考研 1 introduction_of_Linguistics
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。
考研 1 introduction_of_Linguistics
定义）
What is language?（大连外）
Language is a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols used for human communication. 蜜蜂可以用舞姿交流，黑猩猩可以学会 部分人类的语言，这属于语言吗？ (中大）Comment on the following statement: In linguistics, lg only means what a person says or said in a given situation.
arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, discreteness and duality are sometimes listed as the 6 core features of human lg. Choose 3 out of 6 and explain with examples what they mean.
(武大）Explain speech and writing,
and cite TWO or more examples. (浙大） What are the four principles for the scientific study of lg? (浙大，东大， 厦大）Point out 3 ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.
informative （信息功能） interpersonal function （人际功能） Performative (施为功能，概念来自于Austin & Searle 的言语行为理论speech act theory)。 Emotive function（感情功能） Phatic communion （交互性功能：如礼节性的交 谈ritual exchanges, 俚语slangs, jokes, 行话 jargons等。通常是用来填充谈话内容空缺的情况， 如英国人谈论天气。该术语来源于人类语言学家 Malinowski马林诺夫斯基。） Recreational function （娱乐性功能，a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting） Metalingual function （元语言功能，用语言来谈论 语言)
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案word文档，精心编排整理，均可修改你的满意，我的安心《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be includedin a good, comprehensive definition of language答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Thisis what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibrationof the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used indictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Thelatter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound thatfollows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spitthe puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p]sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims todiscover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation;in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examplesof each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motionpictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamp les: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examplesof each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “withoutsex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”di shonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “oppose d or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those inte nded”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phraseis called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category isinflection. Words of different categories take different inflections.Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories thatcan appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head,specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles.Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of thehead. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide informationabout entities and locations whose existence is implied by themeaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formedby the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement(against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement(thewindow)NP d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses thatfunction as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition ora noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each ofthese sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structureof each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the partyHelen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the windowwho broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)答案.docx
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。
语言学相关的书籍
语言学相关的书籍近年来，语言学领域的研究受到了越来越多的关注。
如果你对语言学感兴趣，以下是一些值得推荐的书籍。
1.《语言学导论》（Introduction to Linguistics），作者：Andrew Radford，Martin Atkinson，David Britain和Harald Clahsen 这本书是一本经典的语言学教材，涵盖了语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、心理语言学等多个方面的知识。
它易于理解，适合初学者阅读。
2.《现代语言学》（Contemporary Linguistics），作者：William O'Grady，John Archibald，Mark Aronoff和Janie Rees-Miller 这本书也是一本广泛使用的语言学教材，主要介绍了语言学的各种子领域。
它注重实证研究，提供了丰富的案例和数据，适合学生和研究人员使用。
3.《语言学基础》（Foundations of Linguistics），作者：Ray Jackendoff这本书是一本深入的语言学著作，涵盖了语言学的理论、方法和应用。
它提供了许多有关语言结构、语言发展和语言进化的新思路，具有很高的学术价值。
4.《语言学简史》（A Short History of Linguistics），作者：Robert Henry Robins这本书追溯了语言学的历史，介绍了各种语言学理论的起源、发展和演变。
它给读者提供了深入了解语言学历史的机会，有助于理解语言学的现状和未来。
5.《语言、文化和社会》（Language, Culture, and Society），作者：Christine Jourdan和Kevin Tuite这本书讨论了语言、文化和社会之间的相互关系。
它探讨了语言对文化和社会的影响，以及文化和社会对语言的影响。
它是一本全面而深入的语言学读物，适合对语言的文化和社会背景感兴趣的读者。
《英语语言学概论》配套练习题(二)(判断题)
《英语语言学概论》配套练习题（二）（判断题）Chapter 1 An Introduction to Linguistics1. Duality is one of the charateristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.2. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.3. Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.5. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.6. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.7. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.8. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.2. Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.3. The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modificaiton to acquire the quality of a speech sound.4. [p] is voiced bilabial stop.5. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.6. When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.7. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.8. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.2. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.3. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all infletional affixes are removed.4. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.5.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.6. The word, whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomapoeia.7. Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.8. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Application of the transformational rules yields deep strucutre.2. Move-a rule itself can rule out ungrammatical forms and result in grammatical strings.3. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronounn.4. A constituent which is not at the same time a construction is a morpheme, and a construction which is not at the same time a constituent is a sentence.5. IC analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures.6. A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of diacourse.7. Syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.8. S-structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.Chapter 5 Semantics1.Interrogative and imperative sentences do not have truth value.2.The raltionship between “human body” and “face/nose” is hyponymy.ponential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word cannot be dissected into menaing components, called semantic features.4.One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.5.Hyponymy is a matter of class membership, so it is the same as meronymy.6.“Either it is raining here or it isn’t raining here” is empirically true.7.Two sentences using the same words may mean quite differently.8.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.If the context of use is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.2. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.3.When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true.4.The utterance meaning of the sentence variees with the context in which it is uttered.5.While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly.6.Inviting, suggesting, warnign, ordering are instances of commissives.7.Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and thehearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implications arise.8.Of three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.Chapter 7 Language Change1.Pre-Indo-European languages are not attested whereas Proto-Indo-Europeanlanguages are attested.2.Some modern words come from the morphological change of the Old English. Forinstance, move comes form movement and teach comes from teachable.3.With the semantic broadening or narrowing, the meaning of a word is beingchanged constantly, although with one generation such difference is hardly obvious.4.The sentence I hate thee not was considered normal form of negation in OldEnglish.5.Both Chinese and Japanese have a logographic writing system; English and Greekhave an alphabetic writing system.6.In Old English, the affixation of the prefix Yan- to an adjective would change theword into a causative verb.7.In 1200, the official language in England was Old English.8.All case forms of Old English nouns have been lost in Modern English.9.In Old English, a verb precedes the subject instead of following it.Chapter 8 Language and Society10.In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situationsknown as domains.11.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety ofthat language.12.A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.13.When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he isconverting one mode of thinking into the other.14.Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language.15.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Shorf hypothesis, speaker’sperceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.16.The sentences “He crazy”and “He be sick all the time”are both acceptible inblack English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous of black English.17.There are words of more or less the same menaing used in different regionaldialects.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisitionnguage use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation.2.In linguistic study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.3.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA.4.If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language.5.Phonologically slower rate of delivery is an example of conversational modification.6.Children’s grammar develops gradually until it becomes exactly the adult’s grammar.7.Foreinger talk is always ungrammatical.8.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in differnet ways.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1. The right ear advantage (REA) is true no matter whether people have the left hemispheric dominance for speech or the less common right hemispheric dominance.2. In general, the left hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.3. The left hemisphere is superior to the right hemisphere.4. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantly from child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.5. At the multiword stage, simple prepositions, especially those that indicate positions such as “in”, “on” and “up”, begin to turn up in children’s speech.6. Children acquiring their first language simply beyond the critical age are hardly successful, such as the case of “Genie.”7. In first language acquisition children’s grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.8. Modern linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.。
Brief_introduction_of_cognitive_linguist
突显观
对所表达信息的选择和筛选是语言超越逻辑推 理和客观性的体现。 例如，我们脑海所想车撞在树上，会想到车是 如何失控，冲撞到树上。 The car crashed into the tree.
