法律翻译论文

合集下载

论转换法在英汉翻译中的应用论文范文

本科毕业论文(设计)范文1题目：论转换法在英汉翻译中的应用山东财经大学学士学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下进行研究工作所取得的成果。

除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。

对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在论文中作了明确的说明并表示了谢意。

本声明的法律结果由本人承担。

日期填写定稿日期5月1日。

教师学生都要手写签名学位论文作者签名：年月日山东财经大学关于论文使用授权的说明本人完全了解山东财经大学有关保留、使用学士学位论文的规定，即：学校有权保留、送交论文的复印件，允许论文被查阅，学校可以公布论文的全部或部分内容，可以采用影印或其他复制手段保存论文。

日期填写定稿日期5月1日。

教师学生都要手写签名指导教师签名：论文作者签名：年月日年月日On Application of Conversionin English-Chinese TranslationbyLiu XiaoUnder the Supervision ofLi WentaoSubmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of ArtsSchool of Foreign StudiesShandong University of Finance and EconomicsMay 2012AcknowledgementsUpon the completion of the thesis, first of all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Li Wentao, for his enlightening guidance, incessant encouragement and careful modification throughout the process of writing this thesis. Without his patience and prudence, I could not have brought my thesis to its present form.Besides, I am also greatly indebted to other beloved teachers in the School of Foreign Studies of Shandong University of Finance and Economics, for their valuable and informative courses which have benefited me a lot during my college years.Last but not the least, I am also much obliged to all my friends who have helped me with my thesis.L. X.(名字的第一个字母)ABSTRACTOn Application of Conversionin English-Chinese TranslationLiu XiaoDue to the great differences between English and Chinese in grammar and expression style, translators may adopt the approaches of changing the word classes and sentence components in English-Chinese (E-C) translation. As a frequently-used translation technique, conversion enables translators to achieve a natural, fluent and accurate translation that not only conveys the original text’s information but also fits the idiomatic usage of Chinese.The thesis consists of three chapters. The first chapter examines the conversion of word classes in E-C translation such as conversion from English nouns or prepositions into Chinese verbs. The conversion of word classes usually results in the conversion of sentence components, so the second chapter discusses the conversion of sentence components. The third chapter explores the approaches of how to convert the English perspectives into the corresponding ones conforming to Chinese culture and thought pattern.Key words:conversion; word classes; sentence components; perspectives; E-C translation摘要论转换法在英汉翻译中的应用刘潇由于英汉两种语言在语法或表达习惯上存在巨大差异, 在英汉翻译的过程中,译者往往需要改变原文的词类或句子成分。

法律翻译中的“条”、“款”、“项”、“目”

法律翻译者在翻译立法条文、法学论文、法院判决等法律文件时，常常会碰到诸如“条”、“款”、“项”、“目”等词的翻译，参阅国内一些法律翻译（英汉、汉英）工具书，我们发现，各工具书对上述四个词的翻译或者没有涉及，或者十分混乱。

这些翻译之中，不乏十分正确的翻译，但是有些翻译则值得商榷。

本文作者旨在探讨这一组词的译法，为法律英语词典编纂及法律条文的翻译提供借鉴。

本文从英译汉、汉译英两个方面来说明这一问题。

一、英汉法律翻译中的“条”、“款”、“项”、“目”在英汉法律翻译中，上述词条的翻译不可一概而论。

我们知道，一般意义上而言，在英文中能够表达法律中“条款”之类的词汇大概有：article; section; subsection; paragraph; subparagraph; item; clause; rule; regulation; provision，以及stipulation等等。

（1）关于“article”一词的翻译。

将article一词译为“条”，争议不大。

例如，《美利坚（seven 合众国宪法》（THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA，1789）共有“7条”articles）。

再如，世界贸易组织《中华人民共和国加入议定书》（Protocol on the Accession of People’s Republic of China）中文译本也将“article”译为“条”。

根据美国权威的《布莱克法律字典》（Black’s Law Dictionary. Garner, 1999:106）,Article: A separate and distinct part (as a clause or stipulation) of a writing, esp. in a contract, statute, or constitution. (斜体字为作者所加)。

