的运行。
第二，消费者行为理论。研究消费者如何把有限的收人分 配于各种物品的消费， 以实现效用最大化。
第三，生产者行为理论。研究生产者如何把有限的资源用 于各种物品的生产上而实现利润最大化。这－部分包括硕 究生产要素与产量之间关系的生产理论，研究成本与收益 之间关系的成本理论，以及研究不同市场条件下厂商行为 的厂商无穷的，但是如前所述，无穷的欲望是分 层次的。同时，经济资源是稀缺的，但稀缺的资源是有不同 用途的。人们要想在一定时期分轻重缓急地合理解决欲望的 无限性和资源的稀缺性之间的矛盾，就必须对以下问题作出 抉择：
（1）生产什么？ （2）生产多少？ （3）如何生产？用什么方法来进行生产？ （4）为谁生产？
第三，中心理论是国民收入决定理论。 第四，研究方法是总量分析。
❖ 宏观经济学的内容 第一，国民收入决定理论。
第二，失业与通货膨胀理论。
第三，经济周期与经济增长理论。
第四，开放经济理论。
结论
❖ 在这五个层次中，生存的需要即以 人类的生理需要为基础的最基本的需要， 是其他四种心理需要的基础。
❖ 在人类社会发展过程中，这五个层 次的需要不仅有一个由低到高的实现过 程，而且其内容和质量还随着需要的满 足而不断地发展。
❖ 事实上，人类的欲望的满足是一个 无穷序列。欲望是无穷的。
稀缺性：人类社会所面临的基本矛盾
第二，完全信息假设
▪ 这一假设条件的主要含义是指市场上每一个 从事经济活动的个体（即买者和卖者）都对与 其决策有关的经济情况具有完全的信息。
2.宏观经济学
微观经济学ppt课件
当市场受到外部冲击时，均衡价格和均衡数量会发生变动，这种变 动可能由需求曲线或供给曲线的移动引起。
03
消费者行为
效用理论
01
效用是消费者从消费某种商品或服务中所获得的满足
程度。
02
效用函数是用来描述消费者对不同商品或服务的效用
评价的函数。
03
边际效用是每增加一单位商品或服务的消费所带来的
02
需求与供给
需求分析
定义与分类
对消费者在不同价格水平上愿意并能够购买的商品或 服务的数量的描述。
决定因素
价格、收入、相关商品价格、消费者偏好和预期等。
需求曲线
基于不同价格水平上的需求量绘制，反映需求量与价 格之间的负相关关系。
供给分析
01
定义与分类
对生产者在不同价格水平上愿意 并能够供应的商品或服务的数量 的描述。
微观经济政策的国际比较与借鉴
• 总结词：不同国家在微观经济政策方面有着不同的实践和经验，通过比较和借 鉴可以相互学习、取长补短。
微观经济政策的国际比较与借鉴
详细描述
1. 不同国家的政策比较：不同国家在 微观经济政策方面有着不同的实践和 经验，例如美国的反垄断法、德国的 社会市场经济等。通过对这些政策的 比较可以了解不同国家的经济理念和 文化传统。
决定因素
02
03
供给曲线
价格、生产成本、技术进步和预 期等。
基于不同价格水平上的供给量绘 制，反映供给量与价格之间的正 相关关系。
市场均衡与价格机制
市场均衡
当供给量等于需求量时的状态，此时的价格被称为均衡价格，相应 的数量被称为均衡数量。
价格机制
通过价格的变动引导资源在市场中的分配，实现市场供求平衡的机 制。
中级微观经济学课件-Chapter14消费者剩余x
14.8 补偿变化和等价变化
– 补偿变化 – 等价变化
补偿变化
• 在价格变化后，要使消费者的境况同他在价格 变化以前的境况一样好，必须给他的货币数额。
• 就图形而论，新的预算线必须上移多少才能同 经过初始消费点的无差异曲线相切，使消费者 回复到他初始无差异曲线上所必须的收入变化 即收入的补偿变化。
的消费的支付意愿的总额。即消费n单位离散商 品x的效用，恰好就是组成需求函数的前n个长条
保留价格的和正好是消费商品X的总效用。 也是对该商品的消费的支付意愿的总额。
p
• 这块面积，即需求曲线以 下的面积，被称作商品X总 效用。或消费者总剩余或 总福利。
QD
• 消费的最终效用取决于消费者对x和y两种 商品的消费数量。如果消费者选择了n单位 离散商品x，他就会用剩余的m-pn元去购买 y,此时，他的总效用为：
4
保留价格的图像呈“阶梯”
3
形，这就是离散商品的需求
123
曲，rn ≥ p ≥ rn+1。由保留 价格可以构造出需QD求函数。
14.2 根据需求曲线构造效用函数
• 保留价格被定义为效用的差额，即 • r1=u（1）-u（0）， • r2=u（2）-u（1）， • r3=u（3）-u（2）， • 那么r1+r2+r3= u（3） -u（0）， • 假设u（0）=0 u（3） = r1+r2+r3 • r1+r2+……＋rn=u(n)-u(0)＝u(n) • u（n）就是前n个保留价格的和。也是对该商品
• (a) 小青有何种效用函数形式？ • (b) 写出他对商品X的反需求函数。
• (c) 假设小青收入为4,000元，商品X的价 格是50元，商品X的总效用是多少？净消 费者剩余是多少？商品X和商品Y的总效用 是多少？
微观经济学PPT课件
终日奔忙只为饥，才有得食又思衣。 置下绫罗身上穿，抬头又嫌房屋低。 盖下高楼并大厦，床前缺少美貌妻。 娇妻美妾都娶下，又虑出门没马骑。 将钱买下高头马，马前马后少跟随。 家下招人十数个，有钱没势被人欺。 一铨铨到知县位，又说官小势住卑。 一攀攀到阁老位，每日思想要登基。 一朝南面坐天下，又想神仙下象棋。 洞宾与他把棋下，又问哪是上天梯。 上天梯子未做下，阎王发牌鬼来催。 若非此人大限到，上到天梯还嫌低。
在这个仅占全世界7%淡水资源但有20%人口的国度，取自河湖、地下和过滤自来 水的更廉价的瓶装纯净水，甚至比矿泉水更受欢迎。数据表明，过去5年来中国消耗 的瓶装水已近翻番，从190亿升增至370亿升，2013年超过美国成为全球消耗量最大的 瓶装水市场。
推动中国瓶装水需求上升的，是其崛起的中产阶层对卫生和健康的担忧。世行 称，水问题令中国每年付出相当于2%GDP的代价——大多与损害健康有关。除了屈指 可数的全国瓶装水巨头，中国还有1500家中小企业，大多为地方品牌。专家称，在水 质较差的内蒙古，2012年以来已涌现出220家新的瓶装水企业。
在富裕国家，瓶装水企业兜售的至少是安全的水。而在监管松散且常见瓶装水仅 售1元的中国，使用先进过滤技术的企业寥寥无几。一些大品牌已遭调查，国家级监 管机构担心企业执行的是要求更低的地方标准而非更严格的国标。按规定，抽取地下 水的企业可以不进行水处理，但这些水源的污染状况正在加剧。假标识令水质问题进 一步恶化。（王会聪译）
25
四、市场循环
246
谢 谢 ！
感谢亲观看此幻灯片，此课件部分内容来源于网络， 如有侵权请及时联系我们删除，谢谢配合！
可编辑课件PPT
28
此课件下载可自行编辑修改，此课件供参考！ 部分内容来源于网络，如有侵权请与我联系删除！感谢你的观看！
微观经济学原理PPT课件
实证分析与规范分析
一、实证分析的运用
从客观存在的经济现象出发，提出解释现象 的假说模型，再用事实来检验假说模型，并根 据这一假说模型来研究各经济量之间的相互关 系，进而作出预测。图1.1.2说明了这一过程
实证分析与规范分析
1.4 实证分析与规范分析
最优化分析方法
一 、无约束条件下的最优化 1.一元函数的极值，如，y=f(x) 2.多元函数的极值,如，
出版社 尹伯成：ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ现代西方经济学习题指南》，复旦大
学出版社
宏观经济学（microeconomics）则以整个国民经济为 研究对象，其主要着眼于对经济总量的研究，如国民 总产出的水平及其增长率、利率、失业，以及通货膨 胀等
1.2 微观经济学研究的假设前提
（1）资源是相对稀缺的 （2）合乎理性的经济人假设
利己主义 最优化的均衡行为
（3）既定的自由竞争的市场经济制度假 设
y=f(x1,x2,x3, ……) 二、有约束条件下的最优化
1.单一约束条件下的最优化 拉格朗日法——拉格朗日函数
2.多种约束条件下的最优化 线性规划（变量、目标函数和约束条
件）
1.5 参考书目
曼昆：《经济学原理》机械工业出版社 斯蒂格利茨：《经济学》，中国人民大学出版社 瓦里安：《微观经济学—现代观点》，上海三联
微观经济学原理
2000级教学安排
教师授课安排：
张元鹏 第一章——第十二章 刘文忻 第十三章——第十四章
学习和考试要求：
以每章为单位布置作业，要求在布置作业后 的一周后交作业
考试闭卷，期末成绩=平时作业成绩（10%） +期末考试成绩（90%）
一段开场白
《曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第7版)复习全书【核心》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载
第一部分 核心讲义
第1篇 导 言
第2篇 市场如何 运行
第3篇 市场和福 利
第4篇 公共部门 经济学
第6篇 劳动市场 经济学
第5篇 企业行为 与产业组织
第7篇 深入研究 的论题
第2章 像经济学 家一样思考
第1章 经济学十 大原理
第3章 相互依存 性与贸易的好处
第5章 弹性及其 应用
第4章 供给与需 求的市场力量
第6章 供给、需 求与政府政策
第8章 应用：赋 税的代价
第7章 消费者、 生产者与市场效
率
第9章 应用：国 际贸易
第11章 公共物 品和公共资源
第10章 外部性
第12章 税制的 设计
第13章 生产 1
成本
2
第14章 竞争 市场上的企业
3 第15章 垄
断
4 第16章 垄断
竞争
5 第17章 寡
头
第19章 收入与 歧视
《 曼 昆 《 经 济 学 原 最新版读书笔记，下载可以直接修改 理（微观经济学分 册）》（第7版） 复习全书【核心》
思维导图PPT模板
目录
01 第一部分 核心讲义
02
第二部分 模拟试题及 详解
本书是曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第7版）教材的配套电子书，主要包括两部分内容：第一 部分为核心讲义。遵循曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第7版）教材体系，参照各高校考研真题和期末 考试试卷，共分为22章，全面讲解考试重点难点内容，帮助学员巩固知识，梳理要点，从而轻松应考。第二部分 为模拟试题及详解。根据各高校历年考研真题的命题规律及热门考点精心编写了两套考前模拟试题，并提供详尽、 标准解答。
第18章 生产要 素市场
微观经济学课件
二、供给表
A 价格 2 供给量 0
B
C
D
E
3
4
5
6
200 400 600 800
15
三、供给曲线
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0
价格
200
400