The tree was hit by the car.
框架和注意观
The scope of CL
However, it opens up a fresh perspective for the research on the Linguistics.
The development of other sciences:
---- 认知科学
（认知心理学）
---- 心理语言学 ----- 哲学 …… ……
Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Catefories Reveal about Mind 《女人，火以及危险事物：哪些范畴揭示心 理》 （1987） ---- Lakoff ----提出了经验论语义观：人通过自我或许他 人的身体经验判断上下、前后、里外等， 形成直接理解；需要间接理解的场合，人 又通过对大脑的加工，区分典型与非典型， 基本层次与上位层次和下位层次，对事物 进行范畴化，表现为语义。
Leonard Talmy 关于各种语言中空间关系表达方式 的讨论
Talmy 发现,每一种语言都有一套不同的描述 空间关系的词语，但它们之间并没有一种 对应关系。例如，英语中有in, through, on等， 汉语中也有一些类似的介词，但它们之间 并不完全对应。Talmy认为，每一种空间关 系都可以分解为一系列基本的空间关系， 而这些基本空间关系在不同立，协会刊 物《认知语言学》杂志随即创刊
英语语言文学 考研书目
英语语言文学考研书目以下是一些英语语言文学考研书目的推荐：1.《英语国家文化与社会》(A Companion to Contemporary Britain: 1939-2000)，By: Paul Addison 和 Harriet Jones这本书主要讲述了英国社会和文化的历史，对于理解英国历史背景和文化环境非常有帮助。
2.《现代英语语法》(A Student's Introduction to English Grammar)，By: Rodney Huddleston 和 Geoffrey K. Pullum这本书是英语语法的经典教材，对于英语语言学习和理解英语语法规则非常有帮助。
3.《英美文学概论》(An Introduction to English and American Literature)，By: Richard Jacovitz这本书涵盖了英美文学的主要作品和流派，是考研英语语言文学专业必备的教材。
4.《英语语言学原理》(An Introduction to Linguistics)，By: Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers, Ann K. Farmer 和 Robert M. Harnish这本书介绍了语言学的基本原理和方法，对于理解英语语言学的概念和理论非常重要。
5.《英美文学史》(A History of English Literature)，By: Michael Alexander这本书详细介绍了英国和美国文学的发展历程和主要作品，对于考研英语语言文学专业非常有帮助。
6.《英语写作与修辞》(The Craft of Research)，By: Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams 和 Joseph Bizup 这本书教授了英语写作和修辞的技巧和方法，对于提高写作水平非常有帮助。
introduction of linguistics.
I. Explain the following terms: (15 points, 3 points each)1、Ideational function:Ideational function is the content function of language and allows us to conceptualize(概念化)the world for our own benefit and that of others.2、interpersonal functionInterpersonal function is the participatory function of language. It’s to establish, maintain and signal relationships between people.3、textual function,This function is using language to bring texts into being. It is to create written and spoken texts.4、prescriptive and descriptive,Language is de, not pre.Prescriptive prescribes rules of what is correct.Descriptivism claims that linguistics’ first task is to describe the way people actually speak and write their language, not to prescribe how they ought to speak and write5、competence and performanceCompetence is the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance is what we do when we speak of listen, that is , the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors. (COMPETENCE: Enabling a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities and stable. (Performance: Influenced by psychological and social factors, such as pressure, distress, anxiety, or embarrassment, etc.)6、functionalism and formalismp347、phoneticsScientific study of speech and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds.(Deals with the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds.)8,transcription of soundsThe process of representing oral text in a writtenformat.9.phonologyPhonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.(Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.)10.phonemesThe smallest units of sound that can change the meaning of a word.11.allophoneA phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language – it is one of several similar speech sounds belonging to a phonemeplementary distributionWhen two or more sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.13.suprasegmental featuresSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.14.morphologyThe study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.15.morphemeMorphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.16.inflectionInflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.17.word formationNew words may be added to the vocabulary or lexicon of a language by compounding, conversion, derivation and a number of other processes.18.lexiconLexicon is synonymous with vocabulary, which refers to all the words and phrases used in a language or that a particular person knows.19.lexemeLexeme is a more abstract and more technical term referring to the smaller unit of the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from another smaller unite.20.syntaxSyntax is a study of sentences.A traditional term for the study of the rules governing the way in which words are combined to form sentences in a language(The branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences)21.immediate constituentsIt’s of the same form class as the whole construction, and it’s the subordinating type.22.semanticsTraditionally defined as the study of meaning.23.referential/representational theoryReferential theory is a linguistic sign derives its meaning from that which refers to something in reality.Representational theory: It holds that language in general and words in particular are only an icon for an actual thing being symbolized.This suggests that there is one kind of “natural” resemblance or relationship between words and the things represented by them.24.semantic fieldSemantic field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system, which shows their relationship to one another.25.illocutinary actReferring to the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it(or with its explicit performative paraphrase).26.design featuresThe defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 27.speech act theoryOne of the basic theories of pragmatics.All linguistic activities are related to speech acts. Therefore, to speak a language is to perform a set of speech acts, such as statement, command, inquiry and commitment.28.politeness principle and its maximsaccording to this theory, everybody has face wants.i.e.the expectation concerning their public self-image. In order to maintain harmonious interpersonal relationships and ensure successful social interaction, we should be aware of the two aspects of another person’s face, i.e the positive face and the negative face.Politeness principle is based on the assumption that conversational implicatures arising from the flouting of the maxims of the cooperative principle are.(1) Tact maxim(2) Generosity maxim(3) Approbation maxim(4) Modesty maxim(5) Agreement maxim(6) Sympathy maxim29.cooperative principle and its maximsTacit agreement exists between the speaker and the hearer in all linguistic communicative activities.They follow a set of principles in order to achieve particular communicative goals.maximally efficient, rational and cooperativesincerely, relevantly and clearlywhile providing sufficient information⑴ The maxim of quality⑵ The maxim of quantity⑶ The maxim of relevance⑷ The maxim of manner30.indirect speech actIndirect speech act refers to an indirect relationship between the propositional content and illocutionary force of an utterance.31. Lingua francaLingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.32.