mech_eng_re
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Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws经济法学Science of Economic Law环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、)International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学Science of Military Law政治学Political Science政治学理论Political Theory中外政治制度Chinese and Foreign Political Institution科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动Scientific Socialism and International Communist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设)History of the Communist Party of China(including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics国际政治学International Politics国际关系学International Relations外交学Diplomacy社会学Sociology社会学Sociology人口学Demography人类学Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学)Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature) 民族学Ethnology民族学Ethnology马克思主义民族理论与政策Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy中国少数民族经济Chinese Ethnic Economics 中国少数民族史Chinese Ethnic 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Adaptive Trajectory Tracking Control of Skid-Steered Mobile Robots
1-4244-0602-1/07/$20.00 ©2007 IEEE.
2605
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I. I NTRODUCTION Skid-steered mobile robots have been widely used in many applications, such as terrain navigation and exploration, waste management, defense, security, and household services. Figure 1 shows an example of a skid-steered four-wheel mobile robot. The absence of a steering system for a skidsteered mobile robot (vehicle) makes the robot mechanically robust and simple for terrain or outdoor environment navigation. Due to the varying tire/ground interactions and overconstrained contact, it is quite challenging to obtain accurate dynamic models and tracking control systems for such mobile robots. Although there is a great deal of research on dynamic modeling and tracking control of differential-driven mobile robots that are under the nonholonomic constraint of zero lateral velocity, such as unicycles or car-like robots (readers can refer to [1] and references therein), the counterpart research on skid-steered mobile robots is less frequently reported. Because of the similarity between skid-steering of tracked and wheeled vehicles, the method of modeling the track/ground interaction for tracked vehicles can be utilized for skid-steered wheeled robots. Song et al. [2] use the tracked vehicle models discussed in [3]. In [4], localization of a tracked vehicle based on kinematic models is presented. For skid-steered modeling of tracked vehicles, readers can refer to [5]–[7] for details. Because of the difficulty in accurately capturing skid-steering, Anousaki and Kyriakopoulos [8] propose an experimental study to model the kinematic re-
2008_paperB_elec-mech_ex-rep_en
Examiners’ Report - Paper B 2008 (Electricity/Mechanics)1. General considerationsThis year’s paper relates to a data input device for a computer, such as a joystick ora graphics tablet.There are two cited pieces of prior art, D1 and D2.D1 describes a conventional potentiometer (Fig. 1) as background information,herein referred to as D1/1, and a joystick (Fig. 2) herein referred to as D1/2, which works on the same principle as the potentiometer of D1/1. The joystick of D1/2determines the position of an actuator.D2 discloses a data input device for a computer in the form of a panel (Figs. 1a, 1b,2). The panel can be used for inputting data, such as an answer to a computerbased questionnaire or a drink selection for a vending machine. The device of D2identifies which area of the panel is being pushed (e.g. by a finger or blunt stickactuator).The application cites the prior art D1/2 (par. [004]) and identifies two accuracyproblems with the joystick of D1/2 (par. [005]).It was expected to amend claim 1 to overcome the objections made in theexaminer’s communication, whilst at the same time respecting the applicant’swishes to avoid an anticipated “work around” (see applicant’s letter, secondparagraph).It was also expected to amend the dependent claims appropriately whilst respecting the wishes of the applicant to develop features of the second embodiment (see inparticular applicant’s letter, third par).Lastly it was expected to provide a letter of reply to the European Patent Officesetting out arguments in support of the claims. It is noted that a letter to theapplicant is not expected in paper B.2. Claims (50 marks)An example set of amended claims is annexed to this report.2.1Independent Device Claim (35 marks)In this year's paper, a single independent device claim was expected.2.1.1 Example solutionThe following claim is an example of a good independent claim. The underlinedportions are the amendments to the original claim 1, references in square brackets […] are to the basis of these amendments in the original application:Data input device for a computer (1, 11, 21) comprising:- a support (2, 12, 22);- a resistive layer (6, 16, 26) which is arranged on the support (2, 12, 22) and which is connectable to a voltage supply;- a movable actuator (4, 14, 24) comprising a conductive element (8, 18, 28) at one of its ends [description, par. 12, 17 and 18] for picking voltages off the resistivelayer (6, 16, 26); and- a processing unit (92) for converting the voltages into output signals for thecomputer which represent positions of the actuator,characterised in that the device further comprises means for alternatelygenerating a first voltage distribution and a second voltage distribution on theresistive layer, said means being synchronised with the processing unit (92).[original claim 3]The examiner objected to the original independent claim on the grounds of lack ofnovelty with respect to prior art item D1/2. The examiner furthermore objected to the original independent claim on the grounds of lack of novelty with respect todocument D2.The first set of underlined features (comprising a conductive element at one of itsends) establishes novelty over D2. Although document D2 discloses an input device for a computer which comprises a conductive element (208) for picking voltages off the resistive layer (par [010]), the conductive element is in the form of a conductive layer (208) and is not part of the actuator (204).The second set of underlined features (means for alternately generating a firstvoltage distribution and a second voltage distribution on the resistive layer, saidmeans being synchronised with the processing unit) establishes novelty over D1/2.The joystick of D1/2 is based on the principle of operation of the potentiometer ofD1/1 (par. [004]), and therefore it is implicit that, as in D1/1 (par. [002]), constantvoltages (-V, +V) are applied to the ends of the resistive layer (spiral formedcontinuous band) of the joystick of D1/2 (par. [005]). Consequently a single,constant voltage distribution is established along the band.2.1.2 Inferior SolutionsInferior solutions are considered to be those solutions which do not have all theelements of the example solution, are new and could be argued to be inventive, but which are less favourable for the applicant than the example solution since theyoffer a more limited scope of protection than the example solution and/or go against the applicant’s wishes.For example, a claim based on original claims 1 and 2 with an actuator comprisinga conductive element at one of its ends is new and it could be argued that itssubject-matter involves an inventive step. However since it is limited to a resistive layer which covers the entire support, it contradicts the applicant’s wish (applicant’s letter, second paragraph) to avoid the anticipated “work around” of a data inputdevice having a plurality of discrete resistive layers arranged side by side on asupport. A maximum of 17 marks was available for such a claim.The combination of original claims 1, 3, 4 and 5 (limited to the switching timeperiods t1, t2 each being 0.01 seconds) is new and it could be argued that itssubject-matter involves an inventive step, but the scope of protection achieved isvery narrow. A maximum of 17 marks was available for such a claim.2.1.3 Unnecessary LimitationsClaims having unnecessary limitations are considered to be those claims whichhave all the elements of the example solution, but which are further limited byadditional features.Answer papers having a single independent device claim that excluded at least one embodiment of the invention were considered to have severe unnecessarylimitations. Such claims lost 17 marks. Examples are the combination of originalclaims 1 and 3, limited to a joystick.Minor unnecessary limitations lost 3 marks per feature. For example:Claim 1 of