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Academic Writing in EnglishProfessor Shi BaohuiFor BA EnglishSchool of Foreign LanguagesBeijing Forestry University(September 2007)Table of ContentsUnit One Preparing for Research Papers (1-3) Unit Two Note-taking (4-12)Unit Three Studying Literature (13-20)Unit Four Writing a Book Review (21-28)Unit Five Abstracts of Academic Papers (29-33) Unit Six Getting Ready for the Thesis (34-41) Unit Seven Writing the Thesis (42-59)Unit One Preparing for Research PapersI. What Is Academic Writing?•Essay•Research paper•Conference presentation•Degree papers•Textbooks•Handbooks•Monograph•…Discuss:1. What kind of writing have you done so far?2. What did you learn about academic writing last term?II. What Is a Research Paper?A research paper is, first and foremost, a form of written communication. Like other forms of nonfiction writing—letters, memos, reports, essays, articles, books—it should present information and ideas clearly and effectively. It differs from many of them in relying on sources of information other than the writer’s personal knowledge and experience. It is based on primary research, secondary research, or a combination of the two. Primary research involves the study of a subject through firsthand observation and investigation, such as conducting a survey or carrying out a laboratory experiment; secondary research entails the examination of studies that others have made of the subject. Many academic papers, as well as many reports and proposals required in business, government, and other professions, depend on secondary research.Research will increase your knowledge and understanding of a subject and will often lend authority to your ideas and opinions. The paper based on research is not a collection of other persons’ thoughts and words but a carefully constructed presentation of ideas that relies on research sources for clarification and verification. While you must fully document the facts and opinions you draw from your research, the documentation should do no more than support your statements and provide concise information about the research cited; it should never overshadow the paper or distract the reader from the ideas you present.(Adapted from MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Paper, 3rd edn.)1III. The Graduation Project/Thesis1. What can you do?•Language and linguistics•Applied linguistics•Literary studies•Translation studies•Society and culture•Business studies2. Steps1) Select a topic•Choose an area of study•Narrow the topic area2) Set up research strategy•Primary or secondary, or both?3) Develop a primary thesis statement•What’s the purpose of your research?4) Conduct in-depth research•Set up key terms and searches•Locate the sources•Retrieve and evaluate the sources•Create bibliography cards5) Take good notes6) Revise the thesis statement7) Write the first draftIV. The Structure of the Thesis1. Three-part structure: mainly for secondary researchIntroduction(may treatBodyseveral issuesunder subtopics)Conclusion2. Four/five-part structure: mainly for primary researchIntroductionMaterials &Method(may be written as twoResults &Discussion separate sections)Conclusion2V. Bibliographical Listing1. For a bookCarlan, Alfred E. Dark Night of the Soul: Crisis in Creative Lives. Harrisburg, N. Y.: Pullman, 1975. (good explanation of how writers and artists overcome severe depression) 328.91CAR2. For an articleChiang, Roberta C. ‘Why Japanese Women Are Speaking Out’, World News, 23 Nov. 1989: 43-45. (women’s movement in Japan)3. For a websiteMorris, Betsy. ‘White-collar blues’, Fortune, July 23, 2001. Retrieved July 21, 2001 </indexw.jhtml?channel=artcol.jhtml&doc_id=203323>. (layoffs of white-collar workers in USA)VI. PracticeConsider the following topics. Think about 1) which topic(s) you may be interested in, and 2) how you are going about the research work (are you going to depend on primary research or secondary research or both?). If you are going to do some primary research, how will you design your research? Where might you find some secondary information?1. Topics of general interest•Most people listen to music to escape from something.•Working women now have two jobs rather than just one.•Write an article about a man you have admired or detested.•What are the problems of being a woman in the Qing Dynasty?•Discuss what qualities define the good or the bad teacher.