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis as we know today can be broken down into two basic principles: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativityLinguistic determinism is Language determines the way people perceive the world.Linguistic relativity: Language influences the way people perceive the world.33.Critical Period Hypothesis,This hypothesis states that there is only a small window of time for a first language to be natively acquired.34.validity and reliabilityII. Answer the following questions briefly: (25 points, 5 points each)1.What are the functions of human language?Ideational: (also descriptive function)to organize a speaker‟s or writer‟s experience of the world and to convey information which can be stated ordenied and in some cases tested. It can be divided into experiential function and logical functionInterpersonal: (also social function)to establish, maintain and signal relationships between peopleTextual:to create written and spoken texts2.What are the sub-branches of linguistics within thelanguage system?Phonetics 语音学Phonology 音系／位学Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Discourse Analysis 语篇分析Pragmatics 语用学3.What are the characteristics of English speech sounds?Common pattern:c onsonant-vowel-consonant: fit dig net sitconsonant clusters: stream glimpse task Consonants：voiced&voicelessVowelscharacteristic length: lip—lap—leapEnglish vowels & consonantsVoewls: 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs, 5tripthongs.4.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.Morphological rules is the rules, which determine how morphemes are combined into new words.5.What is endocentric construction/exocentricconstruction? Explain with examples.Endocentric construction is one whse distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of itsconstituents. A word or a group of words act as a definable center or headExocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.E.g.6. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.7. What are the major concerns of pragmatics?8. Explain the difference between inflectional and derivational affixes in terms of both function and position.9. Talk briefly about syllabus design.III. Make comments on the following topics. (40 points, 20 points each)(answersare open)该部分的答题思路是，先将理论要点陈述出来，再进行自己的评论和论述。
复试语言学重点和题目
Chapter I Introduction I教学重点1. Definition of Linguistics2. Important distinctions in linguistics1) Prescriptive vs. descriptive2) Synchronic vs. diachronic教学难点1. Prescriptive vs. descriptive2. Synchronic vs. diachronic思考题:1. How do you understand that linguistics is the scientific study of language?2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?Introduction II教学重点1. Important distinctions in linguistics Speech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performance2. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics教学难点1. Speech vs. Writing2. Langue vs. Parole3. Competence vs. Performance4. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Linguistics思考题:l.How i s Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?2.For what reason does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Chapter II Speech Sounds思考题:1.How is broad transcription different from narrow transcription?2.What are the three cavities involved in the production of speech sounds? How do they function?● 笔头作业:l.What are the principles by which we classify consonants and vowels?2.How do we describe a consonant or a vowel?Chapter II Phonology II教学 1.Phonology vs phonetics重点 2.Phone, phoneme and allophone3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair教学难点1.Phone, phoneme and allophone2. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair思考题:l. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?2. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?Chapter 3 Morphology教学重点1.Morphemes2.Types of morphemes3.Word formation教学难点Understanding of different types of morphemes思考题：1. How is a free morpheme different from a bound morpheme?2. How are derivational morphemes different from inflectional morphemes? Chapter 4 Syntax I教学重点不同的语言流派对句子结构的分析方法教学难点表层结构，深层结构Questions and Exercises1, 2, 5, 9Chapter 4 Syntax II教学重点表层结构与深层结构教学难点句子的生成及其转换Questions and Exercises1, 2, 5, 9Semantics (I)学重点1.The naming theory2.The conceptualist view3.Contextualism4.Behaviourism教学难点Views concerning the study of meaning思考题：What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? Semantics (II)教学重点Sense vs. Reference Synonymy vs Antonymy教学难点1.Lexical MeaningSense and reference2.Different types of synonyms3.Different types of antonyms and their characteristicsHow can words opposite in meaning be classified? What are the characteristics of each category of antonyms?Semantics (III)教学重点1. Sense relations between sentences2. Componential analysis3. Predication analysis教学难点1. Componential analysis2. Predication analysis思考题：1. What are the major sense relations between sentences? How can we judge these sense relations?2. What is componential analysis? What is the advantage of componential analysis?3. How do you understand predication analysis?Pragmatics (I)教学重点1.Pragmatics vs. Semantics2.Context3.Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning4.Speech Act Theory教学难点Locutionary act; illocutionary act; perlocutionary act; classification of illocutionary act思考题：1. How is Pragmatics different from Semantics?2. How do you understand the differences between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?3. How do you understand locutionary act，illocutionary act and perlocutionary act?4. How does Searle classify the illocutionary act? What is the illocutionary point of each type?Pragmatics (II) The theory of conversational implicature教学重点会话含义理论准则的违反及特殊会话含义的产生教学难点特殊会话含义笔头作业：1. How do you understand the cooperative principle?2.How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicature? Pragmatics (III) Politness Principle教学重点Politeness Principle教学难点The maxims to realize the politenessThe weakpoints of Leech’s pliteness principle思考题：1.Why do we need politeness principle to supplement Cooperative Principle?2. What are the weakpoints of Leech’s Politeness principle?Language Change教学重点1.Nature of language change2.Changes in the English language3.Causes of language change教学难点1.Causes of language change2.Historical development of English1. What are the major periods in the history of English and what are the characteristics of English in each period?2. Think of the examples to show how English has changed in phonetic, morphological, syntactic and semantic systems.● 笔头作业：What are the causes of linguistic changes?Language and Society (I)教学重点The relatedness between language and society Social variation教学难点The relatedness between language and society笔头作业:Discuss with examples the relatedness between language and society Language and Society (II)教学重点语域、标准语言与非标准语言、双言与双语教学难点语域思考题：l. What is register? How does it affect our choices of linguistic forms?2. What are the differences between diglossia and bilingualism?3. How do social factors influence the use of language?Second Language Acquisition I教学重点Learning vs acquisition；roles of linguistic input, classroom instructions, reinforcement and imitation in the process of first language acquisition；教学难点the influence of linguistic input, classroom instructions, reinforcement and imitation on first language acquisition思考题：l. How is acquisition different from learning according to Krachen?2. How does the linguistic input and classroom instruction affect language acquisition?Second Language Acquisition II教学重点1. Influence of input, classroom instructions and learner factors on second language acquisition2. Grading rubrics；Common scales of DWA；Assessment criteria: Basic functions教学难点Influence of learner factors on second language acquisition; assessment criteria思考题：1. What are roles played by the input and classroom instructions in the processof second language acquisition?2. How do learner factors affect second language acquisition?3. What is a grading rubric?4. How many common scoring methods of DWA? What are they?5. What are the basic functions of assessment criteria?Language Testing ：Grading Rubrics & Direct Writing Assessment张红霞副教授Questions for review:1. How to define classroom assessment?2. What’s the relationship between classroom assessment and instruction?3. What does DWA simulate?4. For writing to be effective, what skills and knowledge required (product-based and process-based)?Questions for summary1. What is a grading rubric?2. How many common scoring methods of DWA? What are they?3. What are the basic functions of assessment criteria?。