the example solution, with the addition of any of the following :-the contact pairs;- the switch;-the resistive layer being coated or glued.2.1.4 Amendments not supported by the application as originally filedGenerally it is noted that some answer papers included terminology which was not found in the application as originally filed. This risked contravening Art. 123(2) EPC.2.1.4.1 Art. 123(2), (3) Trap amendments.Amendments which would not be recoverable in post grant proceedings, becausethe removal of a feature not originally disclosed would extend the scope ofprotection conferred, lost 20 marks.This year an example of such a trap amendment was an independent claim based on original claim 1 and characterised by comprising "a plurality of discrete resistive layers" (with or without the feature "arranged side by side"). There is no basis forthis feature in the original application, it is only mentioned as an anticipated “workaround” in the applicant’s letter, and therefore the feature contravenes Art. 123(2)EPC. Removing the feature in later opposition proceedings would not be possible since the amendment would extend the scope of protection conferred by the claim, Art. 123(3) EPC, so inevitably the patent would be revoked.2.1.4.2 Art. 123(2) non-trap amendments.Amendments which added subject matter and so contravene Art.123(2) EPC, butwhich would be recoverable in post-grant proceedings (non-trap), lost 8 marks per feature.This year, many answer papers included generalisations of sets of features whichwere always associated in the original application, by omitting at least one of these associated features. The following examples were considered to contravene Art.123(2) EPC (non-trap):- A claim defining an actuator comprising a conductive element (but not definingthat the element is located at one of the ends (or at an end) of the actuator)(-8 marks).- A claim according to the example solution except that the means for alternatelygenerating a first voltage distribution and a second voltage distribution are notdefined as being synchronised with the processing unit(-8 marks).- A claim including the features of original claim 4 but not including the features oforiginal claim 3 (-8 marks).However, the following examples are not considered to contravene Art. 123(2) EPC: - The feature of an actuator comprising a conductive element located “at an end” or “at one end”. (The description discloses “at one of its ends” but the “further” endwhich is implied by the use of plural “ends” in the description has no effect on theway the actuator operates and is nowhere described in the application, so it wasconsidered justifiable to dispense with it in the amended claim 1).-U sing the term “coated” rather than “directly coated” in the claim.- An inferior solution having a claim limited to a resistive layer covering the entiresupport (original claim 2) but not including the feature of the layer being continuous, since this is considered to be implicit.- Incorporating only a part of the features of original claim 4 into a new claim (e.g.only the contacts or only the switches) was marked as a minor unnecessarylimitation. It is considered that it can be justified under Art. 123(2) EPC to split thefeatures of original claim 4 since there is no technical association between theswitches and the arrangement of the contacts. However, the resulting claim is still unnecessarily limited.For the above examples, irrespective of whether any marks were deducted for the claims themselves under the section Art. 123(2), answer papers were expected to contain arguments to justify the claim wording in the letter of reply under the section “source of amendments”, see part 3.2 of this report.2.1.5 Claims Lacking ClarityClaims having an ambiguous scope were considered to lack clarity. Up to 20 marks in total were deducted for independent claims lacking clarity.Claims considered to be very unclear lost 20 marks. For example, claiming adesired effect as the characterising feature: “characterised in that the data inputdevice is accurate” (-20 marks).Claims considered to be unclear in a minor way lost 3 marks for each minor clarity issue identified. For example:The claim of the example solution with the addition of the relative expression “very short time period” from par. [016]. (- 3 marks).The claim of the example solution having an actuator comprising a conductiveelement which is additionally specified as being in contact with the resistive layer(- 3 marks).A further group of claims which were considered to be unclear in a minor way werethose claims which attempted to express that the actuator comprises a conductive element in such an ambiguous way that it was not clear whether or not theconductive element was comprised in the actuator:These claims define an actuator and/with/having a conductive element located atone of the ends of the actuator (but do not define that the actuator comprises theconductive element) (- 3 marks).2.1.6 Claims lacking NoveltyAn independent device claim that was considered to lack novelty against any of the available prior art documents lost 20 marks.Examples are:The combinations of the original claims stated in the examiner’s communication as lacking novelty; e.g. with respect to D1: (original claims 1 and 6); (original claims 1 and 6 and 7); and with respect to D2: (original claims 1 and 2); (original claims 1and 3); (original claims 1 and 4); (original claims 1 and 8).The combination of original claims 1 and 3 with the addition of “short time periods”is considered to lack novelty with respect to D2. The time periods t1, t2 disclosed in D2 (0.25 seconds), although longer than the time periods disclosed in theapplication (0.01 seconds) can equally well be considered to be “short”(-20 marks).The combination of original claims 1 and 3 and characterised by the feature:“wherein the output signals can represent positions of the actuator when theactuator is being moved” is considered to be not new with respect to D2. If theactuator of D2 is moved, the output signals obtained also represent the position of the actuator (relative to the selection areas).The combination of original claims 1 and 3 and clock. It is considered that a clock is directly and unambiguously derivable from D2 and therefore implicitly disclosed in D2. D2 discloses equal time periods of 0.25 seconds in the example for the timeperiods given in par. [010]. Furthermore in par. [011] it is disclosed that the switch and the processing unit are synchronised. Since the switching is time dependentand synchronised as claimed in original claim 3, it is considered that a clock ofsome kind must be present in the device disclosed in D2.Claims having features explicitly disclosed in document D2 with the addition of adefinition of a point of contact between the conductive element and the resistivelayer risked lacking novelty with respect to D2.2.1.7 Claims lacking Inventive StepIndependent device claims that were considered to lack inventive step lost17 marks.For example, a claim combining the features of original claims 1 and 3 wherein the claim additionally attempted to define how the resistive layer is attached to thesupport risked lacking inventive step with respect to document D2 and theapplication of general knowledge.2.1.8Formal MattersThis year it was considered appropriate to present the amended independent claim in the two-part form in accordance with Rule 43 EPC. 1 mark was deducted for amissing or incorrect application of the two part form with respect to either prior artitem D1/2 or D2. 1 mark was deducted where reference signs were missing fromthe independent claim.2.2Dependent Claims (15 marks)2.2.1 General remarks15 marks were available for dependent claims. Marks in this section were awardedfor the content of the dependent claims per se and for the logic of the claimstructure. Full marks were only awarded for dependent claims having correct back references to the claims from which they should have depended, and which did not contravene Art.123 EPC. For example a new claim developing the secondembodiment of the application should refer back to a claim to a joystick (originallyclaim 6) and not to the data input device for a computer of claim 1.2.2.2 Original claimsIt was expected to retain any appropriate dependent claims from the originally filed claims (for the example solution these are original claims 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).2.2.3 Second embodiment of the joystickIn this year’s paper, in the applicant’s letter it is requested to develop dependentclaims for the second embodiment of the joystick. There is a clear basis inparagraph [017] of the application for a new claim dependent on a claim to ajoystick having the following three features in combination: “flat support”, "telescopic actuator" comprising a "spring" which urges the contact element onto the resistive layer. 