600
800
16
第四节 供求曲线的共同作用
17
一、均衡价格的决定
均衡价格的形成也就是价格决定的 过程，它是由供求双方在竞争过程 中自发形成的。当实际价格偏离均 衡价格时，市场上总存在着变化的 力量，最终达到市场的均衡或市场 出清。
11
三、需求曲线
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
价格
12
第三节 供给曲线
13
一、供给函数
是用来表示一种商品的供给数量和 影响该供给数量的各种因素之间的 相互关系的。若只分析商品的价格 对供给量的影响，则供给函数可以 用下列公式表示：Qs =f（P）。线 性供给函数的通常形式为：Qs = δ& 引论
2
第一节 西方经济学的含义
经济学是研究人们如何合理使用相对稀 缺的资源来满足无限多样的需要的一门 社会科学。
3
第二节 西方经济学理论体系
微观经济学：以单个经济主体的经济行 为作为考察对象的科学。
宏观经济学：以一个社会作为一个整体 的经济活动作为考察对象的科学。
微观经济学和宏观经济学之间有着密切 的联系。
34
第一节 效用论概述
•一、效用的概念 效用是指商品满足人的欲望的能力，或者说， 效用是指消费者在消费商品时所感受到的满足 程度。
•二、基数效用和序数效用 1.基数效用论者——边际效用分析方法
微观经济学课件平狄克版课件
Chapter 1
13
经济制度
■ 计划经济制度：政府公共部门决策 ■ 市场经济制度：私人部门决策 ■ 混合经济
Chapter 1
14
制度与激励
■ 不同的制度产生不同的激励，进而决定人的选 择行为，最终对经济效率产生重大影响 ■ 例子：大学寝室分面条的故事
Chapter 1
15
1.1.2 价格和市场
■ 经济个体所有的选择都是在他们面临的 价格基础上作出的。 ■ 价格是由买者和买者在市场中相互作用 决定的。 ■ 市场是通过相互作用决定一种或一系列 商品价格的买卖双方的集合。
Chapter 1
16
1.2 经济学的研究方法
■ 理论和模型 ■ 均衡分析和边际分析 ■ 静态、比较静态和动态分析 ■ 实证分析和规范分析
■ 为谁生产：生产出来的巧克力或汽车是分给你 多些还是分给我多些？
Chapter 1
12
资源利用的基本问题
■ 为什么资源得不到充分利用？（充分就业）
■ 对给定的资源，为什么产量时高时低？（经济 波动）
■ 货币购买力的变动对汽车和巧克力的生产有什 么影响？（通货膨胀）
■ 在给定的资源条件下，如何使社会总产出越来 越多？（经济增长、技术进步、资本积累、制度 ）
第1章 绪论
Chapter 1
1
本章要点
■ 微观经济学的研究主题 ■ 经济学的研究方法 ■ 市场与市场价格 ■ 名义价格与实际价格 ■ 为什么要学习微观经济学
Chapter 1
2
经济学的主题
■ 经济学？经济学的两个主要分支：微观经济学 和宏观经济学。
■ 微观经济学研究单个经济个体(消费者、劳动 者、资金所有者、土地所有者、企业)的行为及 其相互作用(形成市场)。
平狄克微观经济学第六版第十四章课后答案解析
CHAPTER 14MARKETS FOR FACTOR INPUTSThe following two chapters examine the markets for labor and capital. Although the discussion in this chapter is general, most of the examples refer to labor as the only variable input to production, with the exception of Example 14.1, which discusses “The Demand for Jet Fuel”by airlines. Labor demand and supply are discussed in the first section, and the competitive factor market equilibrium and economic rent are discussed in the second section. Section 14.3 explores the factor market structure for the case where the buyer has monopsony power, and section 14.4 explores the case of monopoly power on the part of the seller of the factor.An understanding of this chapter relies on concepts from Chapters 4 through 8 and 10. If you have just covered Chapters 11-13, you might begin by reviewing marginal product, marginal revenue, and cost minimization. You should then discuss marginal revenue product and the profit-maximizing condition MRP L = w. Explain why we are only interested in the portion of the MP curve below the average product curve (the downward-sloping portion). The derivation of the firm’s demand curve for labor is straightforward when labor is the only factor, but becomes more complicated when there are several variable inputs. In particular, you might explain why the MRP L curve shifts as the firm substitutes one input for another in production in response to a price change by noting that the MRP L curve is drawn for a fixed level of the other variable input.When presenting the market labor demand curve, explain that since the input prices change as more inputs are demanded, the market demand curve is not simply the summation of individual demand curves. You can extend the presentation of price elasticity of input demand (see Example 14.1) by discussing the conditions leading to price sensitivity. Elasticity is greater (1) when the elasticity of demand for the product is higher, (2) when it is easy to substitute one input for another, and (3) when the elasticity of supply is higher for other inputs. Elasticity of supply, which was discussed in Chapter 2, is reintroduced in Example 14.2. You should also distinguish between short-run and long-run elasticity (see Figure 14.6).If you have already covered substitution and income effects, the students will be ready for the derivation of the backward-bending supply curve for labor. Although Figure 14.9 is a straightforward application of these tools, students are often confused by the plotting of income against leisure. Point out that this is just another type of utility maximization problem where the two goods are leisure and income. Income can be thought of as the consumption of goods other than leisure, in that more income buys more goods. You can also implicitly assume that the price of other goods is $1 and the price of leisure is the wage. The supply of labor curve is derived by changing the wage and finding the new level of hours worked. An individual’s supply curve of labor is backward bending only when the income effect dominates the substitution effect and leisure is a normal good. Show typical supply curves for each group in Table 14.2. For anexperimental study of the labor-leisure trade-off see Battalio, Green, and Kagel, “Income-Leisure