学科教育(英语)研究生40本必读书目
学科教育（英语）研究生40本必读书目一、语言学及应用语言学（共22本）1.Aronoff, M. et al (eds): The Handbook of Linguistics2.Robins, R. H. General Linguistics (Fourth Edition)3.Saussure, F. D. Course in General Linguistics4.Clark, J. et al. An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology5.Radford, A. Syntax: A Minimalist Introduction6.Lyons, J. Linguistic Semantics: an Introduction7.Saeed, J. I. Semantics8.Mathews, P. H. Morphology (Second Edition)9.Levinson, S.C. Pragmatics10.Gee, J. P. an Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method11.Searle, J. R. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language12.Ungerer, F. et al An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学入门13.Halliday, M. A. K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar (SecondEdition)功能语法导论14.Biber, D et al Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学15.First Language Acquisition第一语言习得16.Cook, V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (SecondEdition)第二语言学习与教学17.James, C. Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring ErrorAnalysis语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨rsen-Freeman, D. et al An Introduction to Second LanguageAcquisition Research第二语言习得研究概况19.Nunan, D. Second Language Teaching and Learning第二语言教与学20.Reid, J. M. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom ESL/EFL英语课堂上的学习风格21.Alderson, J. C. et al Language Test Construction and Evaluation语言测试的设计与评估22.Yalden, J. Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching语言教学课程设计原理二、翻译（共10本）1.Nida, E.A. Toward a Science of Translating. Leaden: E.J. Brill. 19642.Nida, E.A.&Taber,C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leaden:E.J. Brill. 19693.Newmark Peter, Approaches to Translation, Oxford: Pergamon, 上海外语教育出版社，19824.Gentzler, Edwin, Contemporary Translation Theories, 上海：上海外语教育出版社，20065.Gile, D. Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and TranslatorTraining, Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 19956.Franz, Pochhacker, Introducing Interpreting Studies, London and NewYork: Routledge, 20047.谭载喜，《西方翻译简史》，北京：商务印书馆，19918.陈福康，《中国译学理论史稿》，上海外语教育出版社，20009.刘宓庆，《当代翻译理论》，中国对外翻译出版公司，199910.连淑能，《英汉对比研究》，高等教育出版社，1993三、文学文化（共8本）1.朱刚，《二十世纪西方文艺批评理论》（英文版），上海外语教育出版社，20012.左金梅，《当代西方文论》（Modern Western Literary Theory and Criticism）（第二版）（英文版）中国海洋大学出版社，20113.孙有中，《西方思想经典导读》（英文版），外语教学研究,20084.马新国主编，《西方文论史》（中文版）（修订版），高等教育出版社，20035.王宪生，《西方文化》（Western Culture）,（英文版）河南人民出版社，20106.陆道夫，《西方文化英文选读》，（英文版）暨南大学出版社, 20087.张中载，《西方古典文论选读》（英文版），外语教学与研究，20068.王立等，《生态美学视野中的中外文学作品》，人民文学出版社，2007附1：主要专业学术期刊(国内)1、Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology2、Modern Language Journal3、Language Learning and Communication4、European Journal of Teacher Education5、Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development6、外语教学与研究7、外国语8、现代外语9、外语界10、外语与外语教学11、外语教学12、解放军外语学院学报13、外语研究14、中国翻译15、中国外语15、上海翻译16、中国科技翻译17、外语学刊18. 外国语文（原：四川外语学院学报）19. 天津外国语大学学报20. 外国语言文学（原：福建外语）21. 山东外语教学附2：主要专业学术期刊（国际）SSCI Journals --- Language, Linguistics and TESOL1. ACROSS LANGUAGES AND CULTURES Semiannual ISSN: 1585-1923AKADEMIAI KIADO RT, PRIELLE K U 19, PO BOX 245,, BUDAPEST,HUNGARY, H-11171. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index2. BILINGUALISM-LANGUAGE AND COGNITION Tri-annual ISSN:1366-7289CAMBRIDGE UNIV PRESS, 32 AVENUE OF THE AMERICAS, NEW YORK, USA, NY, 10013-24731. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences3. CANADIAN MODERN LANGUAGE REVIEW-REVUE CANADIENNE DES LANGUES VIVANTES Quarterly ISSN: 0008-4506CANADIAN MODERN LANGUAGE REV, UNIV TORONTO PRESS,JOURNALS DIVISION, 5201 DUFFERIN ST,, N YORK, CANADA,ONTARIO, M3H 5T8Social Sciences Citation Index4. FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS Quarterly ISSN: 0015-718XWILEY-BLACKWELL PUBLISHING, INC, COMMERCE PLACE, 350 MAIN ST, MALDEN, USA, MA, 021481. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences5. JOURNAL OF FRENCH LANGUAGE STUDIES Tri-annual ISSN: 0959-2695CAMBRIDGE UNIV PRESS, EDINBURGH BLDG, SHAFTESBURY RD,CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND, CB2 8RU1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index6. JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE IDENTITY AND EDUCATION Quarterly ISSN: 1534-8458ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 4 PARK SQUARE,MILTON PARK, ABINGDON, ENGLAND, OXFORDSHIRE, OX14 4RN1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index7. JOURNAL OF PIDGIN AND CREOLE LANGUAGES Semiannual ISSN: 0920-9034JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING COMPANY, PO BOX 36224,AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS, 1020 ME1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences4. Current Contents - Arts & Humanities8. LANGUAGE Quarterly ISSN: 0097-8507LINGUISTIC SOC AMER, 1325 18TH ST NW, SUITE 211, WASHINGTON, USA, DC, 20036-65011. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences4.Current Contents - Arts & Humanities9. LANGUAGE & COMMUNICATION Quarterly ISSN: 0271-5309PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD, THE BOULEVARD, LANGFORDLANE, KIDLINGTON, OXFORD, ENGLAND, OX5 1GB1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences10. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Quarterly ISSN: 1048-9223PSYCHOLOGY PRESS, 27 CHURCH RD, HOVE, ENGLAND, EAST SUSSEX, BN3 2FA1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index11. LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE PROCESSES Bimonthly ISSN: 0169-0965PSYCHOLOGY PRESS, 27 CHURCH RD, HOVE, ENGLAND, EAST SUSSEX, BN3 2FA1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences3. BIOSIS Previews12. LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Quarterly ISSN: 1470-8477ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 4 PARK SQUARE,MILTON PARK, ABINGDON, ENGLAND, OXFORDSHIRE, OX14 4RN1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index13. LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Quarterly ISSN: 1606-822XINST LINGUISTICS ACAD SINICA, NO 130, SEC 2, ACADEMIA RD,NANKANG, TAIPEI, TAIWAN, 115291. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index3. Current Contents - Arts & Humanities14. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Quarterly ISSN: 0963-9470SAGE PUBLICATIONS LTD, 1 OLIVERS YARD, 55 CITY ROAD, LONDON, ENGLAND, EC1Y 1SP1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index15. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH Quarterly ISSN: 0023-8309KINGSTON PRESS SERVICES LTD, 43, DERWENT RD, WHITTONTWICKENHAM, MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND, TW2 7HQ1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences16. LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT QUARTERLY Quarterly ISSN: 1543-4303ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 4 PARK SQUARE, MILTON PARK, ABINGDON, ENGLAND, OXFORDSHIRE, OX14 4RN1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences4. Current Contents - Arts & Humanities17. LANGUAGE AWARENESS Quarterly ISSN: 0965-8416ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 4 PARK SQUARE, MILTON PARK, ABINGDON, ENGLAND, OXFORDSHIRE, OX14 4RN1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index18. LANGUAGE CULTURE AND CURRICULUM Tri-annual ISSN: 0790-8318ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 4 PARK SQUARE, MILTON PARK, ABINGDON, ENGLAND, OXFORDSHIRE, OX14 4RN1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index19. LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY Bimonthly ISSN: 0047-4045CAMBRIDGE UNIV PRESS, 32 AVENUE OF THE AMERICAS, NEW YORK, USA, NY, 10013-24731. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences20. LANGUAGE LEARNING Quarterly ISSN: 0023-8333WILEY-BLACKWELL PUBLISHING, INC, COMMERCE PLACE, 350 MAIN ST, MALDEN, USA, MA, 021481. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences21. LANGUAGE LEARNING & TECHNOLOGY Tri-annual ISSN: 1094-3501UNIV HAWAII, NATL FOREIGN LANGUAGE RESOURCE CENTER, 1859 EAST WEST RD, 106, HONOLULU, USA, HI, 968221. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences22. LANGUAGE MATTERS Semiannual ISSN: 1022-8195ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 4 PARK SQUARE,MILTON PARK, ABINGDON, ENGLAND, OXFORDSHIRE, OX14 4RN1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index23. LANGUAGE PROBLEMS & LANGUAGE PLANNING Tri-annual ISSN: 0272-2690JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING COMPANY, PO BOX 36224,AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS, 1020 ME1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index24. LANGUAGE SCIENCES Bimonthly ISSN: 0388-0001ELSEVIER SCI LTD, THE BOULEVARD, LANGFORD LANE, KIDLINGTON, OXFORD, ENGLAND, OXON, OX5 1GB1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences4. Current Contents - Arts & Humanities25. LANGUAGE TEACHING Quarterly ISSN: 0261-4448CAMBRIDGE UNIV PRESS, EDINBURGH BLDG, SHAFTESBURY RD,CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND, CB2 8RU1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index26. LANGUAGE TEACHING RESEARCH Quarterly ISSN: 1362-1688SAGE PUBLICATIONS LTD, 1 OLIVERS YARD, 55 CITY ROAD, LONDON, ENGLAND, EC1Y 1SP1. Social Sciences Citation Index27. LANGUAGE TESTING Quarterly ISSN: 0265-5322SAGE PUBLICATIONS LTD, 1 OLIVERS YARD, 55 CITY ROAD, LONDON, ENGLAND, EC1Y 1SP1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index28. COGNITION Monthly ISSN: 0010-0277ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV, PO BOX 211, AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS,1000 AE1. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences3. BIOSIS Previews29. COGNITION AND INSTRUCTION Quarterly ISSN: 0737-0008LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOC INC-TAYLOR & FRANCIS, 325CHESTNUT STREET, STE 800, PHILADELPHIA, USA, PA, 191061. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences30. COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL PRACTICE Semiannual ISSN: 1077-7229ELSEVIER SCIENCE INC, 360 PARK AVE SOUTH, NEW YORK, USA, NY, 10010-17101. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences31. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Quarterly ISSN: 0885-2014ELSEVIER SCIENCE INC, 360 PARK AVE SOUTH, NEW YORK, USA, NY, 10010-17101. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences32. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS Quarterly ISSN: 0936-5907MOUTON DE GRUYTER, GENTHINER STRASSE 13, BERLIN, GERMANY, 107851. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences4. Current Contents - Arts & Humanities33. COGNITIVE PROCESSING Quarterly ISSN: 1612-4782SPRINGER HEIDELBERG, TIERGARTENSTRASSE 17, HEIDELBERG,GERMANY, D-691211. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences34. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Quarterly ISSN: 0010-0285ACADEMIC PRESS INC ELSEVIER SCIENCE, 525 B ST, STE 1900, SANDIEGO, USA, CA, 92101-44951. Science Citation Index Expanded2. Social Sciences Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences35. COGNITIVE SYSTEMS RESEARCH Quarterly ISSN: 1389-0417ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV, PO BOX 211, AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS,1000 AE1. Science Citation Index Expanded2. Social Sciences Citation Index3. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences4. Current Contents - Engineering, Computing & Technology 36. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH Bimonthly ISSN: 0147-5916SPRINGER/PLENUM PUBLISHERS, 233 SPRING ST, NEW YORK, USA, NY, 100131. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences3. BIOSIS Previews37. TESOL QUARTERLY Quarterly ISSN: 0039-8322TESOL, 700 SOUTH WASHINGTON ST, STE 200, ALEXANDRIA, USA, VA, 22314Social Sciences Citation Index38. ANNUAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS Annual ISSN: 0267-1905CAMBRIDGE UNIV PRESS, 32 AVENUE OF THE AMERICAS, NEW YORK, USA, NY, 10013-24731. Social Sciences Citation Index2. Arts & Humanities Citation Index。
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Linguistics精品PPT课件
applied in social situations in different cultures (sociolinguistics).
• Students are expected to attend lectures faithfully. There will be home assignments, a midterm paper, and a final examination.
---“It’s cold in here.”
• Why and how do people use language in different ways?
• How do people comprehend, produce and acquire language?
• How do we use the knowledge to facilitate our English learning?
• the properties of human language that make it unique; • the properties of speech sounds (phonetics), • the systematic sound patterns of language (phonology), • the grammatical structure of words (morphology), • the structure of sentences (syntax), • thห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ meaning and use of words and sentences
《英语语言学概论》-课程教学大纲
《语言学概论（英）》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码：16083302课程名称：语言学概论（英）英文名称：Introduction to Linguistics For Students of English课程类别：专业课学时：32学时学分：2学分适用对象: 英语专业考核方式：考查先修课程：专业技能课二、课程简介《语言学概论（英）》课程是英语专业必修课程，为英语语言文学各专业本科生提供语言学的基础理论知识。
本课程介绍现代语言学一个世纪以来语言研究各个领域所取得的重要成果，包括语言学的重要区分、语言的定义、特征和功能，重点介绍结构主义语言学、生成语法理论对语言的三个层面即音系、语法和语义的描述，即语言学的核心分支音系学、形态学、句法、语义学和语用学的基本概念和理论以及分析方法。
同时，会用马克思主义的语言观来评价语言学家的研究路径。
通过本课程的学习，学生应掌握语言学基本概念、理论知识和分析方法，并能运用所学理论和方法分析和解释语言现象。
Introduction to Linguistics for Students of English is a compulsory course, providing the students of English majors with some basic theories and specialized knowledge in linguistics. The course, starting from Saussure’s language views, introduces the important research achievements in the scope of linguistics, important distinctions in linguistics, definition of language, design features of language and functions of language. The important points of this course lie in the description of sound system, structure system and meaning system, namely, the core branches of linguistics: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics from perspectives of structuralism, generative grammar. Meanwhile, Marxist language view will be used to evaluate some linguistic theories and approaches. After the study of the course, the students will learn the basic concepts and theories in linguistics and methods for linguistic researches. They are expected to be able to apply the linguistic concepts and theories to analyze and explain language phenomena.三、课程性质与教学目的《语言学概论（英）》课程是为英语专业本科生开设的英语专业必修课之一。
Chapter1Introduction练习题