6 marks in total were available for such a claim.Many answer papers had dependent claims which split up the features “flatsupport”, "telescopic actuator" with a "spring" in two or more dependent claims. In this case it was considered that the requirements of Art.123(2) EPC werecontravened, consequently such dependent claims were awarded a maximum of4 marks in total. For example, there is no basis in the original application for ajoystick having a flat support without the telescopic actuator comprising a spring or for a telescopic actuator without a spring.2.2.4 Meaningful fall back position claimsUp to 3 marks were available for answers having claims which developed newmeaningful fall back positions.For the example solution a claim to a graphics tablet and a claim defining selection zones printed on the resistive layer with conductive ink were considered to beuseful fall back position claims.It is noted that dependent claims which were not considered to provide a usefulfallback position were not awarded marks. For example claiming the ball joint of ajoystick, which is known per se from D1/2.Marks)(503. Argumentation3.1 General RemarksGenerally it was expected to provide well structured, clear and convincingarguments. This year, for the expected solution, arguments were not expected with respect to the item of prior art D1/1, since this was not referred to in the Art. 94(3)communication and was considered to be less relevant than the item of prior artD1/2.Statements which did not relate to specific features of the claim and/or the prior art did not receive any marks. Furthermore merely listing features of a prior artdocument and then stating a conclusion relating to these features without providing any reasoning attracted few or no marks.3.2 Source of Amendments (10 marks)Answer papers were expected to identify the source(s) of amendment for eachclaim. If the passages cited explicitly support an amended claim, merely citing these passages correctly (e.g. by citing the paragraph number) was sufficient to obtain full marks. In all other cases supporting arguments were necessary in order to obtainfull marks.In the example solution, the amendment that the actuator comprised “a conductive element at one of its ends” was based on a separate passage for eachembodiment (par. [012],[017] and [018]). For claims having this feature, a citationfor each of these passages was expected.Where answer papers include a new claim incorporating only part of the features of an original claim (e.g. from original claim 4, only claiming the switch but not thecontacts), or where other features were generalised, then arguments justifying the generalisation/omission of features were expected, e.g. by using the three partessentiality test, Guidelines C VI 5.3.10.3.3 Novelty (4 marks)4 marks were available for argumentation relating to novelty of the independentclaim with respect to documents D1 and D2.It was sufficient to identify a feature of a claim that is clearly not present in aparticular item of prior art in order to prove novelty of the claim with respect to that item.For example: D1 does not disclose means for alternately generating a first voltage distribution and a second voltage distribution on the resistive layer. D2 does notdisclose an actuator which comprises a conductive element at one of its ends forpicking voltages off the resistive layer.3.4 Inventive Step (36 marks)It was appropriate to provide arguments which were structured to follow the problem and solution approach (see Guidelines C-IV 11.7).3.4.1 Identifying the Closest Prior Art(3 marks)1 mark was available for correctly identifying the closest prior art with respect to thesubject matter claimed. 2 marks were available for justifying the choice.For the example solution, D1/2 was considered to be the closest prior art. D1/2 isfunctionally the closest of the available prior art since it concerns a data inputdevice for a computer in which the absolute position of an actuator is determined. In D2, no determination of absolute position is made, the device of D2 merelydistinguishes whether or not the position of an actuator is within a selection area.Therefore D2 is not considered to disclose the closest prior art.3.4.2 Derivation of the Objective Problem (9 marks)Full marks were available for solutions which included all of the following elements a, b and c, but not necessarily in this order:a. The identification of the features that distinguish the claim from the statedclosest prior art (1 mark).b. Discussion of the technical effects or the advantages of the distinguishingfeatures identified in part "a". This should include detailed explanations of howthe distinguishing features from part "a" achieve the identified technical effectsor advantages and not for example be limited to a statement that accuracy isimproved (6 marks).c. The definition of the objective problem. The problem identified should beconsistent with the independent claim and should not include elements of thesolution (2 marks).Example: For the device claim of the example solution choosing D1 as the closest prior art:a. The distinguishing feature of the claim is that means for alternately generatinga first voltage distribution and a second voltage distribution on the resistive layerare provided, said means being synchronised with the processing unit.b. The technical effect of this distinguishing feature is that any point on theresistive layer can be uniquely identified since the two voltages picked off areunique to a particular point on the resistive layer. This is not the case in D1, (seepar. [005] of the application).Furthermore the need for any separation regions (between turns of the resistiveband in D1), in which no position whatsoever can be determined, is obviated(see par. [005] of the application).c. The objective problem can therefore be stated as making a data input devicefor a computer having a moveable actuator which provides output signalsrepresenting positions of the actuator with a higher degree of accuracy.3.4.3 Arguments supporting an Inventive Step (24 marks)3.4.3.1 General remarksThis year, 24 marks were available for arguments referring to the relevant available prior art and the objective technical problem derived, to demonstrate that theclaimed subject matter was not obvious. Mere statements (without supportingarguments) that there are no hints in a particular document to solve the objectiveproblem/to modify a particular piece of prior art/to combine it with another document attracted no marks.Arguments based on the following questions were expected:a. Would the skilled person arrive at the subject matter of the claim by consideringthe closest prior art in the light of general knowledge?b. Would the skilled person consider combining the closest prior art with the otheritem of prior art?c. (Even) When combining the teaching of the closest prior art with that of theother item of prior art, would the skilled person arrive at the subject-matter ofthe claim?3.4.3.2 ExampleThe following argumentation follows on from the above derivation of the objectiveproblem for the example device claim, D1/2 being the closest prior art. Thefollowing arguments are split into three sections, a, b and c. For completeness,there is some overlap in the lines of argument of sections b. and c. For example the argument that the gel layer in the device of D2 hinders rapid movements of anactuator is used in the following sections b. and c. However in order to obtain fullmarks, it was only necessary for answer papers to have a comprehensive set ofarguments in which the most important lines of argument were used at least once.a. Would the skilled person arrive at the subject matter of the claim byconsidering D1/2 in the light of general knowledge?Reading D1 paragraph [007], the skilled person would realise that the accuracy of the joystick device of D1/2 is limited by the separating region between adjacentturns of the resistive layer. The skilled person would therefore attempt to minimise the width of the separating region in order to improve accuracy.Reading D1 paragraph [006], the skilled person would realise that accuracy of the joystick device of D1/2 is also limited by the fact that at any given distance from acontact point along the resistive layer band, the voltage is the same across thewidth of the band. The device will therefore be more accurate if the width of theband is minimised.Starting from D1/2 and considering the above objective problem, the skilled person would therefore modify the joystick device of D1/2 to provide a resistive layer band in the form of a spiral with the band being as narrow as possible, and wherein theseparating region between the turns was as narrow as possible. However therewould be no hint for the skilled person to arrive at the feature of alternating avoltage distribution across the resistive layer.b. Would the skilled person consider combining D1/2 with D2 in order to solvethe problem of improving the accuracy with which the position of the actuator is determined?