法律文书翻译的用词特点与格式要求-英语论文-语言学论文

法律文书翻译的用词特点与格式要求-英语论文-语言学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——一、法律文书的用词特点法律文书涉及的范围十分广泛, 包括法令法规、协议书、合同、申请书等,文体严谨、准确,在遣词造句、行文上都有着严格的要求.从用词上来看,有以下特点:(一)古体词的运用法律英语喜欢用古体词,也就是古英语和中世纪英语词汇. 古英语指的是一直使用到公元1100 年的英语,而中世纪英语是指在公元1100 年到1500 年期间使用的英语.在这两个时期从拉丁语、法语和希腊语中借来的外来法律词语的70%仍沿用至今. 古英语和中世纪英语词汇的使用使法律文本句子简练、严谨.法律英语中最主要的古体词是那些由here,there和where等词加上一个或几个介词构成的复合副词. 以下是一些常见的古体词: hereto, hereby,thereby, thereto, wherewith, and thereof 等等. Here 就是指本文件(法律,合同,条约等),there 指另外的文件,where 构成的副词是关系副词, 连接状语从句.herein 译为本文件中,thereunder 译为按照那个文件的规定, whereas 译为鉴于.(二)法律专业术语的运用法律英语的显着特点之一就是行话的使用,专业术语可以使表达更准确,更体现专业性. 如: alibi (不在犯罪现场的证据), tort (侵权行为),forgery (伪造罪),bail (保释). 这些术语具有法律语言的特点,因此不会在其他语域中出现.(三)情态动词的运用法律法规明确各方的权利和义务,是一种上对下的命令语气,规定相关方必须要做或可以做的事或者不得做的事情. 在法律文本中常用的动词有shall 和may.Shall 在法律英语中的重要性不可忽视, 它是构成独特的英文法律文体的一个重要词汇,与第三人称连用表示命令、义务、职责、权利等.例如:The department of standardization adminis-tration under the State Council shall be in charge of theunified administration of standardization throughout thecountry. Competent administrative authorities under theState Council shall,in line with their respective func-tions,be in charge of standardization in their respectivedepartments and trades.标准化行政主管部门应统一管理全国标准化工作. 有关行政主管部门应分工管理本部门、本行业的标准化工作.此句中,shall表示必须的意思,可以简译成应. 当shall 与not 连用时,表示法律禁止某件事情的发生,具有防止、预防某行为发生的内涵.May 在法律英语中主要有两种解释. 一是表示给予许可或者给予某人做事的权利,此含义多用于法律法规中.例如:A civil juristic act may be in written, oral orother form.民事法律行为可以采取书面形式,口头形式或者其他形式.二是表示也许或者可能性,这一含义多用于法律合同中.二、法律文书的格式特点法律文书往往具有特殊格式, 以表示其庄重、严肃的特点.(一)主要的人或物要大写例如:After shipment, the Seller shall draw a sightbill of exchange on the Buyer and deliver the docu-ments through Seller bank to the Buyer against pay-ment, i.e. D/P. The Buyer shall effect the payment im-mediately upon the first presentation of the bills of ex-change.货物发运后,卖方出具以买方为付款人的付款跟单汇票,按即期付款交单(D/P)式,通过卖方银行向买方转交单证,换取货物.(二)法律英语多长句法律英语的句法结构特点可以大体归纳为:多以条件句为主构成的长句表达结构,逻辑连接词and 和or 在句中发挥重要的逻辑衔接作用,其他的修饰限定成分起到进一步明确具体细节内容的作用.在英汉互译中,首先要理清楚法律英文的逻辑结构,找出主句、从句、状语等修饰成分,然后再加工、整理,精雕细琢,要在保证准确传递意思的基础上,在形式上注意译文表达通顺、流畅,以符合汉语的行文习惯.例如:Disputes over the right of ownership ofgrasslands or the right to use them shall be settled bythe parties concerned through negotiation on the princi-ple of mutual understanding and mutual accommodationin the interest of unity.草原所有权和使用权的争议,由当事人本着互谅互让、有利团结的精神协商解决.(三)法律英语多被动语态被动语态是英语法律文书中常见的一种句法现象,这与它要达到的功能是分不开的. 被动语态具有主题确立意义、主题连贯意义和焦点突出意义等语篇功能,它可以在交际过程中对信息进行重新编码和解码,保证语言交际的通畅连贯和重点突出,从而保证交流顺利有效进行. 并且它不带有个人主观性, 因而采用被动语态更能体现法律文书的客观性,也就更能强调它的相关无条件遵守性. 而在汉语中,多使用主动语态,因而在英译汉的过程中,要适当地将被动语态译成主动语态, 更能增强法律条文的强制性语气,且使上下文更连贯.例如:Where an invention -creation for which apatent is applied for relates to the security or other vitalinterests of the State and is required to be kept secret,the application shall be treated in accordance with therelevant prescriptions of the State.申请专利的发明创造涉及或者重大利益需要保密的,按照国家有关规定办理.在法律英语中,常用被动语态形式的短语来代替从句,使句子结构更加紧凑、严谨.例如: Unless otherwise stated in the contract, thefollowing terms whenever used in this contract have thefollowing meanings.除非合同中另有说明,在合同中使用的下列术语有以下含义.短语whenever used 代替了whenever they areused, 这样句子更紧凑.三、结束语要想成为一名优秀的法律英语翻译首先要了解法律英语的用词、句法特点,掌握翻译技巧和大量的专业术语,理清原文的逻辑思路,多积累,多实践,才能不断提高翻译的水平和质量.参考文献[1] 谢云子.浅谈法律英语的翻译[J].学习月刊,2008(8):76.[2] 李克兴,张新红.法律文本与法律翻译[M]. :中国对外翻译出版公司,2010.[3] 朱天文.法律文书的用词特点及其翻译[J].福州大学学报,2001(2):84-86.。