•What are the problems of one-parent families.2. Graduation project/thesis•The relationship between meaning and context•Some insights into the translation criteria• A Cinderella story: an analysis of Pride and Prejudice•The Dream of True Love—An Analysis of The Bridges of Madison County•An Analysis of Family Education on Children’s Sense of Inferiority •Historical Changes in U.S. Policy toward China Since 1949 and Their Consequences3Unit Two Note-takingI. Methods of Note‐Taking1. Paraphrasinga. OriginalOne is forcibly struck by the fact of how well superstition provides at least the subjective feeling of predictability and control. It may thus serve the function of reducing anxiety: and as intense anxiety is liable to inhibit effective action in dangerous situations, there is a distinct possibility that superstition may have positive survival value in certain circumstances.b. ParaphraseSuperstition as survival aidSuperstition gives subjective sense of control which reduces anxiety. Such feelings of control can help people act more effectively in dangerous situations & increase chances of survival.2. Summarizinga. OriginalAlice Walker's substantial body of writing, though it varies, is characterized by specific recurrent motifs. Most obvious is Walker's attention to the black woman as creator, and to how her attempt to be whole relates to the health of her community. This theme is certainly focal to Walker's two collections of short stories, In Love and Trouble and You Can't Keep a Good Woman Down, to her classic essay, ‘In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens’, and to Meridian and The Color Purple.Another recurrent motif in Walker's work is her insistence on probing the relationship between struggle and change, a probing that encompasses the pain of black people's lives, against which the writer protests but which she will not ignore. Paradoxically, such pain sometimes results in growth.b. SummaryRecurrent motifs — WalkerWalker's motifs highlight strengths of black people:1) black woman as creator—her struggles to be whole affect community's health2) relationship between struggle and change—pain of struggle sometimes produces growth43. Direct Quotea. OriginalThe French General Henri Navarre was given command of the French troops in Vietnam near the end of the French-Indochina war. At a time when the Viet Minh were soundly defeating his forces, General Navarre uttered a phrase that Americans would hear over and over again on the way to their own defeat in Southeast Asia. ‘Now we can see it clearly—like light at the end of the tunnel.’b. Direct QuoteFrench General Navarre’s quotePhrase that came to haunt Americans in their Viet Nam War first uttered by General Henri Navarre:“Now we see it [victory] clearly—like light at the end of the tunnel.”4. Your Commentsa. OriginalThe drug trade is a fine specimen of unrestricted competition which brings down prices and pushes up consumption. Governments refuse to limit the trade by regulation. Instead, they try to prohibit it. In 1980, the U.S. spent just under $1 billion trying to keep heroin, cocaine, and marijuana out of its domestic market. By 1988, it was spending almost $4 billion. Yet the retail price of drugs dropped faster than the cost of policing them rose.b. Your Comments and OpinionsProhibition encourages drug tradeProhibition throws drug trade wide open to competition & sets up a vicious cycle—competition brings down price, which makes drugs more affordable, which encourages consumption. More people enter drug trade, costs government more to fight greater number of dealers.5. No Plagiarism!a. OriginalFew people know that during the Battle of Waterloo, a twelve-foot ditch proved to be the best ally of the English troops. As the French cavalry charged across the field, the front ranks tumbled into the ditch, which had been concealed in the tall grass. So great was the press of the charge, that men and horses continued to fall until the ditch was filled with bodies. Only then did the remaining forces ride over their solid mass toward the English. The delay had been enough, however, to allow the English to maneuver their artillery into position. 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Plagiarized Version!The French took the field first and charged the English position. But the front ranks tumbled into a ditch which had been concealed in the tall grass. So great was the press of the charge that men and horses continued to fall until the ditch was filled with bodies. Only then did the remaining forces ride over their solid mass toward the English. …c. Paraphrased VersionThe French took the field first and charged the English position. Less than halfway across the field, the front ranks fell into a concealed ditch. The horses and riders behind them were unable to stop and tumbled in after, quickly filling the ditch with bodies. This grisly bridge enabled the rest of the cavalry to rush across toward the English …6. PracticeUse one of the note-taking strategies to take notes from the following passages:1)The British have in fact always imported food from abroad. From the time of the Roman invasion foreign trade was a major influence on British cooking. English kitchens, like the English language, absorbed ingredients from all over the world—chickens, rabbits, apples and tea. All of these and more were successfully incorporated into British dishes. Another important influence on British cooking was of course the weather. The good old British rain gives us rich soil and green grass, and means that we are able to produce some of the finest varieties of meat, fruit and vegetables, which don’t need fancy sauces or complicated recipes to disguise their taste.2)The history of life on earth has been a history of interaction between living things and their surroundings. To a large extent, the physical form and the habits of the earth’s vegetation and its animal life have been molded by the environment. Considering the whole span of world history, the opposite effect, in which life actually modifies its surroundings, has been relatively slight. Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species—human beings—acquired significant power to alter the nature of their world.3)Radio and television present the important news of the day. Many radio stations in the US broadcast news and news commentary programs all day. Most commercial television stations have news programs in the evening. The evening news generally consists of national network news program and local news program, while at night it is usually a local program. In addition, some TV stations offer early morning news, late night news, and weekly “news magazine” programs. Cable television networks in some cities offer foreign language news.6II. Research Summary (Sample 1)1. QuestionSummarize in 50-100 words what the passage says about the initial development of capitalism in Britain.2. PassageBritish capitalism and the Industrial Revolution did not coincide. The pocketing of wealth by the few had already taken place before the first mechanised spinning-wheel marked the end of cottage industries and the dawn of mass production. It was the dissipation and venality of the Tudor monarchy that set the pattern for stripping the country of its wealth. By the time of Henry VIII, the families from the British shires who schemed in the royal court were grabbing thousands of acres of land. More than a quarter of England was in the hands of a new landowning aristocracy. Another quarter, perhaps more, was in the hands of the Church, as much a political and capitalist enterprise as a spiritual one. The Church also collected 30 per cent of the customary dues paid by the smaller landowners to the greater.With the Crown increasingly desperate for money to raise armies and to defend itself, it turned on the Church and gave dispensation to the landowners to grab Church lands. By the early seventeenth century more than half of the land was in the hands of a powerful oligarchy of plundering landowners. The monarchy itself was impoverished, already decaying into a symbol and tool. The people of England had been dispossessed of what was then the only universal prospect of wealth and security: land and property.The appropriation of this wealth was completed just as Newcomen built his steam engine; within another generation Hargreaves had produced the spinning jenny, James Watt his condenser patent. Iron ore had been smelted by coke. All these innovations needed capital: and the source of capital lay with the landowning oligarchy, families whose wealth was less than a century old. During that decisive first impact of future shock, there were incredible tides running: the Puritans recoiled from the mercenary orgy and went off to make their New England; paper money and modern banking were devised; the English peasantry were coerced into industrial slavery; technology was the new witchcraft; Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations. And the British were defeated in the American Revolution.The world changed, but not the inherent imbalance of wealth in Britain. No wonder the British ruling classes abhorred the French Revolution and reviled Bonaparte. An alternative idea was planted in Europe, and although it took nearly 200 years to do so it has finally led to the humiliation of the British: an economic humiliation rather than a military one.Now, in their ethnocentricity, the British suspect that European membership is the beginning of racial pollution, a subtler variety than they had already been asked to endure by living alongside their black slaves. One survey of British attitudes towards Europe7turned up a pronounced aversion to the bidet, which is thought of as ‘dirty’ and‘Continental’. Although the British are reticent on the subject, it appears that the average Briton takes a bath only once every three days.In the British view of Europe, food seems crucial. The liberal middle class, who are mostly pro-European, have tasted French food and can’t wait to see the grisly diet of the British pub replaced by the delights of the Paris bistro. The conservative working class, on the other hand, who are heavily anti-European, are deeply suspicious of anything other than their own bland and greasy diet.A year after the British had, in theory, become fully paid-up Europeans they were more hostile to the idea rather than less. Ironically, the greatest suspicion of and hostility towards Europeans comes from the poorest and the oldest among the British. They do not seem to realise that of all the European democracies, the one that