- Document D2 is concerned with determining the presence or absence of apressing action from a blunt stick actuator (or finger) within a region (see paragraph [011] for example). Therefore D2 is not concerned with accurately determining the position of an actuator.- Document D2 also discloses that it is necessary to use a finger or an actuator inthe form of a blunt stick (see paragraph [007]) in order to prevent the protectivelayer from being punctured. Because the surface area of a blunt stick or finger isrelatively large, it would never be possible to achieve an accurate determination of position.- Document D2 discloses (paragraph [007]) that it is advantageous to have a large area of contact between the resistive layer and the conductive layer, namely inorder to achieve a reliable electrical contact, a large area of contact prevents theaccurate determination of a point of contact.For these reasons, the skilled person would not consider D2 for a finding a solution to the above objective problem of improving accuracy.The teachings of D1 and D2 are not compatible with each other for the following reasons:- Document D1 discloses a joystick which has to be capable of following rapidmovements of the actuator. Document D2 discloses a device which is designed to respond to a significant pressure of an actuator at a given point. Document D2includes a gel layer which from general knowledge is known to be viscous andwould therefore hinder rapid movements of an actuator, therefore the skilled person would not consider combining the technology of a joystick (D1) with the technology of D2.- Furthermore the time periods with which the device of D2 switches betweenvoltage distributions (paragraph [010], 0.25 seconds) are considered long enough to detect a pressure in a given area. This implies that they should not be anyshorter. Therefore the skilled person would not consider using the teaching of D2 ina device which has an actuator which needs to be moved rapidly.It is concluded that the skilled person would not consider combining the teaching of D1 and D2 in order to solve the above problem.c. When combining the teaching of D1/2 with that of D2, would the skilledperson arrive at the subject-matter of the claim?From D1/2, if the skilled person were to incorporate the means of detecting the position of the actuator known from D2, they would take the layers of the panel 201 above the rigid support 202 of D2 and place them on the rigid support 112 of D1/2.The processing unit would therefore also need to be that of D2.In D2 “significant pressure” is needed to produce an output from the device (see paragraph [006]). Therefore it is doubtful whether the actuator of D1/2 would be suitable for interacting with the layers known from the device of D2.Furthermore, the tip of the actuator of D1/2 is not blunt but relatively pointed. The above combination of D1/2 and D2 would not function since the protective layer 205 of D2 would be punctured. It would therefore be necessary to make the actuator blunt, which would be contrary to solving the objective problem.。
期刊分区
APPL THERM ENG BIOENERG RES BIOFUEL BIOPROD BIOR BIOMASS BIOENERG BIORESOURCE TECHNOL COMBUST FLAME ENERG BUILDINGS ENERG CONVERS MANAGE ENERG FUEL FUEL FUEL PROCESS TECHNOL IEEE T ENERGY CONVER INT J GREENH GAS CON INT J HYDROGEN ENERG J POWER SOURCES P COMBUST INST RENEW SUST ENERG REV SOL ENERG MAT SOL C WIND ENERGY AAPG BULL CHEM ENG PROCESS ENERG POLICY ENERGY FUEL CELLS GCB BIOENERGY IET RENEW POWER GEN
J COMPOS CONSTR J COMPUT CIVIL ENG J CONSTR STEEL RES J HYDRAUL ENG-ASCE J HYDRAUL RES J HYDRO-ENVIRON RES J HYDROINFORM J HYDROL ENG J IRRIG DRAIN E-ASCE J MAR SCI TECH-JAPAN J SHIP RES J STRUCT ENG-ASCE J WATER RES PL-ASCE J WATERW PORT C-ASCE J WIND ENG IND AEROD OCEAN ENG SMART STRUCT SYST STRUCT CONTROL HLTH STRUCT INFRASTRUCT E THIN WALL STRUCT TUNN UNDERGR SP TECH ACI STRUCT J ADV STEEL CONSTR ADV STRUCT ENG ARCH CIV MECH ENG BAUINGENIEUR-GERMANY
2010_paperB_elec-mech_ex-rep_en
Examiners' Report - 2010 Paper B (Electricity/Mechanics)considerations1. General1.1. IntroductionThis year’s paper relates to bird feeders which are adapted to prevent animals other than birds, e.g. squirrels, from gaining access to food on a food tray. Such birdfeeders can be hung on a string or mounted on a pole (see Figs. 1 and 2 of theapplication, respectively).The application cites a document D3, which discloses bird feeders having a guard which is caused by a squirrel to rotate when a squirrel tries to cross the guard. The sudden rotation of the guard surprises the squirrel and causes it to slip or jump off the guard so that it cannot reach the food (application, Par. 2).The applicant has observed a drawback with these bird feeders, namely that asquirrel can learn to cross the guard without causing it to rotate (application, Par. 3).The application starts from the position that providing an electric motor to rotate the guard overcomes this drawback.It is noted that references in this text beginning with “GL” are to the Guidelines forExamination in the European Patent Office of December 2007.1.2. Cited Prior ArtThe communication cites motorised bird feeders disclosed in D1 and D2 as beingnovelty-destroying against claims 1 to 3 and 5 to 9 as filed. D3 is cited in theapplication and mentioned in the communication.D1 discloses a bird feeder which gives a garden owner good views of the birdswhen they are feeding. D1 discloses two items of prior art, namely a first bird feeder (hung type; Figure 1), referred to in the following as D1/1,and a second bird feeder (pole-mounted type; Figure 2), referred to in the following as D1/2. Regarding both D1/1 and D1/2 it is disclosed that an electric motor is activated to slowly rotate the feeding unit (food tray 105, 125) and the guard when a weight on the feeding unitexceeds a predetermined value, the value being chosen to be the weight of a bird.The structures of the bird feeders disclosed in D1 are such that this activation would also happen if the weight were to be applied to the guard.D2 discloses a motorised bird feeder which automatically dispenses food from afood container onto the food tray when the weight on the food tray is below apredetermined value. D2 furthermore has a conical guard which rotates when themotor shaft rotates. The food tray does not rotate.D3 discloses two items of prior art: a first bird feeder (hung type; Figs. 1 and 2)which is referred to in the following as D3/1, and a second bird feeder (pole-mounted type; Figs. 3 and 4) which is referred to in the following as D3/2.1.3. The challenges of the Paper:The main achievements of the invention are to provide a bird feeder that:a) reliably prevents animals other than birds from gaining access to the food,b) whilst still causing minimal disturbance to birds which are feeding (see client'sletter).The aspect a) is achieved by providing a weight sensor which reliably activates the electric motor to rotate the guard when a weight applied to the guard exceeds apredetermined value.The aspect b) is achieved in that, as in the devices disclosed in D3, the guard isrotatable relative to the feeding unit.The main challenges of the paper were to:Draft an amended independent device claim providing protection for a bird feederwhich is not restricted regarding any particular shapes of shield for protecting thefood; the client expresses this wish in his letter.Draft a claim whose subject matter includes the features necessary to render it new and inventive with respect to the available prior art. The subject matter of originalclaims 1 – 3, 5 – 9 is considered by the examiner (Par. 2-4 of communication) not to be new with respect to D1/1 and/or D1/2 and/or D2.Draft the claim whilst also respecting the client’s wish that its subject matter is notunnecessarily limited in its scope of protection regarding the weight sensor.Draft a set of amended dependent claims, including (if appropriate) claims from the original application and a new claim based on original claim 4 but clarified toovercome the clarity objection in Par. 6 of the communication.Write a reasoned letter