Chapter1Introduction练习题Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION考研真题与典型题详解1.1 What is linguistics?I.Fill in the blanks.1.Linguistics is usually defined as the _______ study of language. (北二外2003研)2.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called _______.3.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called________.4.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called________.(北二外2003、2004、2008研)5.In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of rules governing the way words are combined toform sentences in a language, or simply , the study of the formation as sentence.(中山2008)6.Semantics and ________ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研)7.________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand,attempts to show the relationship between language and society.8.Modern linguistics is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what languageis rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.9.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.10.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.11.One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the Frenchword for “language”, which is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, reading and writing. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech and writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.12.Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena ordata of linguistics (utterances) as _______ and ________.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.(人大2006研) 13.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ________ and performances. (北二外2007研) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?_________.(大连外2008研)A. MacrolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Sociolinguistics2.The study of language at one point in time is a ________ study. (北二外2010研)A. historicalB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronicIII.True or false.1.Applied linguistics is the application of the linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.2.Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us howto speak correct language.3.Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.4.By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language./doc/479964943.html,ngue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints./doc/479964943.html,petence and performance refer respectively to a language us er’s underlying knowledgeabout the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.IV.Explain the following terms.1.Descriptive linguistics2. Diachronic linguistics3. CompetenceV.Short answer questions.1.Point out three major differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.VI.Essay questions1.Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward theconcept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon he differences and similarities, if any, of two pairs: langue andparole vs. competence and performance. (北京交大2007研)1.2 What is language?I.Fill in the blanks.1.The features that define our human languages can be called ________features.(北二外2006) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design features?(大连外2008研)A. ArbitrarinessB. ConventionC. Duality2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?(西安交大2008研)A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang3.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrierscaused by time and space, due to this feature of language, speakers are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness4.“A person can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of _______.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement5.The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performativeIII.True or false./doc/479964943.html,nguage is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used bythe deaf-mute is not language.2.The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATRES. (大外2008)3.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languagemakes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign learner, the latter is more important for us.4.Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.(清华2000研)5.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language hastwo levels of structures: the system of sounds and the systems of meanings.IV.Explain the following terms.1. Arbitrariness(川大2006研)2.Duality(北二外、南开2010研)3. Displacement(清华、南开2010) V.Short answer questions.1.What makes language unique to human beings? (北航2010研)VI.Essay questions1.Displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission and duality are sometimeslisted as the 5 core features of human language. Choose 3 out of 5 and explain with examples what they mean. (北外2002研)。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(选择题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（四）（选择题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal sysmbols used for human _____.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Language is _______.A. instinctiveB. non-instincitveC. staticD. genetically transmitted3. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang4. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ____.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative5. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play accoridng to the functiona of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. Emotive.B. Phatic.C. Performative.D. Interpersonal.6. Which branch of lingusitcs studies the similarities and differences among languages?A. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. comparative linguistics.7. _____ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. _____ deals with language application to other fields, particualrly educaiton.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsChapter 2 Phonology1.Pitch variation is known as ______ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a _____ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ____.A. gottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula4. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the centerare known as ____ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering5. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called ____.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones6. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phonetics.B. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phonetics.D. Neither of them.7. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?A. [z]B. [w]C. [θ]D. [v]8. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]Chapter 3 Morphology1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _______ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are _____ morphemes in the word denationalizaiton.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation5. ______ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition6. The word TB is formed in the way of _______.A. acronymyB. clipppingC. initialismD. blending7. The words like cosmat and sitcom are formed by ______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy8. The stem of disagreements is _____.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreementChapter 4 Syntax1.The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome2. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves” isa _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex.3. _____ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.A. MorphologyB. syntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics4. ________ does not belong to major syntactic categories.A. Auxiliary 助动词B. NPC. ND. PP5. The term __ is used in a narrow sense to conclude only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other.A. pronominalB. anaphorC. re-expressionD. binding6. In Halliday’s view, the _________ funciton of language is realized as the transitivity system in clauses as a representation of experience.