Tradeoff of Animal Workers,”American Economic Review (September 1981).Section 14.2 brings together labor demand and supply for both competitive and monopolistic product markets. Although economic rent was presented in Chapter 8, it is reintroduced with more detail here. In Section 14.3, carefully explain why the marginal expenditure curve is above the average expenditure curve for a monopsonist (see Figure 14.14). You can discuss how a monopsonist would price discriminate, e.g., pay a different wage rate to each employee. With perfect price discrimination, the marginal revenue expenditure curve would coincide with the average expenditure curve. Although monopsony exists in some markets, the exercise of monopsony power is rare because of factor mobility. However, the employment of athletes by the owners of professional teams provides a good example (see Example 14.4 “Monopsony Power in the Market for Baseball Players”). On this same topic, see Sommers and Quinton, “Pay and Performance in Major League Baseball: The Case of the First Family of Free Agents,”Journal of Human Resources (Summer 1982). Section 14.4 discusses the case of unions to explore monopoly power on the part of the seller of the input.* *1. Why is a firm’s demand for labor curve more inelastic when the firm has monopoly power in the output market than when the firm is producing competitively?The firm’s demand curve for labor is determined by the incremental revenue fromhiring an additional unit of labor known as the marginal revenue product of labor:MRP L= (MP L)(MR), the additional output (“product”) that the last workerproduced, times the additional revenue earned by selling that output. In acompetitive industry, the marginal revenue curve is perfectly elastic and equal toprice. For a monopolist, marginal revenue is downward sloping. As more labor ishired and more output is produced, the monopolist will charge a lower price andmarginal revenue will diminish. All else the same, marginal revenue product will besmaller for the monopolist. This implies that the marginal revenue product for themonopolist is more inelastic than for the competitive firm.2. Why might a labor supply curve be backward bending?A backward-bending supply curve for labor may occur when the income effect of anincrease in the wage rate dominates the substitution effect. Labor supply decisionsare made by individuals choosing the most satisfying combination of work and other(leisure) activities. With a larger income, the individual can afford to work fewerhours: the income effect. As the wage rate increases, the value of leisure time (theopportunity cost of leisure) increases, thus inducing the individual to work longerhours: the substitution effect. Because the two effects work in opposite directions,the shape of an individual’s labor supply curve depends on the individual’spreferences for income, consumption, and leisure.3. How is a computer company’s demand for computer programmers a derived demand?A computer company’s demand for inputs, including programmers, depends onhow many computers it sells. The firm’s demand for programming labor dependson (is derived from) the demand it faces in its market for computers. As demandfor computers shifts, the demand for programmers shifts.4. Compare the hiring choices of a monopsonistic and a competitive employer of workers. Which will hire more workers, and which will pay the higher wages? Explain.Since the decision to hire another worker means the monopsonist must pay a higherwage for all workers, and not just the last worker hired, its marginal expenditurecurve lies above the input supply curve (the average expenditure curve). Themonopsonist’s profit-maximizing input demand, where the marginal expenditurecurve intersects the marginal revenue product curve, will be less than thecompetitor’s profit-maximizing input choice, where the average expenditure curveintersects the demand curve. The monopsonist hires less labor, and the wage paidwill be less than in a competitive market.5. Rock musicians sometimes earn over $1 million per year. Can you explain such large incomes in terms of economic rent?Economic rent is the difference between the actual payment to the factor ofproduction and the minimum amount that the factor is willing to accept. In thiscase, you might assume that there are a limited number of top-quality rockmusicians who will continue to play rock music no matter what they are paid. Thisresults in a perfectly inelastic supply curve, or something close to it. Given the highdemand for rock music, the wage will be very high and there