of reply addressing the objections raised in thecommunication and arguing that the new claims meet the requirements of the EPC.1.4. The marks schemeAnswer papers are marked on a scale of 0 to 100 marks.For the claims: Max. 50 marks, min. 0 marks36 marks are available for the independent device claim.14 marks are available for the dependent claims.For the argumentation: Max. 50 marks, min. 0 marks.2. Claims (50 marks)See Section 4 for an example set of amended claims.2.1. Independent device claim (up to 36 marks)Generally it is noted that the marks awarded for an independent claim reflect thedegree to which the claim achieves protection for the applicant's invention in itsbroadest possible scope.2.1.1. A single independent device claim was expected.Example:The following example independent claim meets the requirements of the EPC whilst providing maximum protection for the applicant’s invention; full marks could also be obtained with different wording. The starting point for the claim is either of original claims 1 or 2. Amendments by addition are underlined; omitted features and anindication of the basis for the amendments in the original application are given insquare brackets.A bird feeder comprising:a feeding unit (2, 22) for holding bird food;a guard (9, 29) comprising a shield (9a, 29a) having a [cone/disc; Par. 12, 19]shape for protecting the food, the guard (9, 29) being rotatable relative to thefeeding unit (2, 22) [claim 3],characterised in that the bird feeder further comprises an electric motor (13, 33) for rotating the guard (9, 29), and a weight sensor (12, 14; 32, 34) for sensing a weight applied to the guard (9, 29), the weight sensor (12, 14; 32, 34) being configured to activate the electric motor (13, 33) when the weight exceeds a predetermined value [claim 5; Par. 20].Notes:It is considered that a claim having the above wording but with the term "weightsensor" replaced by the term "means" would have the same scope of protection as the example independent claim. Similarly, a change of the originally disclosedterminology to "detector/detecting" or "measuring" would be accepted. However, in such cases an argument for this change would be expected when providing thebasis for the amendments.2.1.2. Important points to consider regarding claim 1.a. Novelty with respect to D1/1 and D1/2The feature of the example independent claim "the guard being rotatable relative to the feeding unit" makes the claim novel over D1/1 and D1/2. Both of these items of prior art have a guard which rotates together with the feeding unit (food tray).b. Novelty with respect to D2The feature of the example independent claim that the weight sensor is "for sensinga weight applied to the guard" makes the claim novel over D2. In D2 the weightsensor does not sense a weight applied to the guard; the weight sensor is forsensing a weight on the food tray.c. Novelty with respect to D3The feature of the example independent claim "electric motor" makes the claimnovel over both embodiments of D3.d. Independent claim 1 lacking novelty (-24 marks)An independent claim whose subject matter lacked novelty loses 24 marks.Example:‐ A claim comprising the features of original claims 1 or 2 with the addition of a weight sensor for sensing a weight applied to the guard is not new with respectto D1/1 or D1/2. The weight sensor of the bird feeder disclosed in D1 inherentlysenses a weight applied to the guard.2.1.3. Inferior solutions (up to 24 marks)Inferior solutions are considered to be those solutions that do not have all thefeatures of the example independent claim and, whilst being new and arguablyinventive, they are less favourable for the applicant than the example solution since they offer a less favourable scope of protection and/or go against the applicant’swishes.Examples:- A claim (or claims) which defines the specific shape of the guard (cone, disc, or hemi-spherical) instead of "a shape (suitable) for protecting the food" is considered to be an inferior solution. This is because a more favourable scope of protection is afforded by the general term (8 marks per shape claimed are awarded up to amaximum of 24 marks, irrespective of whether the shapes are claimed in separate independent claims or as alternatives within a single independent claim).- A claim relying on the feature "guard rotation speed of 30 - 35 revolutions per minute" and/or "predetermined weight of 250 g" for providing novelty and inventive step, for example:A bird feeder comprising:a feeding unit (2, 22) for holding bird food;a guard (9, 29) comprising a shield (9a, 29a) having a shape for protecting the food,characterised in that the bird feeder further comprises an electric motor (13, 33)configured to rotate the guard (9, 29) at a speed of 30 - 35 revolutions per minute.Such a claim would be new, this feature not being suggested in any of the prior art documents. However, the scope of protection achieved is very narrow (maximum18 marks available).- A claim corresponding to the example independent claim, but in which theweight sensor feature is replaced by a specific constructional feature, e.g. a washer, or a rod on which the guard is rotatably mounted. These features provide noveltyover D2 but are known from D3. This claim is novel with respect to D1 because the guard rotates relative to the feeding unit. Compared to the bird feeder of D3, theonly difference of the claimed subject matter is the provision of an electric motor.Such a claim is considered to have a less favourable scope of protection than theexample claim since it is limited by specific constructional details, which would beeasy to design around (e.g. by omitting the washer) (maximum 18 marks available).2.1.4. Claim lacking inventive step (-18 marks)An independent claim whose subject matter is considered to lack inventive steploses 18 marks.Examples:- A claim corresponding to the example independent claim but in which the weight sensor feature is replaced by a motor speed controller.This claim is novel with respect to D1 because the guard rotates relative to thefeeding unit, novel with respect to D3 due to the motor, and novel with respect to D2 and D3 due to the motor speed controller. Starting from D2, the skilled personwould routinely adapt the motor controller so that it comprises a speed controlfunction if it is desired to set an appropriate motor speed (see also D1, Par. 10).- A claim corresponding to the example independent claim but in which the weight sensor feature is replaced the feature that the motor is configured to "rapidly"accelerate the guard.This claim is novel with respect to D1 because the guard rotates relative to thefeeding unit, novel with respect to D3 due to the motor, and novel with respect to D2 and D3 due to the motor being configured to "rapidly" accelerate the guard. Starting from D2, it would appear obvious to use an electric motor which can rapidlyaccelerate, e.g. in order to dispense food more quickly. It is furthermore noted that the term "rapidly" is a relative term which per se renders the scope of the claimunclear; this is a separate consideration (see under clarity).2.1.5. Unnecessary limitationsUnnecessary limitations are considered to be features which restrict the scope ofthe independent claim and are additional to those features which are necessary for defining new and inventive subject matter.a. Major Unnecessary limitations (-18 marks each)Independent claims which are according to the example independent claim butwhich are further limited to either the first or second preferred embodiment, or one or more specific arrangements thereof, are considered to have major unnecessary limitations.Examples:- A claim which excludes either of the hung or pole-mounted types of birdfeeder described in the application.- A claim which limits the weight sensor to the spring and switch (e.g.comprising the features of original claim 5).This restriction excludes alternative weight sensors which the application describes as being suitable for use in the bird feeders (Par. 20) and which the applicantwishes to protect (see client's letter).- A claim having all the features of the example solution and which is furtherlimited by any one of the following features:-washer- value of predetermined weight- speed of rotation of guard- food container- motor speed controller- gear wheelb. Minor Unnecessary limitations (-6 marks each)Examples:An independent claim having all the features of the example solution and which is further limited by any one of the following features:- transmission per se- "only" the guard movesc. Features not considered to be limiting (no mark deduction)Where the scope of protection is not considered to be further limited by anadditional feature, then no marks are deducted.Example:- foodtray2.1.6. Lack of Clarity (Up to -24 marks)Examples:- Merely claiming a desired effect as the characterising feature, e.g. merelyadding a feature such as "arranged so that a squirrel is reliably caused to slip orjump off the shield" to original claim 1 (or 2), is considered to be very unclear, see GL C-III 4.10 (-24 marks).