screws them the most is their own. It is not the Common Market that made the British the paupers of Europe.3. SummaryCapitalism had developed in Britain before the Industrial Revolution began. Over a quarter of English land was taken over in Tudor times by landowners who had influence at court. The church also owned considerable land and took a percentage of other landowners’ rents. Later on the monarchy, badly needing money for defensive arms, allowed private landowners to seize church lands. By the beginning of the Industrial Revolution more than half the land in Britain was in the hands of landowners whose families had obtained it by seizure. (87 words)II. Research Summary (Sample 2)1. QuestionSummarize in 50-100 words the different ways in which men hide their identities and inadequacies, as described in the passage.2. PassageWhat about the insecure and inadequate men? Except in a very few societies and times, men have not worn cosmetics, mainly because the use of paint and powder has become so firmly associated with women. Their use by men becomes a mark of effeminacy or homosexuality. Men have adopted a different series of mechanisms for finding a persona—the most important being the occupational mask. Nearly all jobs have an occupational uniform which is considered ‘proper’ or suitable for its exponents: the bowler hat and rolled umbrella of ‘something in the City’, the scrupulously unconventional clothes of the actor or advertising executive, the tie-dyed jeans of the progressive student, the black coat and striped trousers of the barrister. Every uniform means security, belonging, for its wearer, and every man who wears such an occupational mask uses it to hide his own8personality and take on the semblance of the part he is playing. The judge dresses up in his uniform, the wig and robes, and ceases to be a fallible and perhaps even kind-hearted old gentlemen. He becomes an instrument for playing complicated verbal games with people’s lives. The salesman puts on his slightly brash suit and carefully tilted hat, and becomes a machine for overcoming sales resistance.Some men, more inadequate than most, even join societies which allow them to dress up after working hours; they play at being Grand Masters or Great Cyclopses, with enough robes and ritual to fill the great echoing empty spaces of their minds.Another persona device which is very popular with men is the choice of a car that expresses some of their unattained aspirations. The plump, elderly businessman who puts on string-backed gloves and squeezes himself into a sports two-seater is crying for his unsuccessful youth in the same way as the middle-aged matron who wears half-inch eyelashes, has peroxide-tortured hair, and displays a yard of patterned tights—and at least she works out her frustrations in a less lethal way. Men buy powerful cars, and women buy such things as mink-oil face cream, as a passport to love, adventure, and a taste of the ‘good life’. Neither method is very successful.Men are supposed, by the mores of our society, to dislike cosmetics not only for themselves, but on women. The outcry against these harmless evasions of the truth rings down the ages, and can still be heard in these days. But in practice, many men are attracted to the made-up face, and the girl who looks as if she were covered with machine-printed vinyl plastic seems to arouse more interest than the girl who relies on her natural good complexion. Make-up, as has been said before, simplifies and depersonalises a face. Throughout the ages, women have known this, and have also observed that it attracts male attention.3. SummaryThe most important way in which men hide their identities and inadequacies is by adopting ‘an occupational mask’. Wearing the uniform associated with their job frees them from their own personalities and enables them to play a part. More inadequate men go further and join societies which give them the opportunity to dress up outside working hours. Another popular device with some men is a car which symbolises the person they would like to be or to have been, rather then the person they are. (85 words)9III. Practice (1)1. QuestionSummarize in 50-100 words the differences between the African and European systems of slavery mentioned in the following passage.2. PassageCertain great crimes stain the centuries. The transportation of some twenty-four million men and women and children from Africa across the Atlantic to serve as slaves was the greatest of the crimes of Europe. Nine million of the victims died on the voyage across, fifteen million survived to toil in the Americas. The very mass of the slaves involved in the trade degraded their individuality and their condition. As in the later case of the Jews in the Nazi concentration camps, the size of the operation reduced its victims to the status of animals. ‘Markets of men are here kept,’ a slave wrote from West Africa, ‘in the same manner as those of beasts with us.’So they were. The African captives were snared like