will be a lot ofeconomic rent. If there was a larger supply of top-quality rock musicians, or a moreelastic supply, then the economic rent would be smaller.6. What happens to the demand for one input when the use of a complementary input increases?If the demand for the complementary input increases, the demand for the giveninput will increase as well. When demand for the complementary input increases,there is an increase in the quantity hired and possibly the price paid. Both of thesechanges will increase the MRP of the given input, and hence will increase thequantity hired and possibly the price paid. Whether the prices of the inputsincreases depends on the degree of monopsony power on the part of the firm.7. For a monopsonist, what is the relationship between the supply of an input and the marginal expenditure on it?The decision to increase employment means the monopsonist must pay all units thehigher price, and not just the last unit hired. Therefore, its marginal expenditurecurve lies above the input supply curve (the average expenditure curve). Hiringmore labor will increase the marginal expenditure, which will increase the averageexpenditure. If the average expenditure is increasing, then the marginalexpenditure must be greater than the average expenditure.8. Currently the National Football League has a system for drafting college players by which each player is picked by only one team. The player must sign with that team or not play in the league. What would happen to the wages of newly drafted and more experienced football players if the draft system were repealed, and all teams could compete for college players?The National Football League draft and reserve clause (a primary issue in the 1987-1988 season’s strike) creates a monopsonist cartel among the owners of NFL teams.If the draft system were repealed, competition among teams would increase wagesof football players to the point where the marginal revenue product of each playerwould be equal to the player’s wage.9. The government wants to encourage individuals on welfare to become employed. It is considering two possible incentive programs for firms.A. Give the firm $2 per hour for every individual on welfare who is hired.B. Give each firm that hires one or more welfare workers a payment of $1000 peryear, irrespective of the number of hires.To what extent is each of these programs likely to be effective at increasing the employment opportunities for welfare workers?Firms will hire additional labor as long as the extra benefit is greater than the extracost of hiring the worker, or until MRP L = w. Option A would be effective becauseif the firm receives $2 per hour for every welfare worker hired then the effectivewage paid, w, will fall and the firm will find it optimal to hire more labor until thebenefits (MRP L) again equal the costs (w) at the margin. Option B would beeffective at increasing employment opportunities also in that if the firm hires anindividual who has been on welfare they will then receive $1000. However, plan Bis not necessarily as effective as plan A given the firm only receives one lump sumpayment regardless of the number of welfare workers hired. In this case the firmonly has an incentive to hire the one welfare worker, though they may of coursechoose to hire more than one welfare worker.10. A small specialty cookie company, whose only variable input is labor, finds that the average worker can produce 50 cookies per day, the cost of the average worker is $64 per day, and the price of a cookie is $1. Is the cookie company maximizing its profit? Explain.The marginal product of labor is 50 (cookies per day) and the price per cookie is 1($ per cookie) so the marginal revenue product is $50/day. Since this is less thanthe wage of $64 per day the cookie company is not maximizing profit. They areemploying too much labor since the cost of labor is greater than the benefit oflabor at the margin, and are therefore producing too many cookies.11. A firm uses both labor and machines in production. Explain why an increase in the average wage rate causes both a movement along the labor demand curve and a shift of the curve.An increase in the wage rate causes an upward movement along the labordemand curve. For any given marginal revenue product curve, the firm will findthat they want to hire fewer workers when the wage increases (an upwardmovement). However, when the wage increases the marginal cost will increasewhich will reduce desired output. When output falls, the firm will not need asmany machines and the marginal product of labor curve will shift to