- An independent claim which differs from the example independent claim in that it is ambiguous whether or not the following two features are linked:sensing the weight on the guard; andactivation of the electric motor (-12 marks).- A claim comprising an unclear relative term, e.g. "the electric motor whenactivated causes the guard to accelerate rapidly" is considered to be unclear (GL C-III, 4.6) (-4 marks). It is noted that such a claim may in any case lack inventive step (see Section 2.1.4).Other minor issues of lack of clarity lose 4 marks per feature.2.1.7. Amendments not supported by the application as originally filed (Art. 123(2)EPC)a. Amendments Falling Under Art. 123(2) / 123(3) Trap (-24 marks).Any independent claim which includes subject matter having no basis in the original disclosure of the application and which could not be deleted in post grantproceedings without broadening the scope of the claim is considered in this section.Examples:- The guard comprises activating means.only when a specific predetermined weight is applied to theoccurs- Activationshield (not over an open-ended range of weight values).b. Other Amendments Falling Under Art. 123(2) EPC (-12 marks)Any independent claim having subject matter that extends beyond that of theapplication as originally filed, but which could be made compliant with Art. 123(2)EPC in post grant proceedings before the EPO without offending against Art. 123(3) EPC, is considered in this section.Examples:- An independent claim lacking the feature "shield" and/or "for protecting thefood".- A claim according to the example claim claiming a shield but not specifyingthat the shield has a shape that is suitable for protecting the food (see applicationPars. 12, 19).The scope of the claim includes shields for protecting the food by means other than their shape, for which there is no basis in the original application. For example ashield having a flashing light for protecting the food by scaring away animals would fall under the scope of such a claim.- A claim according to the example independent claim wherein the feature "the weight sensor being configured to activate the electric motor when the weightexceeds a predetermined value" is incomplete, e.g. because it is replaced by one of the following features:- the weight sensor being configured to activate the electric motor,- the motor being activated when a weight applied to the guardexceeds a predetermined value.2.1.8. Formal matters (up to -4 marks)It is considered appropriate to use the two-part form of claim, thus an independent claim having a one-part form, or a two-part form of claim which is not consistent with any of the prior art documents, loses 2 marks. For missing or incomplete reference signs in the claims, up to 2 marks are lost.2.2. Dependent claims (14 marks available)2.2.1. General RemarksSee Section 4 for an example set of dependent claims. Marks are available in this section for the feature content of the dependent claims per se and a logical claimstructure.2.2.2. Maintaining Appropriate Original Dependent Claims (2 marks)It is expected to retain any appropriate dependent claims from the originally filedclaims.Example: For an answer paper having the independent claim of the examplesolution:Dependent claims based on original claim 5 (insofar as the weight sensor is further specified as being a switch and a spring), and original claims 6 - 9 would beappropriate as claims dependent on the example independent claim 1 (2 marks). 2.2.3. Including the optional shapes of the shield in a dependent claim or claims (3marks)Since specific shapes of the shield are not claimed in the example independentclaim, it is appropriate to claim these shapes in a new dependent claim or claims(max. 3 marks).Example:The bird feeder according to claim 1, wherein the shield has a cone, disc, or hemi-spherical shape.2.2.4. Clear rotation speed claim (3 marks)An objection was made by the examiner in point 6 of the communication that theoriginal claim 4 lacked clarity under Art. 84 EPC. It is therefore expected that a clear claim to the feature of the rotation speed be included to replace the original claim 4.Example:The bird feeder according to any previous claim, wherein the guard is rotatable at a speed of 30 to 35 revolutions per minute.2.2.5. Predetermined weight value of 250g (3 marks)For the example solution claim, a weight exceeding a predetermined value isintroduced into the characterising part of the claim. It is considered that anappropriate fall back claim for the applicant would therefore be a claim specifyingthe only weight value disclosed in the application.Example:- The bird feeder according to any previous claim, wherein thepredetermined value of the weight is 250 g (3 marks).2.2.6. Other dependent claims offering a useful fallback (up to 3 marks)Up to 3 marks in total are available for one or more additional dependent claimswhich offer a useful fall-back position or positions, provided the total of 14 marks for the dependent claims is not exceeded.Example:- For an answer paper having an independent claim to a bird feeder which was not new with respect to D1 because the feature that the guard is rotatable relative to the feeding unit was missing, then a dependent claim to this feature would be animportant fall back position for the applicant (3 marks).2.2.6 Other dependent claims not offering a useful fallback (no marks awarded)Marks are not awarded for dependent claims which are considered not to offer auseful fallback.Examples:- washerfeatures- transmission2.2.7 Structure (up to 3 marks)A dependent claim set structured that gives the applicant appropriate fall-backpositions, with correct back-references, receives 3 marks for the structure.3. Argumentation (50 marks available)3.1. General remarkIn this section, answer papers should identify all amendments made in the claimsand indicate their basis in the application as filed. Further, they should set outarguments in support of the patentability of the independent claims. Answer papers are expected to contain appropriate arguments in response to all the points raisedin the official communication.It is noted that the following explanations and examples generally relate to theexample claim set.3.2. Source of amendment for the purposes of Art. 123(2) EPC (14 marks)An indication of the basis for the amendments made in all the claims is expected. Itis expected that the amendments made are identified and their basis indicated byreferring to the relevant positions of the original application documents, whereappropriate with brief explanations.For answer papers having a claim set that differs from the example claim set, thebasis and explanations expected may differ from those given below.3.2.1. Independent Claim (9 marks)9 marks are available for indicating and explaining a basis for the independentclaim.Example:Claim 1 as amended comprises the subject matter of originally filed claims 1 and 2 with the following amendments:The specific shape of the shield, namely "cone shaped" or "disc shaped" has been removed and replaced with the feature that the shield has "a shape for" protecting the food. Basis for this amendment is found in Pars. 12, 19 of the description, where it is stated that the shield of both embodiments may have any (other) shape which is suitable for protecting the food (2 marks).This generalisation does not violate Art. 123(2) EPC because: (a) the shape of the shield being cone or disc shaped is not explained as being essential; (b) it is notindispensable for the function of the invention, since other shapes suitable forprotecting the food are considered in the application and (c) its removal requires no modification of the other features (see GL C-VI 5.3.10) (2 marks).Claim 1 furthermore includes the features of original claim 3, namely the guardbeing rotatable relative to the feeding unit. (1 mark)The features of original claim 5 (1 mark) have been added with the followingamendments:The features "a switch and spring" have been replaced by the term "weight sensor for sensing a weight applied to the guard". The basis for the more general term isfound in the description, see Par. 20, where in a general statement referring to both of the preferred embodiments, it is stated that "the spring and the switch act as aweight sensor", and furthermore "instead of a switch and spring, any otherconventional weight sensor for sensing a weight applied to the guard could beused." (2 marks)Furthermore, the “predetermined condition” referred to in original claim 5 has been replaced by the term "a weight applied to the guard exceeding a predeterminedvalue". The basis for this amendment is also found in the description, see Par. 20.