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. social7. The criterion used in IC analysis is ___________.A. transformationB. conjoiningC. groupingD. substitutability8. __________ is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.A. ConcordB. GovernmentC. BindingD. C-commandChapter 5 Semantics1. Cold and hot are a pair of _____ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converseness2. Idioms are _____.A. sentencesB. naming unitsC. phrasesD. communication units3. “John hit Peter” and “Peter was hit by John” are the same _______.A. propositionB. sentenceC. utteranceD. truth4. Bull: [BOVINE] [MALE] [ADULT] is an example of ______.A. componential analysisB. predication analysisC. compositionalityD. selection restriction5.When the truth of sentence (a) guarantees the truth of sentence (b), and the falsity of sentnece (b) guarantees the falsity of sentnece (a), we can say that _____.A.sentence (a) presupposes sentence (b)B. sentence (a) entails sentence (b)C. sentence (a) is inconsistent with sentence (b)D. sentence (a) contradicts sentence (b)6. “Socrates is a man” is a case of ________.A. two-place predicateB. one-place predicateC. two-place argumentD. one-place argument7. “John killed Bill but bill didn’t die” is a(n) _____.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction8.. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysymy or __ which can not be determined by the context.A. homonymyB. antonymyC. meronymyD. synonymyChapter 6 Pragmatics1._________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics2. ___________ found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperative principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones3. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ______.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics4. ________ proposed that speech act can fall into five general categories.A. AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky5. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the ____.A. declarationsB. directivesC. commissivesD. expressives6. Speech Act Theory was proposed by _____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. AustinC. ChomskyD. Grimm7. The maxim of quantity requires ________.A. contribute as informative as requiredB. do not contribute more than is requiredC. do not say what has little evidenceD. both A and B8. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called _______.A. commissivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declarativesChapter 8 Language and society1. In sociolinguistics, ____ refers to a group of institutionalized social situations typically constrained by a common set of behavioral rules.A. domainB. situationC. societyD. community2. _____ is defined as any regionally or socially defined human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country3. _____ variation of language is th emost discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocietyC. StylisticD. Idiolectal4. ________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communicaiton.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language5. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in ____ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending6. _______ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal7. Probably the most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is ____.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English8. ______ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual to formal according to the type of communicative content.A. Regional variationB. Social variationC. Stylistic variationD. Idiolectal variationChapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1. Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as ________.A. interferenceB. interlanguageC. fossilizationD. acculturation2. Intelligibility means that any human being can be both a producer and a ________ of messages.A. senderB. receiverC. mediumD. none of above3. ________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition4. _______ are devised to reveal what a learner knows: the rules he is using and the systems and categories he is working with.A. experimentsB. quasi-experimentsC. testsD. tasks5. ________ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of L1 habits over which the learner had no control.A. error analysisB. performance analysisC. contrstive analysisD. discourse analysis6. ________ is the language used when speakers are communicationg spontaneously and freely and consequently not atteding to the forms they choose.A. careful styleB. vernacular styleC. cognitive styleD. style continnum7. The characteristic of languistic environment for L2 acquisition is that linguistic adjustments and ______ have been made to non-native speakers.A. noisy utterancesB. caretaker speechesC. ill-formed structuresD. conversational adjustments8. ________ theories of learning of learning hold that an organism’s nuture, or experience, is of more importance to development than its nature, or innate contributions.A. EnvironmentalistB. NativistC. InteractionalD. MentalistChapter 12 Language and Brain1.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. When we speak, words are sent to _______, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.A. Broca’s areaB. Wernicke’s areaC. the angualr gyrusD. motor area3. When we listen, the word is heard and comprehend via ______ area.A. Broca’sB. motorC. neuronsD. wernicke’s4. ___________ is the mental functions under the control of the right hemisphere.A. Language and speechB. CalculationC. Holistic reasoningD. Associative thought5. Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is known as the _______.A. brain lateralizaitonB. linguistic lateralizationC. right ear advantageD. cerebral plasticity6. At the age of four, children ____________.A. can master the essentials of their mother tongueB. can only babble several soundsC. can name the things around them onlyD. Can write out the grammatical rules of their language7. ________ refers to the gradual and suconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. LearningB. CompetenceC. PerformanceD. Acquisition8. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to formgrammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its usersto record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born withthe ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Thedifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English theprefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tonesare pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of aconjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals)PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements ofa verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure andthe surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation,use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in。
语言学简明教程Chapter 1
Functional linguistics England, Halliday
T-G Grammar American, Chomsky
11
1.2 What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. system---elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will. arbitrary---there is no intrinsic(logic) connection between a sign and its meaning. vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.