学术论文中的外文引用与翻译法律要求与规范

学术论文中的外文引用与翻译法律要求与规范引言学术研究是推动学科发展和知识进步的重要方式之一。

在学术论文中，外文引用与翻译是不可避免的环节。

然而，为了保证学术研究的严谨性和可信度，外文引用与翻译需要符合一定的法律要求与规范。

本文将探讨学术论文中外文引用与翻译的法律要求与规范。

一、外文引用的法律要求在学术论文中，外文引用是为了支持自己的观点和研究成果，增加论文的可信度和权威性。

然而，在外文引用时，需要遵守相关的法律要求，以避免侵权行为的发生。

首先，学术论文中的外文引用应遵循著作权法的相关规定。

根据著作权法，引用他人的作品需要符合合理引用的原则，即引用的范围、目的和方式不得超过合理范围，且必须标明出处。

因此，在学术论文中引用外文文献时，需要明确标注作者、文章标题、期刊名称、出版年份等信息，以确保引用的合法性。

其次，外文引用还需要考虑国际版权保护的相关规定。

在跨国引用外文文献时，需要关注目标国家的版权法律，以确保引用的合法性。

不同国家对版权的保护程度和要求可能存在差异，因此，学者在引用外文文献时需要对目标国家的版权法律有一定的了解，以避免侵权行为。

最后，学术论文中的外文引用还需要遵守学术道德的规范。

学术界强调学术诚信和知识的共享，因此，在引用外文文献时应尊重原作者的权益，不得进行恶意篡改或歪曲他人观点的行为。

同时，引用外文文献时应注重引用的准确性和完整性，避免断章取义或失真引用的情况发生。

二、外文引用的翻译规范在学术论文中，外文引用的翻译是将外文文献转化为读者所熟悉的语言，以便于理解和阅读。

为了确保翻译的准确性和一致性，外文引用的翻译需要遵守一定的规范。

首先，翻译应保持原文的准确性和完整性。

在翻译外文引用时，应尽量保留原文的意思和表达方式，不得随意添加、删除或修改原文的内容。

同时，翻译的语言应简明扼要，符合学术论文的风格和要求。

其次，翻译应注重语言的规范和准确性。

在翻译外文引用时，应遵循语法规则和词汇用法，确保翻译的语言通顺、准确。

关于翻译的论文

关于翻译的论文翻译是一门复杂而又有趣的跨文化交流工具。

在当今全球化的社会中，翻译已经成为沟通各个国家和地区之间的桥梁。

在学术研究中，翻译的重要性不言而喻。

翻译涉及到多种语言的对比和转换，以及对不同文化、社会和历史背景的理解和适应。

本文将探讨翻译的定义、类型和挑战，并进一步讨论翻译在学术研究中的应用。

首先，翻译是将一种语言的文字或口头表达转换成另一种语言的过程。

它不仅仅是简单地转换单词和句子，还包括了对语言和文化背景的理解和应用。

翻译的类型可以分为口译和笔译。

口译是指在实时对话中进行的翻译，而笔译是指将书面材料从一种语言翻译成另一种语言的过程。

翻译的挑战在于对语言的准确理解和表达。

不同语言之间有着不同的语法结构、词汇和语言习惯。

因此，翻译必须在尊重原文的基础上，进行适当的调整和转换，以使翻译的文字更符合目标语言的表达习惯和文化背景。

此外，不同语言有不同的语调、语气和表达方式，这也是翻译的挑战之一。

在翻译过程中，译者必须处理好语言的细微差别，以确保翻译的准确性和流畅性。

在学术研究领域，翻译起着至关重要的作用。

学术研究要求与各种语言的文献进行交流和对比。

翻译是学术研究中不可或缺的一部分，它使研究者能够获取到各种语言的重要信息和研究结果。

通过翻译，研究者可以更好地了解其他学者的观点和研究成果，并将这些成果与自己的研究相结合。

翻译还有助于促进不同学术领域之间的交流和合作，使学术研究更加全面和多样化。

然而，在学术研究中进行翻译也存在一些挑战。

一方面，对于专业术语和特定领域的翻译，译者需要具备丰富的专业知识和术语库，以确保翻译的准确性和专业性。

另一方面，翻译还需要考虑到每种语言的不同风格和表达方式，在保持准确性的同时，使翻译语句更具有自然和流畅的特点。

此外，学术研究文献的翻译还要考虑到行文风格、结构和逻辑的转换，以适应目标语言的读者。

总结来说，翻译在学术研究中起着极其重要的作用。

它不仅是学者之间交流的桥梁，也是不同语言和文化之间相互理解和融合的工具。

法律英语的语言特点浅析教育论文

法律英语的语言特点浅析教育论文[摘要]法律英语是一种具有法律专业特点的语言。

法律英语就其文体来说属于职业专用英语(English for Oupational Purposes),是一种正式的书面语体,以行文庄重、构造严谨、表达准确为其特点。

为了熟练掌握和运用法律英语,必须首先了解法律英语的语言特点。

本文主要从词汇、句法和文体三个方面分析了法律英语的语言特点。

[关键词]法律英语词汇句法1.含有法律专业意义的普通词汇随着世界经济的全球化,法律英语作为一种行业英语正在中国迅速开展起来。

法律英语是经过长期的司法实践逐步形成的有独特的表达模式和标准,它在词汇用语、句法构造上具有鲜明的特点,表达了法律语言的专业性、庄重性、严谨性和准确性。

法律英语和普通英语的重要区别之一就是法律英语中用到的很多普通词汇往往具有专业特定含义。

例如:dominion在民法中指完全所有权,在国际公法中那么为主权;estoppel在合同法中是不得反悔,在刑事讼诉法中那么是制止翻供。

因此,法律英语有其特定的法律上的意义与效果,不可随便改变形式。

2.特定的法律专业术语法律法规的标准调节作用主要是通过具有法律效果的言语行为,即法律言语行为来实现的。

因此,作为言语行为实施者的立法者和司法者的法律能力和语言能力主要特点之一就是准确得体地使用法律言语,以便能够传达其所意图的法律效果。

正是法律语言的特殊社会功能使法律语言成为表达特有法律概念的专门术语。

如plaintiff(原告),defendant(被告),bigamy(重罪),demurrer(抗辩)等,这些术语具有法律语言的典型文体特点,通常不会在其他语域中出现。

3.外来词英语词汇的绝大局部都法语与拉丁语。

法语对英语的影响极其深远,法律英语当然也不例外。

例如:bar(法庭判台),verdict(裁决)等。

当代法律英语的根底是普通法,普通法的根底是中世纪的罗马教会施行的罗马法,而罗马法是拉丁文写成和实施的,故当今的法律英语中留下许多拉丁词缺乏为奇,例如:alibi(某人不在犯罪现场的申辩或),declaration(申诉,陈述,证言)。

法学毕业论文法学外文翻译中英文对照

英文原文：Hｏw Ｒeal Ｉs Chｉna’s Real Estate Bubｂle And ＷhaｔShｏｕld Be Done ａｂｏut ＩtThinｋ U.S. houｓｉｎg priceｓ havｅｇone beｒserk？Ｔry ｔho ｓe in Ｓｈanｇhai aｎd Ｂeijing， where the cost oｆｈoｍeｓ has ｂeeｎ rｉsing an ｅstｉmaｔｅd 25％ａnnually in ｒecent yeaｒs。