game, physically examined as closely as horses, bought and branded like cattle, herded in a baracoon like pigs, chained below decks like wild beasts, then penned and led out to labour in the American fields under the whip like donkeys until they were worn to death. Slavery, as Voltaire said, may have been as ancient as war, and war as human nature. But no civilisation had ever subjected the ancient institution so stringently to the laws of commerce. The mechanism of Europe, from the account-book to the design of the between-decks of the slave-ship, from the auction in Charleston to the drunken haggling with the kings of Bonny, was designed to degrade man’s view of man. The Protestant slavers did not baptise as the Portuguese had. There was no mission now in Africa, only money to be made. The crews on the slave-ships were the refuse of the docks, for they were as likely to die of disease in the stinking holds as they were to be abandoned penniless and sick in the West Indies, themselves servants to a system that counted men’s work only in ledgers. The economic basis of slavery corrupted whomsoever it touched and freed through wealth only some thousands of citizens in a few European cities.For slavery in Africa was not a process for the accumulation of capital. There was no local method of doing this. Among the Ashanti, for instance, the number of slaves possessed by a man represented his place in society, not his wealth. Fo slaves were allowed to keep their personal property and the hard-working slave enriched himself, not his master. Only in the European system was economic robbery added to personal slavery. Once the slave was considered as a mere unit of production, arguments could be held seriously in Jamaica about the return on capital if slaves were worked to death quickly and new imports had to be bought, as opposed to the profit when slaves were worked to death slowly and bred their own replacements. In investment terms, treating people as beasts made the calculus more simple.10Apologists for the slave-trade used repetitive arguments. The first was the rescue of the African from savagery. On one of the rare occasions that he opposed Dr Johnson, Boswell praised the slave-owners. He maintained that even if extreme cruelty was practised on the African savages, yet a portion of them were saved ‘from massacre, or intolerable bondage in their own country’, and introduced ‘into a much happier state of life’. Of course, such a tarnished version of African village society and such a gilded version of American plantation existence were dependent on the biased reports brought back by the slave-traders themselves. For the civilised European needed to be able to justify this distasteful source of his wealth.IV. Practice (2)1. QuestionSummarize in 50-100 words the passage’s description of Dr Pankhurst’s appearance, character and ideas.2. PassageIf a husband was the ‘Open Sesame’ to ecstasy in Paris how much more was this so in Manchester, where Emmeline had no function and no duty but to adorn her parents’ home. Such service was perfect serfdom. Her spirit yearned to harness itself to the yoke of some liberating idealism…or idealist. She was determined ‘only to give herself to an important man’. Of course, she would not flirt; that was ‘degrading’. A lady revealed her want of a mate with a refined circumspection; as one contemporary journal wrote, ‘Half the art of the woman of the world consists in doing disgusting things delicately.’ However, when she found her prospective spouse she kindled his ardour so directly that Mrs Goulden accused Emmeline of ‘throwing herself at him’. Richard Marsden Pankhurst, LL.D., with his carroty beard and piping treble voice which often caused him to be mistaken for a woman, seemed an improbable key to bliss. He was twice Emmeline’s age. He had always lived with his Baptist parents and never left the house for an hour without telling them where he was going. A scholarly barrister, he was small, unprepossessing and so physically incompetent that his wife always had to do the carving. Still, he had beautiful hands. And in other respects the ‘Red Doctor’ was a distinctly glamorous figure. He was the most prominent and the most flaming radical in‘Cottonopolis’. He was a pioneer of every advanced faith and a ‘standard-bearer of every forlorn hope’. He was a democrat, a republican, a communist, a Home Ruler, a pacifist, an internationalist, an agnostic. He was an opponent of imperialism and the House of Lords—it was ‘a public abattoir’ in which human rights were butchered. He was a proponent of free secular education and women’s rights—clawing the air with his long, curved finger-nails, he once exclaimed, ‘Why are women so patient? Why don’t you force us to give you the vote? Why don’t you scratch our eyes out?’ In short, Dr Pankhurst was an extremist and he courted Emmeline with an impetuosity that matched her own. On 8 September 1879 he wrote to ‘Dear Miss Goulden’ trying to interest her, ‘one of the party11。