8
3. Other Classifications of Linguistics
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
Functional linguistics (功能语言学） Structural linguistics （结构语言学） Chomskyan linguistics （乔姆斯基语言学） Hallidayan linguistics（韩礼德语言学） ……
13
Time for Break
14
1.3 Properties of language 语言的结构特征 (Design features)
1) 2) 3) 4)
Arbitrariness（任意性） Duality（双重性） Productivity （创造性） Cultural transmission （文化传递性）
Linguistics 语言学
语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。
ONE1.2ThescopeofLinguistics
ONE1.2ThescopeofLinguistics第一篇：ONE 1.2 The scope of Linguistics1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.(1)What first drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.This study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called Phonetics.(2)As linguists became interested in how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication, they developed another branch of study related to sounds called Phonology.(3)While sounds are primary in linguistic communication, they are represented by certain symbols, the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.(4)The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies----syntax.(5)The ultimate objective of language is not just to create grammatically well-formed sentences, but to convey meaning.So the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as Semantics.(6)When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.Psycholinguisticsrelates the study of language to psychology.It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquireour mother tongue, how we memorize, and how we process the information we receive in the course of communication.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.。
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Arbitrariness ---任意性，最先由
Saussure提出，语言学之父。 Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.
Duality（二重性） 语言是层级性的，主要是由
syllables morphemes word phrase sentence discourse这么个系统组成的。 (浙大）问答题：Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of human lg.
讲义一 Introduction to Linguistics
Grace Tan
T/F
1.The relation between form and meaning in human
language is natural. 2.When lg is used to get information from others , it serves an informative function. 3.The reason for French to use Cheval and English to use horse to refer to the same animal is inexplicable. 4.Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation. 5.Halliday′s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and performance. 6.Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how lgs work, not with how they can be improved.
Which of the following is the most
important function of lg? A.interpersonal function B.performative function rmative function D.receatioanal function (武大2003）Evocative function (of lg) (浙大2003）Explain the functions of lg and give one example for each function.
(北外）Define general linguistics and describe
its main branches.
Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of lg. General linguistics is the study of lg as a whole. This includes the basic concepts, theories, descriptions , models and methods in the analysis of lg. It is used in contrast with branches of study which apply linguistics to the research of other areas, such as sociolinguistics and stylistic linguistics. Major branches of GL include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, etc.(阐述他们的
Term Distinctions
Prescriptive & Descriptive Synchronic & Diachronic Langue & Parole
Competence & Performance
The distinction between langue and
(浙大） The function of the sentence
“Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ___. A.interrogative B.directive rmative D.performative
(北外2002)Displacement,
Definition of Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study
of language. 语言学研究的是总体层面上的语言， 并非那种特定的语言，语言学描述所 用语言共性的东西，比如说发音，语 法结构，意义等。 语言学是对语言科学动态的研究，随 着时间的推移产生变化。
定义）
What is language?（大连外）
Language is a sຫໍສະໝຸດ stem of arbitrary
vocal symbols used for human communication. 蜜蜂可以用舞姿交流，黑猩猩可以学会 部分人类的语言，这属于语言吗？ (中大）Comment on the following statement: In linguistics, lg only means what a person says or said in a given situation.
Creativity ---创造性 是指由于语言的二重性和递归性，语言
使用者可以随意创造出无限量的句子。 （武大，湖南师大问答题）Is lg productive or not? Why?
Displacement---移位性 可以用语言表达很多不在场的东西。 Unlike animal communication
informative （信息功能） interpersonal function （人际功能） Performative (施为功能，概念来自于Austin & Searle 的言语行为理论speech act theory)。 Emotive function（感情功能） Phatic communion （交互性功能：如礼节性的交 谈ritual exchanges, 俚语slangs, jokes, 行话 jargons等。通常是用来填充谈话内容空缺的情况， 如英国人谈论天气。该术语来源于人类语言学家 Malinowski马林诺夫斯基。） Recreational function （娱乐性功能，a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting） Metalingual function （元语言功能，用语言来谈论 语言)
arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, discreteness and duality are sometimes listed as the 6 core features of human lg. Choose 3 out of 6 and explain with examples what they mean.
Introduction
Definition of linguistics Features of language Functions of language Some important distinctions in Linguistics Main branches of linguistics Applied Linguistics
Features of Language
Arbitrariness---任意性 Duality ---二重性 Creativity---创造性 Displacement ---移位性 Cultural transmission---文化
传递性 Interchangeability---相互性
1.Lg is a ___ of arbitrary vocal symbols used
for human communication. 2. The design features of lg are (1)_, (2)_, (3)_, (4)_, (5)_,and (6)_.(大连外2000-2002考题） 3.By saying lg is arbitrary, we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and __. 4.In Saussure′s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is __. System Sounds arbitrary
The four principles in the linguistic
study are _,_,_,_. Exhaustive, consistency, economy, objectivity. The writing system of English is known as the sound writing system while that of Japanese as___. Syllabic writing system
(武大）Explain speech and writing,
and cite TWO or more examples. (浙大） What are the four principles for the scientific study of lg? (浙大，东大， 厦大）Point out 3 ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.