the left,assuming machines and labor are complementary. This will also reduce thedemand for labor.1. Suppose that the wage rate is $16 per hour, and the price of the product is $2. Values for output and labor are in units per hour.q L0 020 135 247 357 465 570 6a.Find the profit-maximizing quantity of labor.From the information given above, calculate the marginal product of labor, theextra output produced by hiring one more unit of labor, and then multiply by priceto get the marginal revenue product of labor. To find the profit-maximizingquantity of labor, use the rule that the firm wants to hire labor only as long as themarginal revenue product of labor is greater than the nominal wage, or up to thepoint where the marginal revenue product of labor is equal to the nominal wage.From the table below, the firm will hire 5 units of labor.b.Suppose that the price of the product remains at $2 but that the wage rate increasesto $21. Find the new profit-maximizing quantity of labor.The above table does not change for this part of the problem. However, the firmno longer wants to hire 5 units of labor because the benefit of the 5th unit ($16 perhour) is less than the cost of the 5th unit ($21 per hour). The firm would only hire3 units of labor per hour since in this case the benefit still exceeds the cost at themargin. The firm would stick with 3 units instead of 4 unless fractional units arepossible. At L=4 the cost is greater than the benefit so you lose profit by hiringthe 4th unit of labor.c.Suppose the price of the product increases to $3 and the wage remains at $16 perhour. Find the new profit-maximizing quantity of labor.A change in the price of the product will not change the marginal product of labor,but it will change the marginal revenue product of labor. The new marginalrevenue product of labor is given in the table below. The firm will still want tohire 5 units of labor, as in part a above. It will not hire the 6th unit because theextra benefit is less than the extra cost. Profit will be greater than in part a.d.Suppose that the price of the product remains at $2 and the wage remains at $16, butthere is a technological breakthrough that increases output by 25% for any given level of labor. Find the new profit-maximizing quantity of labor.The technological breakthrough changes the number of units of output producedby a given number of units of labor, and hence changes the marginal product andthe marginal revenue product of labor. The new output values are found bymultiplying the old values by 1.25. This new information is given in the tablebelow. The firm will still choose to hire 5 units of labor. Profit will be greaterthan in part a.2. Assume that workers whose incomes are less than $10,000 currently pay no federal income taxes. Suppose a new government program guarantees each worker $5,000, whether or not he or she earns any income. For all earned income up to $10,000, the worker must pay a 50-percent tax. Draw the budget line facing the workers under this new program. How is the program likely to affect the labor supply curve of workers?The budget line for workers under this program is a straight line at $5,000. This lineis shown in the figure and table below. Workers earn $5,000 whether they work ornot. If workers work only to earn income, i.e., there are no other benefits such as“getting out of the house”or “gaining experience,”there is no incentive towork under the new program. Only wages yielding incomes greater than $10,000will result in a positive labor supply.Figure 14.2Income After TaxIncome GovernmentSubsidyTotalIncome0 0 5,000 $5,000$1,000 500 4,500 5,0002,000 1,000 4,000 5,0003,000 1,500 3,500 5,0004,000 2,000 3,000 5,0005,000 2,500 2,500 5,0006,000 3,000 2,000 5,0007,000 3,500 1,500 5,0008,000 4,000 1,000 5,0009,000 4,500 500 5,00010,000 5,000 0 5,0003. Using your knowledge of marginal revenue product, explain the following:a. A famous tennis star is paid $100,000 for appearing in a 30-second televisioncommercial. The actor who plays his doubles partner is paid $500.Marginal revenue product of labor, MRP L, is equal to marginal revenue from anincremental unit of output multiplied by the marginal product from an incrementalunit of labor, or in other words, the extra revenue generated by having the tennisstar appear in the ad. The famous tennis star is able to help increase revenues farmore than the actor, so he is paid much more than the actor. The wage of theactor is determined by the supply and demand of actors willing to play tennis withtennis stars.b. The president of an ailing savings and loan is