Th ａｔ’ｓｔwｉce tｈｅ jｕmｐ in ｔｈe median sale pｒicｅｏf ｅxisti ｎg Ｕ。

S. homes oｖer tｈe pａｓt ｙear, ａnd a sｉｇn ｔhａｔＣh ｉna’ｓ real ｅｓtate mａrｋet iｓ in ｔｈｅ mｉdst oｆｗｈａt ｓome ｏbsｅrveｒs vｉew as ａ potentially exｐlosiｖe ｂubblｅ.The ｂubｂle is ｒoｏted iｎsuｃh fａctｏrs ａｓ Chｉｎa's ｓtrong ecｏnomic growｔh ｓincｅ 1990 and ｉnｖestor ｂets ｔhat Cｈｉｎa’s curreｎcy， the yuaｎ， will ｂe revalｕed uｐwarｄ in tｈe near ｆｕtｕre. Buｔ such spｅculaｔion is heｌｐing push the ｐｒicｅ of homes beyond tｈｅｒｅach of miｄdｌe ｃlaｓs ｃiｔizenｓ in key Ｃhinｅsｅ ciｔｉes and raｉｓinｇ the prospect oｆａｓudｄen marｋet collapｓｅthaｔ could ｔhrｅａten tｈｅｃountrｙ's shａky bank ｉｎg seｃtor aｎd wiｐe out tｈｅｌife ｓaｖｉｎｇs of manｙｆａmilieｓ。

法语翻译论文精华版范文-法语论文-语言学论文2篇

法语翻译论文精华版范文-法语论文-语言学论文2篇【篇一】法语翻译论文精华版范文随着全球化的发展，语言翻译在日常沟通、商务交流、学术研究等领域中扮演着重要的角色。

而其中一门重要的语言学子学科——法语翻译，作为一种文化传递的工具，对于增进不同文化之间的理解与交流有着不可忽视的作用。

本论文将探讨两篇关于法语翻译的论文，旨在深入研究语言学论文的重要性和学术贡献。

第一篇论文是关于法语翻译的基本概念和原则的研究。

该论文首先介绍了法语翻译的背景和意义，指出在现代全球化的语境下，法语翻译在各个领域中的应用越来越广泛。

其次，论文详细阐述了法语翻译的基本原则，例如准确性、通顺性和文化适应性等。

通过对这些原则的梳理和解释，该论文为法语翻译提供了相应的规范和指导。

最后，论文分析了法语翻译中常见的问题和挑战，如语言难度、文化差异和语体选择等。

通过对这些问题的深入思考和分析，该论文为法语翻译提供了解决问题的方法和建议。

第二篇论文则是关于法语翻译中语言变异和转化的研究。

该论文首先论述了法语翻译中的语言变异现象，指出在不同的语言环境中，法语的表达方式和用词习惯可能会发生改变。

随后，论文探讨了这些变异现象给法语翻译带来的挑战，如语法结构不同、词义多样和文化解读的差异等。

通过对这些挑战的分析和解释，该论文为法语翻译中遇到的语言变异提供了解决方案。

最后，论文讨论了法语翻译中的语言转化现象，即语言在翻译过程中的调整和改变。

通过对这一现象的研究，该论文揭示了语言转化对翻译质量和意义理解的影响，并为法语翻译提供了相关的技巧和指导。

以上两篇论文不仅全面阐述了法语翻译的相关概念和原则，还深入探讨了其在实践中的问题和挑战。

这些研究为法语翻译学科的发展和实践提供了重要的理论和实践指导，对于提高法语翻译质量、促进文化交流具有积极的意义。

同时，这些论文的研究方法和分析角度也为语言学以及其他相关领域的研究提供了借鉴和启示。

综上所述，法语翻译论文的重要性和学术贡献体现在对基本概念和原则的研究以及对语言变异和转化的探讨。

法律语言的特点与法律翻译

法律语言的特点与法律翻译2007 年第3 期牡丹江教育学院学报No1 3 , 2007( 总第1 0 3期) JOURNAL OF MUDANJ IAN G COLL EGE OF EDUCATION Serial No1103[收稿日期]2007 - 02 - 10[作者简介]刘晓丹(1981 - ) ,女,黑龙江牡丹江人,黑龙江大学外语教研部助教,硕士,研究方向:法律英语翻译与法律英语教学。

法律语言的特点与法律翻译刘晓丹(黑龙江大学, 黑龙江哈尔滨150080)[摘要] 伴随着全球化的进程,作为跨文化法律交际桥梁的法律翻译在法律活动中的重要作用越来越突出。

本文首先阐述了法律语言在语篇、语句和词汇方面的特点及法律翻译的基本原则,进而论述了法律语言的特点对英汉和汉英法律笔译的影响及问题的解决。

[关键词] 法律语言;法律翻译;翻译原则[中图分类号]D920. 4 [文献标识码]A [文章编号]1009 - 2323 (2007) 03 - 0040 - 02法律语言学是在语言学和法学的交叉点上产生的新学科,旨在根据语言的一般规律研究法律语言的一般规律和特殊性。

[1 ] 法律翻译作为法律语言学研究的主要内容之一, 包括口译和笔译。

伴随着全球化的进程,作为跨文化法律交际桥梁的法律翻译,在法律活动中的重要作用越来越突出。

法律翻译由于其自身的特性,必然受制于法律语言本身的特点。

因此,法律翻译中与法律语言相关问题的研究和解决必将有利于提高翻译的质量。

一、法律语言的特点法律学科本身的特殊性以及法律长期在人们的政治、经济、科学和文化生活中所发挥的强大的规范和调节作用,使得法律语言在实现其调节、规范作用的过程中也形成了一些自身的语体特点。