(1 mark)3.2.2. Dependent Claims (5 marks)A total of 5 marks are available for justifying a basis for the dependent claims:Dependent claims 5 to 9 of the example set correspond to original dependentclaims 5 (in part) and 6 to 9 (up to 2 marks).Claim 2 of the example set (various shapes of the shield) is based on original claims1 and2 and Pars. 12 and 19 (1 mark).For indicating the basis for further dependent claims, up to 2 marks are available,e.g. a claim specifying the speed of rotation is based on Par. 11 (1 mark); a claimspecifying the value of weight is based on Par. 11 (1 mark).3.3. Clarity of speed of rotation claim (max. 2 marks)In Par. 6 of the official communication a clarity objection (Art. 84 EPC) was raisedagainst claim 4, in that the subject matter was being defined as a result to beachieved. Answer papers are expected to respond to this objection in the letter ofreply. For stating that the clarity objection has been overcome and briefly explaining why this is the case, 2 marks are available.3.4. Novelty of the Independent Device Claim (6 marks)It is considered sufficient to mention one feature of the independent claim that is not disclosed in each item of prior art. Although a lack of novelty objection was notraised with regard to D3 in the communication, a novelty argument is expected if the scope of the original independent claims has been broadened, e.g. by generalising the shape of the shield. In cases where it is not immediately evident that theidentified feature is not present, explanations are expected.For statements regarding the novelty, up to 3 marks are available for D1, up to 2marks for D2, and 1 mark for D3.Example:Novelty over D1D1 does not disclose a bird feeder having a guard which is rotatable relative to afeeding unit (1 mark).In D1/1 the guard 109 and the feeding unit (food tray 105) are both fixed to themotor shaft 115 and cannot rotate relative to each other (Par. 2) (1 mark).In D1/2 the guard 129 is fixed to the feeding unit (food tray 125), which does notallow rotation of the guard relative to the feeding unit (Par. 5) (1 mark).Therefore the invention defined by amended claim 1 is novel over D1/1 and D1/2.Novelty over D2D2 does not disclose a weight sensor which senses a weight applied to the guard(209) of the bird feeder. (1 mark)The bird feeder according to D2 comprises a spring 214 and a switch 212, whichcomponents can be considered together to provide a weight sensor (Par. 5, Fig. 1).However, this weight sensor can only sense a weight applied to the food tray (205), not to the guard (209). A weight applied to the guard of D2 would have no effect on the components of the weight sensor. (1 mark)Consequently, the invention defined by amended claim 1 is novel over D2.Novelty over D3Neither of the bird feeders disclosed in D3 comprises an electric motor (1 mark).Therefore the invention defined by amended claim 1 is novel over D3.3.5. Inventive Step Argumentation for the expected claim (28 marks)It is appropriate to provide arguments which are structured to follow the problemsolution approach (see GL C-IV, 11.7).3.5.1. Identifying the closest prior art (8 marks)In selecting the closest prior art, the first consideration is that it should be directed toa similar purpose or effect as the invention or at least belong to the same or aclosely related technical field as the claimed invention, see GL C-IV, 11.7.1.a. Stating the closest prior art (max. 3 marks)For stating an item of prior art as being the closest prior art in a consistent manner with the two-part form of the independent claim, up to 3 marks are available.For the example independent claim, D3 is considered to represent the closest prior art; for a statement to this effect, up to 3 marks are available.The bird feeders of D1 and D2 are considered to be less relevant. For a statement identifying either or both embodiments of D1, up to 2 marks are available; foridentifying D2,1 mark is available.When the claim of an answer paper differs from the example independent claim, the choice of closest prior art may be different from the above and receive marksaccordingly. This is decided on a case-by-case basis.b. Arguments justifying the choice of closest prior art (5 marks)Irrespective of whether D1, D2 or D3 has been chosen as the closest prior art, 5marks are available for arguments justifying the choice of closest prior art. Toachieve full marks, an assessment should be made taking into account all threeprior art documents, whereby their relevance to the invention is compared.Example:D3 is considered to be the closest prior art since it is a prior art bird feeder which is directed to the similar purpose as the present invention, namely preventing animals from gaining access to the food. Moreover, this is achieved by similar means. As is the case for the invention, the guard of the bird feeder starts rotating relative to the feeding unit when a squirrel attempts to cross the shield, the sudden rotationproviding a surprise effect to cause the squirrel to slip or jump off the guard. (3marks).The bird feeders described in D1 and D2 have a considerably different purpose.D1 discloses bird feeders having a guard which comprises a shield for protectingthe food from climbing animals. However in the bird feeders of D1, the guard slowly rotates together with the feeding unit, the aim being to give a garden owner goodviews of the birds whilst not disturbing birds on the feeding unit (Pars. 1, 10) (1mark).The purpose of D2 is to provide a bird feeder which automatically dispenses freshfood onto the food tray. D2 discloses a bird feeder having a guard for protectingagainst rain. Although the guard rotates, the rotation serves to provide an indication that the food container is empty (1 mark).。
能源专业中英文缩写对照表
B
C
C
CIS CLASSIFR CLEANG CLGG CLGNG CLN CLSED/CLSD CLSNG/CLSG/CLG CLST CND CNDR CNVRT CNVYR COIL COLL COMB/COMBSTN COMBIN COMCATR COMD/CMD COMM/COM COMPART COMPL/COMPLETD COMPR COND CONDI CONDUCT CONFIG CONFO/CONFORM CONNECT/CNECT CONSUMP CONT CONTCT CONTNS/CTS CONTRNT COOL COOLNT CORNER COUNT COUPL CP CPLG/COUPLG CPTR CPU CR CRECT CRECTION CRIT CRITCL CROSSVR CRS CRT CSA CTRAL CTRE CTRL CTRLED CTRLE0 VOLTS 1-2-3 125 VOLTS 127 VOLTS 12 VOLTS FIRST INTERMEDIATE FIRST FIRST THRESHOLD 220 VOLTS 240 VOLTS 24 VOLTS SECOND INTERMEDIATE SECOND SECOND THRESHOLD TRIPPING IN 2/3 300 MEGAWATT 380 VOLTS THIRD THIRD THRESHOLD 415 VOLTS 48 VOLTS 5 VOLTS 6.6 KILOVOLTS AMPERE AUTO/HAND ABNORMAL ABSOLUTE ABSENCE ALTERNATING CURRENT ACCELERATION/ACCELERATING ACQUISITION ACTUATED ACTION ACTUATOR ACTIVE AUXILIARY COOLING WATER ADJUSTER ADMISSION ADVISED AERATOR AFTER AIR HEATER AIR ALARM ALL ALLOWED/ALLOWANCE ANALYSER AND ANTICIPATOR ARRANGEMENT ASSISTED AT ATMOSPHERE ATOMIZING AUTHORIZED/AUTHORIZATION AUTOMATIC AUXILIARY/AUXILIARIES AVAILABILITY AVAILABILITY AUTO VOLTAGE REGULATOR
英文工程图纸缩写
ALL WELDS CONTINUOUS UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED. 未注焊缝均为连续焊ALL WELDS 3mm FILLET UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED 未注焊角高3mm.ALL UNSPECIFIED RADI - R3 未注圆角R3REMOVE ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES 所有尖角/棱角倒角并去毛11 TOTAL COILS APROX.9 WORKING COILS APROX.RIGHT HAND WOUND ONLY,END COILS SQUARE TO TOUCH. 总圈数约11圈；工作圈数约9圈；右旋；弹簧的端部磨平以便于接触.