paid not to stay in his job for the last twoyears of his contract.The marginal revenue product of the president of the ailing savings and loan is likelyto be negative and therefore, the savings and loan is better off by paying thepresident not to show up. They have calculated that they will lose less (or gainmore) by paying the president off and hiring someone else.c. A jumbo jet carrying 400 passengers is priced higher than a 250-passenger model eventhough both aircraft cost the same to manufacture.The ability of the larger jet to generate more revenue increases its value to theairline, and therefore the airline is willing to pay more for it.4. The demands for the factors of production listed below have increased. What can you conclude about changes in the demand for the related consumer goods? If demands for the consumer goods remain unchanged, what other explanation is there for an increase in derived demands for these items?a. Computer memory chipsIn general, an increase in the demand for a good increases the demand for its factorinputs. The converse is not necessarily true; i.e., an increase in the demand forfactor inputs does not necessarily imply an increase in the demand for the finalproduct. The demand for an input may increase due to a change in the use ofother inputs in the production process. As the price of another input increases, itsdemand falls and the demand of substitutable inputs rises. In this case, the increasein the demand for computer memory chips must have been caused by an increase inthe demand for personal computers given that computer memory chips are usedonly in computers, and there are no substitutes for computer memory chips.b. Jet fuel for passenger planesWith an increase in the demand for jet travel, the demand for jet fuel will increase.There are no substitutes for jet fuel.c. Paper used for newsprintGiven the paper is being used to print newspapers then there must have been anincrease in the circulation of newspapers.d. Aluminum used for beverage cansWith an increase in demand for cold drinks in the summer, the seasonal demand foraluminum increases, so this is one possible explanation. Alternatively, if glass orplastic have become more expensive then this may affect the demand for aluminum.Finally, changes in the market for recycled aluminum may affect the demand fornew aluminum.5. Suppose there are two groups of workers, unionized and nonunionized. Congress passesa law that requires all workers to join the union. What do you expect to happen to the wage rates of formerly nonunionized workers? of those workers who were originally unionized? What have you assumed about the union’s behavior?In general, we expect that nonunionized workers are earning lower wages thanunionized workers. If all workers are forced to join the union, it would bereasonable to expect that the nonunionized workers will now receive higher wagesand the unionized workers will receive a wage that could go either way. There are acouple of items to consider. First, the union now has more monopoly power in thatthere are no nonunion workers to act as substitutes for union workers. This givesmore power to the union, which means higher wages can in general be negotiated.However, the union now has more members to satisfy. If wages are kept at a highlevel, there will be fewer jobs, and hence some previously nonunionized workersmay end up with no job. The union may wish to trade off some of the wage for aguarantee of more jobs. The average income of all workers will rise if labor demandis inelastic and will fall if labor demand is elastic.6. Suppose a firm’s production function is given by Q = 12L - L2, for L = 0 to 6, where L is labor input per day and Q is output per day. Derive and draw the firm’s demand for labor curve if the firm’s output sells for $10 in a competitive market. How many workers will the firm hire when the wage rate is $30 per day? $60 per day? (Hint: The marginal product of labor is 12 - 2L.)The demand for labor is given by the marginal revenue product of labor. This isequal to the product of marginal revenue and the marginal product of labor: MRP L =(MR)(MP L). In a competitive market, price is equal to marginal revenue, so MR = 10.We are given MP L = 12 - 2L (the slope of the production function).Figure 14.6Therefore, the MRP L = (10)(12 - 2L). The firm’s profit-maximizing quantity of laboroccurs where MRP L = w. If w = 30, then 30 = 120 - 20L at the optimum. Solving forL yields 4.5 hours per day. Similarly, if w = 60, solving for L yields 3 hours per day.7. The only legal employer of military soldiers in