法律语言的使用特点可以从语篇结构、句法选择和词汇使用三个层面来考察。

1. 语篇结构特点从语篇结构层面上看,法律语篇最突出的特点是它的高度程式化。

语篇指超过一句话或超过一个句子的口语或书面语言的连续体,是话段或句子构成的语言整体。

翻译实践论文

翻译实践论文翻译是一项艰巨而重要的任务，在全球化的时代中，跨语言交流变得越来越频繁和必要。

翻译实践作为一个学术领域，旨在研究翻译过程和技巧，培养专业翻译人才，促进不同文化间的相互理解。

本论文将探讨翻译实践的重要性和挑战，并提供一些建议以提高翻译质量和效率。

一、翻译的重要性翻译在国际交流中起着至关重要的作用。

首先，它有助于促进不同国家和地区的经济合作。

通过翻译，各国之间能够更好地理解对方的商业需求和市场情况，从而加强合作与交流。

其次，翻译也有助于文化交流。

通过翻译，不同的文学作品、电影、音乐等可以被更广泛地传播和理解，帮助人们更好地了解和欣赏其他文化。

最后，翻译还有助于促进政治和外交关系的发展。

政府间的文件、演讲以及国际组织的文件，需要进行准确翻译才能实现沟通和协作。

然而，翻译也面临着许多挑战和困难。

二、翻译的挑战与困难1.语言差异：不同语言之间存在很大的差异，不仅在词汇和语法上有所不同，甚至在表达方式、文化背景和习惯等方面也存在差异，这给翻译带来了困难。

2.文化差异：翻译涉及到不同文化之间的交流，文化背景的差异经常会导致翻译不准确或者难以理解。

翻译人员需要了解两种语言背后的文化内涵，才能更好地传递信息。

3.专业知识：某些领域的翻译需要掌握丰富的专业知识，例如医学、法律、金融等。

没有相关专业知识的翻译人员可能难以准确翻译特定领域的文件。

4.时效性：有时翻译任务需要在严格的时间限制内完成，这对翻译人员的工作效率和应变能力提出了更高的要求。

为了应对这些挑战和困难，翻译人员需要不断提升自己的翻译技巧和知识水平。

三、提高翻译质量和效率的方法1.语言学习：熟练掌握源语言和目标语言之间的语法、词汇和表达方式，是提高翻译质量的基础。

通过不断学习和练习，翻译人员可以更好地理解和准确表达信息。

2.积累专业知识：对于特定领域的翻译，翻译人员应该积累相关的专业知识，包括行业术语、规范和最新发展。

这可以帮助翻译人员更好地理解和准确传达特定领域的信息。

毕业论文外文翻译范例

外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。

当代法律英语翻译全

当代法律英语翻译全《当代法律英语》翻译第四章公法在所有的民法法系(civil law)中所做的基础分辨便是公法（public law)与私法(private law)的区分。

这种分类方法，对于普通法系(common law)而言仅仅是潜在的或者默示性质的，但对于民法法系而言却是一种基础性的理解方式。

一方面，正如我们所了解的一样，这种分类为民法法系国家提供了法庭组织系统的分辨模板。

随着公法领域的争端于19世纪可受法院裁判(justiciable)开始，独立的特别法庭(tribunal)被建立起来并约束起公法行为。

在今天，除了刑事案件(criminal matters)这一主要例外，普通法院的管辖权(jurisdiction)依旧限于私法领域的争端。

除了这些司法管辖权的推论以外，公法和私法的分别还产生了一种存在于法律专业中的工作(labor)性质的差别。

大量的法学教师倾向于证明他们是“公法专家”(publicist)或者是“私法专家”(privatist)。

课程和论文(treatise)倾向于公法或私法的其中一个领域，尽管事实上如今已经考虑到的案由(subject matter)至少更倾向于许多公法方面。

即使在民法法系世界中公法与私法的分别被广泛承认，但这类法系的法学家(lawyer)对其法系划分的理论基础或者法理正当性仍未达成一致，各国对于这种划分方法的范围和效果也未达成一致。

然而，一般来说，公法所关注的是国家机关之间的关系或者国家与公民之间的关系。

公法至少包括宪法(constitutional law)，行政法(administrative law)和刑法(criminal law)。

而私法是处理公民或私人团体之间的关系，它至少包括民法(civil law)和商法(commercial law)。

这种分类方法的其他几个领域是争论的主题所在。

举个例子，民法程序是包含于一些主体的私人组织的些许法系之中，并且被其他主体认为包含于公法领域。

2000字外语翻译论文：英文翻译.doc

2000字外语翻译论文：英文翻译古典文学中常见论文这个词，当代，论文常用来指进行各个学术领域的研究和描述学术研究成果的文章，简称为论文。

以下就是由编为您提供的2000字外语翻译论文。

近些年来，翻译中的文化问题越来越受到人们的关注。

人们重视翻译中的文化问题，源于对背景知识的作用的正确认识。

在翻译实践中，由于文化不解与误解导致误译和错译的例子屡见不鲜。

于是文化因素对英文翻译的影响，便成了众多学者的研究对象。

正如美国着名翻译理论家尤金·奈达所说：就真正成功的翻译而言，译者的双文化(bicultural)功底甚至比双语(bilingualism)功底更重要，因为词语只有在起作用的文化语境中才有意义。

翻译并不像许多人想象得那么容易，深层次的思想意识方面的文化鸿沟时常难以逾越。

由此可见，文化因素在翻译中占有重要的地位。

一翻译与文化释义1 翻译与文化的内涵翻译的诞生给说不同语言的人们带来了很大的方便，它是人们彼此之间进行信息交流的桥梁。

所谓翻译，就是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动，是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具，它的目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经济和社会文化进步。

何谓文化?英国学者泰勒(E.B Tylor，1871)给文化下的定义是：所谓文化或文明，即知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及其它作为社会成员的人们能够获得的包括一切能力和习惯在内的复合性整体。

文化并不是抽象的，它是我们所感知的一切。

人类以自己的情感、技能和智慧创造了自己的文化，更新了自己的文化。

不同民族语言不同、文化各异，但人类的能力本质是相同的。

因为人类所创造的文化在深层意义上反映了人类的共同能力。

各民族的文化都有同一性，不同国家、不同民族活动的多样性和观念的多元化使其文化内容和形式出现多样性，这就是文化差异的渊源。

翻译则是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动，是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具。

法律特征作文模板英语翻译

法律特征作文模板英语翻译Title: Writing a Legal Feature Essay Template。

In today's society, the legal system plays a crucial role in maintaining order and justice. As such, it is important for individuals to have a basic understanding of the legal features that shape our laws and regulations. In this essay, we will explore the key components of a legal feature and how they contribute to the overall legal framework.Introduction。

The legal system is a complex and multifaceted entity that is designed to uphold the rule of law and ensure justice for all members of society. Legal features are the essential components that make up the foundation of our legal system. These features include principles such as equality before the law, due process, and the protection of individual rights. Understanding these features is essential for anyone seeking to navigate the legal landscape.Equality Before the Law。

疑罪从无原则的国外现状毕业论文外文翻译

附录the earliest presumable innocence principleThe 1764 Italy jurist Beccaria: the judge before, a person can not be a criminal. As long as it can not be concluded that he had violated his contract to public protection, society can not cancel his public protection. The ancient Rome law adopts "crime suspects, defendants and return" principle, starting from the angle of for the defendant, make a lenient or from free judgment.Presumable innocence principle is put forward as a principle in the bourgeois enlightenment. After the principle of constitution, constitutional documents in many western countries, the international treaties. German criminal proceedings by REO principle. The Anglo-American law system countries not suspected as innocent argument, but there is a suspected crime formulation.Two legal awareness of the presumable innocence principlethe Anglo-American law system: the United States criminal law twenty-ninth stipulation: prior to submission to the jury trial. The government party evidence investigation completed or completed all the evidence investigation, evidence is not enough to sustain the conviction, the court should be the defendant's proposal should make a verdict of not guilty. The court also can measure to maintain the conviction if there is sufficient evidence. The court at the end of the government investigation of evidence dismissed acquit proposal, can also provide evidence of the accused to provide evidence in the case of rights without reservation.the continental law system: the German criminal procedure law established the crime suspect dimensional light principle. Suspected crime refers to the principle of dimensional light when in doubt, should be conducive to the defendant's decision.In China's criminal procedure law in 1997 twelfth third clearly stipulates: the appointment of court proceedings to the people's Procuratorate criminal case after the trial, "the evidence is insufficient, the defendant cannot be found guilty, not guilty verdict should make the lack of evidence, the crime accused cannot be established." This provision indicates that our country from the legislation established the principle of "no punishment in doubt case". After the amendment of criminal procedure law, the formal establishment of the presumable innocence rules. The new criminal procedure law the 140th regulation: "in cases where supplementary investigation, the people's Procuratorate still believes that the evidence is insufficient, does not meet the conditions for prosecution, can make the decision not to initiate a prosecution", 162nd paragraph third: "the evidence is insufficient, can not determine that the defendant guilty, should make the evidence is insufficient, the failure of the charged crime the verdict of acquittal". These Regulations are established, marked presumable innocence rule in China, it is not only an important derivation rules of the principle of presumption of innocence, but also the important principle of admissibility of evidence rules, the rules that convicted shall be liable for the prosecution to bear, the prosecution must collect sufficient evidence to prove that the crime is, if not confirm the crime or on the collected evidence exists objection, should be explained and treatment of criminal suspects, misdemeanor heavy crime cannotbe determined, should be a misdemeanor, guilt or innocence can not be determined, should determine the suspect, the defendant not guilty.疑罪从无原则的国外现状一、最早疑罪从无原则的提出1764年意大利法学家贝卡利亚：在法官判决之前，一个人不能被成为罪犯。

有关法律方面的作文

有关法律方面的作文英文回答：The legal system is a complex and ever-evolving field that governs our society. It encompasses various branches, including criminal law, civil law, constitutional law, and international law. Each branch addresses specific types of legal issues and disputes, providing a framework for resolving conflicts and upholding justice.Criminal Law。

Criminal law focuses on offenses that violate the public order and safety of society. These offenses are typically defined by statutes and carry the potential for imprisonment or other sanctions. The prosecution bears the burden of proving the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.Civil Law。

Civil law deals with disputes between private parties, such as individuals, businesses, and organizations. It encompasses areas such as contract law, tort law, and property law. In civil cases, the plaintiff must provetheir claims by a preponderance of the evidence.Constitutional Law。

法律翻译中的“条、款、项、目

法律翻译中的“条、款、项、目法律翻译同时涉足三个领域，即法律学界、语言学界和翻译界。

因此，法律翻译对译者要求十分苛刻。

例如，在英汉、汉英翻译中，译者除了要掌握一定程度的中国法律以及普通法知识之外，还要擅长法律英语这一特殊用途英语（ESP）。

与所有的翻译一样，法律翻译的译文要忠实原文的实质内容，还要尽量流畅通顺。

法律翻译通常包括的内容很多，如立法性文件的翻译，合同翻译，诉讼类文书翻译，法庭口译，法学论文翻译，涉外公证文书翻译，判例翻译等等。

这些翻译之中，不乏十分正确的翻译，但是有些翻译则值得商榷。

本文作者旨在探讨这一组词的译法，为法律英语词典编纂及法律条文的翻译提供借鉴。

本文从英译汉、汉译英两个方面来说明这一问题。

一、英汉法律翻译中的“条”、“款”、“项”、“目”在英汉法律翻译中，上述词条的翻译不可一概而论。

（1）关于“article”一词的翻译。

将article一词译为“条”，争议不大。

例如，《美利坚合众国宪法》（THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATE S OF AMERICA，1789）共有“7条”（seven articles）。

再如，世界贸易组织《中华人民共和国加入议定书》（Protocol on the Accession of People's Rep ublic of China）中文译本也将“article”译为“条”。