the United States is the federal government. If the government uses its monopsonistic position, what criteria will it employ when figuring how many soldiers to recruit? What happens if a mandatory draft is implemented?Acting as a monopsonist in hiring soldiers, the federal government would hiresoldiers until the marginal value of the last soldier is equal to his or her pay. Thereare two implications of the government’s monopsony power: fewer soldiers arehired, and they are paid less than their marginal product. When a mandatory draftis implemented, even fewer professional soldiers are hired. Wages for volunteersoldiers fall, pushed down by the fact that wages of the draftees can be very low.8. The demand for labor by an industry is given by the curve L = 1200 - 10w, where L is the labor demanded per day and w is the wage rate. The supply curve is given by L = 20w. Whatis the equilibrium wage rate and quantity of labor hired? What is the economic rent earned by workers?The equilibrium wage rate is determined where quantity of labor supplied is equal tothe quantity of labor demanded:20w = 1,200 - 10w, or w = $40.Substituting into either the labor supply or labor demand equations, we find theequilibrium quantity of labor is 800:L= (20)(40) = 800,SandL D = 1,200 - (10)(40) = 800.Economic rent is the summation of the difference between the equilibrium wage andthe wage given by the labor supply curve. Here, it is the area above the laborsupply curve up to L = 800 and below the equilibrium wage. This triangle’s area is(0.5)(800)($40) = $16,000.9. This exercise is a continuation of Exercise 8. Suppose now that the only labor available is controlled by a monopolistic labor union that wishes to maximize the rent earned by union members. What will be the quantity of labor employed and the wage rate? How does your answer compare with your answer to Exercise 8? Discuss. (Hint: The union’s marginal revenue curve is given by L = 1200 - 20w.)Recall that the monopolist chooses output by setting marginal revenue equal to themarginal cost of supplying one more unit of output, as opposed to the competitivefirm which chooses output by setting price equal to marginal cost, or in other wordsproducing where supply intersects demand. The monopolistic labor union acts inthe same way. To maximize rent in this case, the union will choose the number ofworkers hired so that the marginal revenue to the union (the additional wagesearned) is equal to the extra cost of inducing the worker to work. This involveschoosing the quantity of labor at the point where the marginal revenue curvecrosses the supply curve of labor. Note that the marginal revenue curve has twicethe slope of the labor demand curve. Marginal revenue is less than the wage,because when more workers are hired, all workers receive a lower wage.Setting the marginal revenue curve equal to the supply curve for labor, we find:1200 - 20w = 20w, or w* = 30.At w*, we may determine the number of workers who are willing to work bysubstituting w* into the labor supply equation:L * = (20)(30) = 600.Therefore, if the union wants to maximize the rent that the union members earn, theunion should limit employment to 600 members.To determine the wage the members will earn, substitute L * into the labor demandequation:600 = 1,200 - 10w , or w = 60.The total rent the employed union members will receive is equal to:Rent = (60 - 30)(600) + (0.5)(30)(600) = $27,000.Notice that the wage is higher and the number of workers employed is lower than in Exercise (8).*10. A firm uses a single input, labor, to produce output q according to the production function. The commodity sells for $150 per unit and the wage rate is $75 per hour.a. Find the profit-maximizing quantity of L.There are two (equivalent) methods of solving this problem. Most generally,define the profit function, where revenues and costs are expressed in terms of theinput, calculate the first order necessary condition (the first derivative of the profitfunction), and solve for the optimal quantity of the input. Alternatively, use therule that the firm will hire labor up until the point where the marginal revenueproduct (p*MP L ) equals the wage rate. Using the first method:π=TR -TC =pq -wLπ=150*8*L 12-75L∂π∂L=600L -12-75=0L =64.b. Find the profit-maximizing quantity of q.From part a, the profit maximizing quantity of labor is 64 so substitute thisquantity of labor into the production function to find q =8L 12=8*64=64. c. What is the maximum profit?Profit is total revenue minus total cost or π=150*64-75*64=4800.d. Suppose now that the firm is taxed $30 per