大陆法(法律体系)-外文翻译

河北科技师范学院毕业论文外文翻译题目：英美法系与大陆法系的比较研究学生姓名：XXX指导教师：XXX系别：XXX系专业、班级：国际经济与贸易XX级XX班学号：XXXXXXXXXX填表时间：XXXX年XX月XX日河北科技师范学院教务处制Civil law (legal system)Abstract: This article is concerned with the legal system known as Civil law. For the area of law in common law countries governing relations between private individuals, see Civil law (common law).Keywords: Civil law; Common lawIntroductionCivil law, or continental law, is the predominant system of law in the world, with its origins in Roman law, and sets out a comprehensive system of rules, usually codified, which are applied and interpreted by judges. Modern systems are descendants of the nineteenth century codification movement, during which the most important codes (most prominently the Napoleonic Code and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB) came into existence.However, codification is not an essential characteristic of a civil law system. For example, the civil law systems of Scotland and South Africa are not codified, and the civil law systems of Scandinavian countries remain largely not codified. The civil law system is contrasted with the common law originating in England and generally adopted by those countries of the world with a history as British territories or colonies.As a body of laws comprising the official legal system of a nation or state, especially in reference to the rights and privileges of private citizens, civil law becomes the necessary law in which freedom and necessity are unified.OverviewLegal systems across the world. Civil law is blue; other systems are common law (pink), mixed civil and common law (brown), custom (green) and others (yellow).Civil or civilian law is a legal tradition which is the base of the law in the majority of countries of the world, especially in continental Europe and the former Soviet Union, but also inQuebec (Canada), Louisiana (U.S.), Puerto Rico (a U.S. territory), Japan, Latin America, and most former colonies of continental European countries. The Scottish legal system is usually considered to be a mixed system in that Scots law has a basis in Roman law, combining features of both unmodified and Civil law systems. In western and southwestern parts of the U.S., laws in such diverse areas as divorce and water rights show the influence of their Iberian civil law heritage, being based on distinctly different principles from the laws of the northeastern states colonized by settlers with English common law roots.HistoryThe civil law is based on Roman law, especially the Corpus Juris Civilis of Emperor Justinian, as later developed through the Middle Ages by medieval legal scholars.The acceptance of Roman law had different characteristics in different countries. In some of them its effect resulted from legislative act; that is, it became positive law, whereas in other ones it became accepted by way of its processing by legal theorists.Consequently, Roman law did not completely dominate in Europe. Roman law was a secondary source, which was applied only as long as local customs and local laws lacked a pertinent provision on a particular matter. However, local rules too were interpreted primarily according to Roman law (it being a common European legal tradition of sorts), resulting in its influencing the main source of law also.A second characteristic, beyond Roman law foundations, is the extended codification of the adopted Roman law, namely its inclusion into civil codes.The concept of codification developed especially during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, as an expression of both Natural Law and the ideas of the Enlightenment. The political ideal of that era was expressed by the concepts of democracy, protection of property, and the rule of law. That ideal required the creation of certainty of law, through the recording of law and through its uniformity. So, the aforementioned mix of Roman law and customary and local law ceased to exist, and the road opened for law codification, which could contribute to the aims of the above mentioned political ideal.Another factor that contributed to codification was that the notion of the nation state, which was born during the nineteenth century, required the recording of the law that would be applicable to that state.Certainly, there was also reaction to the aim of law codification. The proponents of codification regarded it as conducive to certainty, unity, and systematic recording of the law; whereas its opponents claimed that codification would result in the ossification of the law.Despite resistance, the codification of European private laws moved forward. The French Napoleonic Code of 1804, the German civil code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) of 1900, and the Swiss codes were the most influential national civil codes.Because Germany was a rising power in the late nineteenth century, when many Asian nations were introducing civil law, the German Civil Code became the basis for their legal systems. Thus Japan and South Korea operate under civil law. In China, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing Dynasty and formed the basis of the law of the Peoples' Republic of China, which remains in force.Civil law served as the foundation for socialist law used in Communist countries, with major modifications and additions from Marxist-Leninist ideology. For example, while civil law systems have traditionally put great pains in defining the notion of private property, how it may be acquired, transferred, or lost, Socialist law systems provide for most property to be owned by the state or by agricultural co-operatives, and have special courts and laws for state enterprises. SubgroupsThe term "civil law" as applied to a legal tradition actually originates in English-speaking countries, where it was used to group all non-English legal traditions together and contrast them to the English common law. However, since continental European traditions are by no means uniform, scholars of comparative law usually subdivide civil law into four distinct groups: French civil law: In France, the Benelux countries, Italy, Spain, and former colonies of those countries;German civil law: In Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Portugal, Turkey, Japan, South Korea, and the Republic of China;Scandinavian civil law: In Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Finland, and Iceland inherited the system from their neighbors.Chinese law is a mixture of civil law and socialist law.Portugal, Brazil, and Italy have evolved from French to German influence, as their nineteenth century civil codes were close to the Napoleonic Code and their twentieth century civil codes are much closer to the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch. Legal culture and law schools have also come nearer to the German system. The law in these countries is often said to be of a hybrid nature.The Dutch law, or at least the Dutch civil code, cannot be easily placed in one of the mentioned groups either, and it has itself influenced the modern private law of other countries. The Russian civil code is in part a translation of the Dutch one.Civil versus common lawCivil law is primarily contrasted against common law, which is the legal system developed among Anglo-Saxon people, especially in England.The original difference is that, historically, common law was law developed by custom, beginning before there were any written laws and continuing to be applied by courts after there were written laws, too, whereas civil law developed out of the Roman law of Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis.In later times, civil law became codified as druid couturier, or customary law, that were local compilations of legal principles recognized as normative. Sparked by the Age of Enlightenment, attempts to codify private law began during the second half of the eighteenth century, but civil codes with a lasting influence were promulgated only after the French Revolution, in jurisdictions such as France (with its Napoleonic Code), Austria, Quebec, Spain, the Netherlands, and Germany. However, codification is by no means a defining characteristic of a civil law system. For example, the civil law systems of Scandinavian countries remain largely unmodified, whereas common law jurisdictions have frequently codified parts of their laws, such as in the U.S. Uniform Commercial Code. There are also mixed systems, such as the laws of Scotland, Louisiana, Quebec, Namibia, and South Africa.Thus, the difference between civil law and common law lies not just in the mere fact of codification, but in the methodological approach to codes and statutes. In civil law countries, legislation is seen as the primary source of law. By default, courts thus base their judgments on the provisions of codes and statutes, from which solutions in particular cases are to be derived. Courts thus have to reason extensively on the basis of general rules and principles of the code, often drawing analogies from statutory provisions to fill lacunae and to achieve coherence. By contrast, in the common law system, cases are the primary source of law, while statutes are only seen as incursions into the common law and thus interpreted narrowly.The underlying principle of separation of powers is seen somewhat differently in civil law and common law countries. In some common law countries, especially the United States, judges are seen as balancing the power of the other branches of government. By contrast, the original idea of separation of powers in France was to assign different roles to legislation and to judges, with the latter only applying the law. This translates into the fact that many civil law jurisdictions reject the formalistic notion of binding precedent (although paying due consideration to settled case-law), and that certain civil law systems are based upon the inquisitorial system rather than the adversarial system.There are other notable differences between the legal methodologies of various civil law countries. For example, it is often said that common law opinions are much longer and contain elaborate reasoning, whereas legal opinions in civil law countries are usually very short andformal in nature. This is in principle true in France, where judges cite only legislation, but not prior case law. (However, this does not mean that judges do not consider it when drafting opinions.) By contrast, court opinions in German-speaking countries can be as long as English ones, and normally discuss prior cases and academic writing extensively.There are, however, certain sociological differences. Civil law judges are usually trained and promoted separately from attorneys, whereas common law judges are usually selected from accomplished and reputable attorneys. Also, the influence of articles by legal academics on case law tends to be much greater in civil law countries.With respect to criminal procedure, certain civil law systems are based upon a variant of the inquisitorial system rather than the adversarial system. In common law countries, this kind of judicial organization is sometimes criticized as lacking a presumption of innocence. Most European countries, however, are parties to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) adopted under the auspices of the Council of Europe in 1950 to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms. Article 6 of the ECHR guarantees "the right to a fair trial" and the presumption of innocence. Some Civil law nations also have legislation that predates the Convention and secures the defendant the presumption of innocence.When the presumption of innocence is present, what distinguishes the inquisitorial system is the frequent lack of a jury of peers, which is guaranteed in many common law jurisdictions. Inquisitorial systems tend to have something akin to a "bench" trial made up of a single judge or a tribunal. Some Scandinavian nations have a tribunal that consists of one civilian and two trained legal professionals. One result of the inquisitorial system's lack of jury trial is a significant difference in the rules of trial evidence. Common law rules of evidence are founded on a concern that juries will misuse, or give inappropriate weight to unreliable evidence. In inquisitorial systems the rules of evidence are sometimes less complicated because legal professionals are considered capable of identifying reliable evidence. Most noteworthy of these is the lack of a hearsay rule.Civil and common law systems also differ considerably in criminal procedure. In general, the judge in a civil law system plays a more active role in determining the facts of the case. Most civil law countries investigate major crimes using the inquisitorial system. Also, civil law systems rely much more on written argument than oral argument.Economic implicationsAccording to legal origins theory, a controversial idea promoted by economists such as Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, civil law countries tend to emphasize social stability, while common law countries focus on the rights of an individual. The basic thrust of the theory is that common law, as opposed to French civil law, and to a lesser degree to German andScandinavian civil law, is associated with more orientation towards institutions of the market, which is why common law countries tend to be economically more developed.ReferencesDebrusche, Anne-Francoise. 2006. Civil Law Reasoning. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Civil Law Section.Drummond, Susan G. 2007. Civil Law Toronto: Osgoode Hall Law School.Harr, Jonathon. 1995. A Civil Action. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-56349-2 Moustaira, Elina N. 2004. Comparative Law: University Courses (in Greek). Athens: Ant. N.Sakkoulas Publishers.大陆法（法律体系）［摘要］本文关注的是称为大陆法体系的法律体系。

功能对等理论下的法律语言英译策略探究——以《合同法》为例

2472019年46期总第486期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS 功能对等理论下的法律语言英译策略探究——以《合同法》为例文/杨　雪　张　媛　陈　帆掌握源语言和目的语的不同文化内涵，才能做得准确的翻译。

三、功能对等理论下对法律翻译的难点的处理1.词汇对等下法律术语的翻译。

(1) 对于含有法律意义的普通词汇的翻译，采用直译与意译相结合的翻译方法。

对于法律语言中的一些专业名词来说，简单的直译无法完整准确地表达出原文的含义，然而每个词句都追求意译又会增加翻译的难度。

因此，采用直译与意译的结合，既可以发挥直译的简便通俗的特点，又可以充分利用意译的准确的优势。

对于出现词汇空缺的法律术语的翻译，采用意译法。

词汇空缺是指，在一种语言中的表述，(2)在另一种语言中难以找到与之对应的词汇和表述，在法律语言中，不难发现这种现象。

2.句法对等、篇章对等下的长句翻译。

对于法律文本的翻译，法条和司法解释无疑是一大难题，冗长的句子，专业又繁杂的术语，都是翻译过程中的一大难关。

在功能对等理论的指导下，对这样长句多采用意译和减译的方法。

更多的强调翻译的内容，其次兼顾翻译的形式。

3.文体对等下的语篇风格翻译。

为了准确传递法律意图、信息内容，法律语篇文本都要按照比较固定的语篇文本模式、文本结构进行构建。

尽管不同于其他文本类型，但作为表达法律相关信息的文本类型，就要通过固定的程式化的结构来表达法律规范的严肃性、内容的合理性、行为的规范性和法律效果的权威性。

功能对等理论中的语篇对等原则，要求对文本的翻译要根据语言是怎样在特定的语境中体现意义和功能，语篇对等包含三个层面：上下文语境，情景语境和文化语境。

因此在翻译过程中，必不可少的使用意译和改写的方法。

译者必须要在完全把握法律文本的所表达的内涵、文化等才能够准确的翻译出法律语言的语篇风格。

四、结束语法律语言是连接人们与法律的桥梁，其翻译对于帮助理解法律、使用法律都有着不可小觑的作用，因此，对于法律语言的翻译工作必须严谨认真。