unit of output and the wage rate issubsidized at a rate of $15 per hour. Assume the firm is a price taker, so that theprice of the product remains at $150. Find the new profit-maximizing levels of L, q, and profit.After the $30 tax per unit of output is paid, the firm receives 150-30=$120 per unitof output sold. This is the relevant price for the profit maximizing decision. The input cost is now 75-15=$60 per unit labor after the subsidy is received. The profit maximizing values can be found as in parts a-c above:TR-TC=pq-wLp=120*8*L12-60L¶p¶L=480L-12-60=0L=64q=64p=3840.e.Now suppose that the firm is required to pay a 20% tax on its profits. Find the newprofit-maximizing levels of L, q, and profit.The profit maximizing values can be found as in parts a-c above, only here profit is80% of total revenue minus total cost.π=.8(TR-TC)=.8(pq-wL)π=.8(150*8*L12-75L)∂π∂L=480L-12-60=0L=64q=64π=3840.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
8 of 32
市场需求曲线
•当我们把单个消费者的需求曲线加总来得到对一种产品的市场需求时， 我们关心的是单个行业。 •像技术工人这样的投入要素，许多行业的厂商都需要。 •仔细观察各行业，我们会发现企业对劳动的需求(部分地源自对 企业产品的需求)变化很大。 •为了得到总的劳动市场需求曲线，我们必须首先确定每个行业对劳动的 需求，然后水平地把行业的需求曲线加总。 •第二步很简单。把行业的劳动需求曲线加总得到劳动的市场需求曲线， 就同把单个产品需求曲线加总得到该产品的市场需求曲线一样。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e. 10 of 32
EXAMPLE 14.1
对航空燃料的需求
•在过去几十年，航空燃料的成本随着 石油价格的上升和下降而高度波动。
•航空燃料在运营成本中是位居第二
投入要素市场
•竞争性要素市场 •竞争性要素市场的均衡 •有买方垄断势力的要素市场
•有卖方垄断势力的要素市场
Prepared by: Fernando Quijano, Illustrator
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
1 of 32
14.1
竞争性要素市场
只有一种投入可变时对投入要素的需求
● 引致需求 投入品的需求依赖于或者说派生于厂商的产出水平和投入成本 ● 边际生产收益
增加一单位某种投入所增加的产出带来的收益（增量）
如何度量MRPL？它是一单位额外劳动带来的额外产出MPL，乘以一单位
额外产出带来的额外收益MR。
(14.1)
•这一重要结论对任何竞争性要素市场都成立，而不管产品市场是不是竞争性的。 •在竞争性产品市场中，厂商会以市场价格P出售所有的产出。 •劳动的边际生产收益就等于劳动的边际产出乘以产品的价格：
(14.2)
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e. 2 of 32
•在一个竞争性要素市场中， 产品的生产者是价格接受 者。这时，对一种投入品
的购买者的需求由边际生
产收益曲线给出。MRP曲 线向右下方倾斜，是因为 随着工作小时的增加，劳
动的边际产出下将。
•当产品的生产者具有垄断 势力时，对投入品的需求 也是由MRP曲线给出，但 此时MRP曲线向右下方倾 斜是因为劳动的边际产出 和边际收益两者都下降。
效应(它鼓励更多的闲暇)大
于替代效应(它鼓励更多的 工作)时，劳动供给曲线中
向后弯曲的部分出现。
图14.8 向后弯曲的劳动供给
16 of 32
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
•当工资率从每小时10美元 提高到30美元时，工人的
720
预算线从PQ移向RQ。 •对此的反应是，工人从A 移到B，使工作小时从8减 到 5。
•工作小时之所以会减少，
是因为收入效应超过了替 代效应。
•劳动供给曲线向后弯曲。
图14.9 工资上升的替代效应和收入效应
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
图14.6 对航空燃料的短期和长期需求
飞机投入运营。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
13 of 32
对厂商的投入要素的供给
● 平均支出曲线
表示厂商为每单位商品支付的价格的供给曲线
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
12 of 32
EXAMPLE 14.1
对航空燃料的需求
•对航空燃料的短期需求
MRPSR比长期需求MRPLR
弹性小得多。 •在短期内，当燃料价格 上涨时，航空公司不能大 幅减少燃料消费。 •长期来看，航空公司可 以开辟更长、更有效利用 燃料的航线，并且把更多 的、能更有效使用燃料的
在厂商的劳动需求曲线上产生
了一个新上。
图14.4 厂商对劳动的需求曲线(资本可变时)
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
● 边际支出曲线 用于描述为购买额外一单位商品（投入品）所带来的成
本增加的曲线 利润最大化要求边际生产收益等于边际支出：
(14.5)
在竞争性情形下，利润最大化的条件是要素的价格等于边际支出：
(14.6)
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
•
(14.3)
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
4 of 32
•在竞争性劳动市场上， 厂商面对完全弹性的劳 动供给SL，因此能够以
工资率w*雇佣任何数量
的工人。 •厂商对劳动的需求DL由
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e. 15 of 32
要素的市场供给
•当工资率提高时，工作时 间的供给一开始增加，但 最终会由于个人选择享受
更多的闲暇、更少的工作
而下降。 •当与较高工资相关的收入
CHAPTER
14
CHAPTER OUTLINE
14.1 Competitive Factor Markets 14.2 Equilibrium in a Competitive Factor Market 14.3 Factor Markets with Monopsony Power 14.4 Factor Markets with Monopoly Power
17 of 32
EXAMPLE 14.2
单收入和双收入家庭的劳动供给
•20世纪劳动市场最大的变化之一是妇女不断加入劳动大军 •在1950年，只有34%妇女进入劳动大军，而到2010年，这一比例 已接近60%。 •在这一增长中，已婚妇女占了很大的比重。 •妇女在劳动市场上增长的作用还对住宅市场产生重大影响。 •一项研究分析了工作选择的复杂性质，它比较了94个未婚妇女的工作决 定和397个家庭户主及其配偶的工作决定。 •描述各种不同家庭组别工作决定的一个方法是计算劳动供给弹性 •每种弹性都把工作小时数与家庭户主得到的工资联系起来，也 与双收入家庭中另一个成员的工资相联系。
图14.1
边际生产收益
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
3 of 32
•边际生产收益告诉我们，厂商将支付多少工资来雇用一单位额外劳动。 •只要MRPL大于工资率，厂商就应当雇用额外单位的劳动。 •如果边际生产收益小于工资率，厂商就应当解雇工人。 •只有在边际生产收益等于工资率时，雇佣劳动量的才是利润最大化 的数量。 •因此利润最大化的条件是：
其劳动的边际生产收益
MRPL给出。 •利润最大化的厂商将在 劳动的边际生产收益与 工资率相等的那一点上， 雇佣L*单位的劳动。
图14.2 厂商的劳动雇佣（资本固定时）
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
11 of 32
EXAMPLE 14.1
对航空燃料的需求
对航空燃料需求的价格弹性取决于节约燃料的能力以及对旅行的供给和需 求弹性
TABLE 14.1
航空公司 美国 大陆
航空燃料需求的短期价格弹性
弹性 –.06 –.09 航空公司 达美 联合 弹性 –.15 –.10
•总的来看，航空燃料作为航空飞行生产的投入，对它需求的弹性是非常 低的。 •这并不令人意外，在短期内，对航空燃料没有好的替代品。 •需求的长期弹性要高些，因为航空公司最终能够引入能源效率更高 的飞机。
5 of 32
•当厂商面对的劳动供给 为S1时，厂商以w1的工 资雇用L1单位的劳动。 •而当市场工资率下降、 劳动的供给移到S2后， 厂商通过在劳动需求曲 线上移动，直到新的工
资率w2等于劳动的边际
生产收益、并且L2单位 的劳动被雇佣后，达到 利润最大化。
图14.3 劳动供给的移动
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
14 of 32
图14.7
在竞争性要素市场上一家厂商面对的投入要素供给
•在一个竞争性要素市场上，厂商可以购买它所需要的任何数量的投入而不影响 价格。因此，厂商面对一条该投入的完全弹性供给曲线。结果，产品生产者购
买的要素数量由该要素的需求曲线和供给曲线的交点决定。在(a)图中，行业对