(此为弹簧技术说明)CHANNEL 槽钢RSA 708 角钢 70X70X8M30X1.5 pitch M30X1.5的锥螺纹Tackweld 点焊OD 1/4" outside dimension 1/4"的缩写外径直1/4"75 CRS 尺寸为75 材质为冷轧钢板410 OPENING REF 410 开口参考尺寸40 REF 尺寸为40,参考值2.5" BSP 2.5” 圆锥管螺纹2.5" BSPT HEXAGON 2.5” 六角圆锥管螺纹(即对丝)30x2.5 FLAT BAR 30X2.5 扁钢TYP 2 POSNS 2处FEMALE: 内扣(母扣)MALE: 外扣(公扣)偏心轴 eccentric shaft销轴 PIN开口销 COTTER PIN螺杆 screw轴承 axletree挡圈 closing ring弹性挡圈 circlip弹簧 SPRING紧定螺钉 SET SCREW圆螺母 ROUND NUT平键 FLAT KEY圆螺母 ROUND NUT六角螺栓 HEX HD BOLT无扣长 non-buckle longth平垫圈 FLAT WASHER螺母 FULL NYLOCK NUT吊环螺钉 LIFTING EYE BOLT内六角螺钉 SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREW六角螺钉 HEX HD SETSCREW轴承隔套 distance sleeve of axletree深沟球轴承 DEEP GROOVE BALL BEARING开槽盘头螺钉 SLOTTED PAN HEAD SCREW圆锥滚子轴承 TAPERED ROLLER BEARING 推力球轴承THRUST BALL BEARING弹簧垫圈 SINGLE COIL SPRING WASHER 缩写全称翻译ACCESS Accessory 附件ADJ Adjustable,Adjust 调整ADPT Adapter 使适应ADV Advance 提前AL Aluminum 铝ALLOW Allowance 允许ALT Alternate 改变ALY Alloy 合金AMT Amout 数量ANL Anneal 锻炼ANSL Amer Natl Stds Institute APPROX Approximate 大约ASME Amer Society of Mech Engrs ASSEM Assemble 装配ASSY Assembly 装配AUTH Authorized 授权的AUTO Automatic 自动的AUX Auxiliary 辅助的AVG Average 平均AWG American Wire GaugeBC Bolt Circle 螺栓圆周BET Between 之间BEV Bevel 斜角BHN Brinell Hardness Number布氏硬度值BLK Blank ,Block 空白B/NM Bill of Material 材料费BOT Bottom 底部BP or B/P Blueprint 蓝图BRG Bearing 轴承BRK Break 破裂BRKT Bracket 支架BRO Broach 钻孔BRS Brass 黄铜BRZ Bronze 青铜B＆S Brown＆Shape 棕色＆形状BSC Basic 基本的BUSH Bushing 套管BWG Birmingham Wire GaugeC TO C Center-to-Center 中心到中心CAD Computer-Aided Drafting 电脑辅助设计CAM Computer-Aided MfgCAP Capacity 容量CAP SCR Cap Screw 螺帽CARB Carburize 使渗碳CBORE Counterbore 扩孔CCW Counter Clockwise 逆时针CDRILL CounerdrillCDS Cold-Drawn Steel缩写全称翻译EFF Effective 有效的ENCL Enclose,Enclosure 附上ENG Engine 引擎ENGR Engineer 工程师ENGRG Engineering 工程学EQLSP Equally Spaced 等距EQUIV Equivalent 相等EST Estimate 估计EX Extra 额外EXH Exhaust 消耗EXP Experimental 实验性的EXT Exension,External 范围,外部FAB Fabricate 伪造FAO Finish All OverFDRY Foundry 铸造FIG Figure 数据FIL Fillet,fillister 带子FIM Full Indicator MovementFIN FinishFLX Fixture 结构FLX Floor.Fluid,Flush 基地,液体,冲洗FLEX Flexible 易弯曲的FLG Flange 边缘FORG Forging 锻炼FR Frame,Front 边框FIG Fitting 装置FURN Furnish 提供FWD Forward 向前GA Gage,Gauge 测量GALV Galvanized 电镀GR Grade 等级GRD Grind 磨碎GRV Groove 凹槽GSKT Gasket 垫圈H＆G Harden and Grind 加硬和磨碎HD Head 主要的HDL Handle 处理HDLS Headless 无领导的HDN Harden 使硬化HDW Hardware 硬件HEX Hexagon 六边形HGR Hanger 衣架HGT Height 高度HOR Horizontal 水平的HRS Hot-Rolled SteelHSG Housing 外罩HT TR Heat Treal缩写全称翻译NTS Not to ScaleOA Over All 所有OBS ObsotetcOC On CenterOD Outside Diameter 外直径OPP Opposite 对立OPTL Optional 可选择的OR Outside Radius 外半径ORIG Original 初始的PAT. Patent 专利PATT Pattern 形式PC Piece,Pitch Circle 件，节距圆PCH Punch 打孔PD Pitch DiameterPERF Perforate 打孔PERM Permanent 永久的PERP Perpendicular 垂直的PFD Preferred 首选的PKG Package,Packing 包装PL Parting Line,Places,Plate PNEU PncumaticPNL Panel 面板POL Polish 磨光POS Position,Postive 位置PR Pair 对立PRI Primary 基本的PROC Process 程序PROD Product,Production 产品，产量PSI Pounds per Square InchPT Part,Point 零件，点QTR Quarter 四份之一QTY Quantity 数量QUAL Quality 质量R Radius 半径RA Rockwell Harden,A-ScaleRB Rockwell Harden,B-ScaleRC Rockwell Harden,C-Scale RECD Received 巳收到的RECT Rectangle 长方形REF Reference 相关的REINF Reinforce 增强REL Release,Relief 释放，缓解REM Remove 移除REQD Requird 有需要REE Retainer,ReturnREV Reverse,Revision,Revolution RFS Regardless of Feature Size RGH Rough 粗糙的RH Right Hand 右手RIV Rivet 起皱RM Ream 扩展RND Round 周围RPM Revolutions per MinuteRPW Resistance Projection Weld SAE Society of Automotive Engrs SCH Schedule 进度表缩写全称翻译CFS Cold-Finished SteelCH Case HardenCHAM Chamfer 斜面CHAN Channel 渠道CHG Change 改变CHK Check 核查CI Cast Iron 铸铁CIR Circle, Circular 圆周CIRC Circumference 圆周CL Centerline 中心线CLP Clamp 夹子CNC Computer Numerical Control 电脑数值控制COMB Combination 联合COML Commercial 商业的CONC Concentric 同中心的CONN Connect,Connector 连接器COV Cover 盖子CPLG Coupling 联结CQ Commercial Quality 商业等级钢CRS Cold Stds AssociationCRT Cathode Ray Tube 阴级射线管CS Cast Steel 铸铁CSA Canadian Stds AssociationCSK Countersink 埋头孔CSTG Casting 铸件CTR Center 中心CU Cubic 立方米CW Clockwise 顺时针CYL Cylinder,Cylindrical 柱面DBL Double 双倍DEC Decimal 小数DEG Degree 摄氏度DET Detail 详情DEV Develop 发展DFT Draft 草稿DIA Diameter 直径DIM Dimension 尺寸DIST Distance 距离DN Down 向下DP Deep,Diametral Pitch 深度,径节DR Drill,Drill Rod 钻孔DSGN Design 设计DVTL Dovetail 吻合DWG Drawing 图纸DWL Dowel 木钉DWN Drawn 拔出EA Each 每个ECC Eccentric 古怪缩写全称翻译HVY Heavy 重量HYD Hydraulic 水压ID Inside Diameter 内部直径IDENT Identification 鉴定ILLUS Illustration 说明IN Inch 英寸INCL Include,Including 包括INCR Increase 增加INFO Information 信息INSP Inspect 检查INSTL Install 安装INST Instruct,Instrument 指示,工具INT Interior,Internal,Intersect 内部的,内在的,交叉IR Inside Radius 内部半径ISO Internal Stds Organization 国际标准化组织JCT Junction 连结JNT Journal 杂志JT Joint 连接K Key 关键KNRL Knurl 硬节KST KeyseatKWY Keyway 键沟LB Pound 英镑LBL Label 标签LG Length,Long 长度LH Left Hand 左手LMC Least Material ConditionLOC Locate 位于LT Light 光LTR Letter 信LUB Lubricate 润滑MACH Machine 机器MAINT Maintenance 维护MATL Material 材料MAX Maximum 最大MECH Mechanical,Mechanism 机械MED Medium 媒介MFG Manufacturing 制造业MI Malleable Iron 可锻造的铁MIN Minimum, Minute 最小，秒MISC Miscellaneous 混杂的MM Millimeter 毫米MMC Max Material ConditionMS Machine SteelMTG Mouting 装备MULT Multiple 倍数MWG Music Wire GagugNA Not Applicable 不可应用的NATL National 国内的NC Numerical Control 数字电脑控制NEG Negative 忽略的NO. Number 号码NOM Nominal 名义上的NPSM Natl Pipe Straight Mech NPT Natl Pipe Tapered缩写全称翻译SCR Screw 螺丝SEC Second 秒SECT Section 部分SEP Separate 独立SEQ Sequence 顺序SER Serial,Series 系列SERR Serrate 锯齿状SF SpotfaceSFT Shaft 轴SGL Single 单个SH Sheet 纸SI Intl System of UnitsSL Slide 使滑动SLV Sleeve 袖子SOC Socket 插座SP Space,Spaced,Spare 空间SPL Special 特别SPEC Specification 规格SPG Spring 跳SPHER Spherical 球体SPRKT Sprocket 链轮齿SQ Square 平方SST Stainless Steel 纯铁STD Standard 标准STK Stock 存货STL Steel 铁STR Straight,Strip 直的SUB Substitute 替代物SUP Supply,Support 供应SURF Surface 表面SYM Symmetrical 对称的SYS System 系统T Teeth,Tooth 牙齿TECH Technical 技术TEMP Template,Temporary模板，暂时的THD Thread 线THK Thick 厚的TOL Tolerance 公差TOT Total 总计TPF Taper per FootTPI Taper per In,Threads per InchTPR Taper 锥形TS Tool SteelTYP Typical 典型UNC Unified Natl CoarseUNEF Unified Natl Extra FineUNF Unified Natl FineUNIV Universal 普遍VAR Variable 变量VERT Vertical 垂直的VOL Volume 音量VS Versus 与．．相对W Wide,Width 宽度WASH Washer 洗衣机WDF Woodruff 车叶草WI Wrought Iron 熟铁WT Weight 重量SAE Extra fine 美国汽车工程师协会的超细牙螺纹例：1/2-28 SAE Extra fine SAE Reg 美国汽车工程师协会的标准系列螺纹例：1/2-20 SAE RegSAE-LT 美国汽车工程师协会的圆锥外螺纹例：1/2-28 SAE-LT标签/分类：Material 材料Notes/Remark 注释ANSI 美国国家标准局ASTM美国材料试验协会finish 最后一道表面处理Anodize 阳极氧化Grain 纹理standard标准Range 范围UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED除非另有标明外，请参照备注Tolerances 公差punching direction 冲压方向Right Side 正面TH（thickness)料厚Hardness 硬度Burring side 批锋面Tooling/Die 冲压模JIS 日本工业标准Covex 米位.surface cleaning 金属表面清洁处理Degreasing 金属除油处理Solvent degreasing 乳化脱脂alkali degreasing 碱性脱脂electrolytic cleaning 电解清洁vapor degreasing 蒸汽脱脂ultrasonic cleaning 超声波清洁vibrating cleaning 震动清洁barrel cleaning 滚桶清洁brushing 刷光polishing 磨光buffing 抛光electro-polishing 电解抛光。
压电材料连续性损伤模型译文
压电材料连续性损伤模型摘要在这篇文章中，提出了一个包含分布式裂缝的压电材料固体连续模型。
该模型阐述了一个使用张量作为内部变量的连续损伤力学模型，该模型的赫姆霍兹自由能可以用一个变形多项式表示。
通过完全约束电场矢量和张量的损伤变量使最初材料的正交个性异性转化为对称性。
通过使用talreja的张量内部状态损伤变量以及压电材料的Helmhotlz自由能得到压电材料和损伤的基本关系。
压电板横向矩阵裂缝是运用模型的一个特例，基于板的基尔霍夫假设，建立了考虑损伤的压电矩形板自由振动方程。
利用伽辽金方法，对方程进行了求解。
数值结果表示在闭合电路下自由振动的压电板上损伤对其的影响。
最后用现在的结果和三维理论进行了对比。
关键词：张量内部状态变量，连续性损伤力学，损伤本构关系，压电板1 介绍由于固有的正、逆压电效应，使压电材料在智能结构中具有广泛的应用，作为传感器或驱动器去控制活性结构的变形何震动。
在制造和还原过程中裂纹、空洞、错位和分层等缺陷也被引入压电材料。
这些缺陷极大地影响到压电材料的导电、绝缘、伸缩、机械和压电性能。
当受到机械和导电负载时，这些缺陷可能引起尺寸和裂缝的变化，导致材料过早的产生机械或导电故障。
因此，研究这些缺陷的产生和这些缺陷的整体效果对压电材料的机械和电气性能是很重要的，以便于预测准确的结构使用寿命。
这些分析的进展依靠于人们怎样明确为合并各向异性固体材料将其变形及其相互作用与分布的缺陷确立本构关系。
在纤维增强复合材料中的损伤被广泛的研究，许多理论中也已经建立用来预测复合材料结构的使用寿命的理论。
摩尔和迪拉德注意到在室温条件下，在石墨/环氧基树脂中和凯夫拉纤维/环氧基树脂复合材料正交层板中横向裂纹与时间有关的增长。
Schapery使用不可逆过程的热力学分析研究了在变形、断裂、单片和复合材料的线性和非线性的行为损害。
罗和丹尼发现单向纤维增强脆性基复合材料的宏观力学行为与微观变形和损害有明确的关系。
公司各个部门英文翻译
市场营销部: SALE S&MAR KETIN G DEP ARTME NT 计财部:ACC OUNTI NG DE PARTM ENT人力资源部: HUMA N RES OURCE DEPA RTMEN T 工程部: ENG INEER ING D EPART MENT保安部:SECUR ITY D EPART MENT行政部:EXECU TIVEDEPAR TMENT前厅部: FRON T OFF ICE客房部: H OUSEK EEPIN G DEP ARTME NT餐饮部: FO OD&BE VERAG E DEP ARTME NT外销部： EX PORTDEPAR TMENT财务科： FINA NCIAL DEPA RTMEN T党支部： BRA NCH O F THE PART Y会议室： MEE TINGROOM会客室：RECEP TIONROOM质检科：QUALI TY TE STING DEPA RTMEN T内销部： DOM ESTIC SALE S DEP ARTME NT厂长室： FA CTORY DIRE CTOR'S ROO M行政科： ADM INIST RATIO N DEP ARTME NT技术部： TE CHNOL OGY S ECTIO N档案室： MUN IMENT ROOM生产科： MANU FACTU RE SE CTION总公司: Head Offi ce分公司: Br anchOffic e营业部: Bus iness Offi ce人事部: Pe rsonn el De partm ent总务部: G enera l Aff airsDepar tment财务部: Gene ral A ccoun tingDepar tment销售部: Sale s Dep artme nt促销部: Sa les P romot ion D epart ment国际部:Inter natio nal D epart ment出口部:Expor t Dep artme nt进口部: Im portDepar tment公共关系: Pub lic R elati ons D epart ment广告部:Adver tisin g Dep artme nt企划部: Pl annin g Dep artme nt产品开发部:Produ ct De velop mentDepar tment研发部: Rese archand D evelo pment Depa rtmen t (R&D) 秘书室: Se creta rialPoo市场部Ma rketi ng De partm ent 技术服务部 Tech nical serv ice D epart ment人事部 Per sonne l Dep artme nt(人力资源部)Huma n Res ource s Dep artme ntAccou nting Assi stant会计助理Acc ounti ng Cl erk 记帐员A ccoun tingManag er 会计部经理Accou nting Stal l 会计部职员A ccoun tingSuper visor会计主管Adm inist ratio n Man ager行政经理Admi nistr ation Staf f 行政人员Ad minis trati ve As sista nt 行政助理A dmini strat ive C lerk行政办事员Adv ertis ing S taff广告工作人员Ai rline s Sal es Re prese ntati ve 航空公司定座员Air lines Staf f 航空公司职员Appli catio n Eng ineer应用工程师As sista nt Ma nager副经理Bon d Ana lyst证券分析员Bon d Tra der 证券交易员Busi nessContr oller业务主任Bus iness Mana ger 业务经理Buyer采购员Cas hier出纳员Chemi cal E ngine er 化学工程师Civil Engi neer土木工程师Cle rk/Re cepti onist职员／接待员C lerkTypis t & S ecret ary 文书打字兼秘书Co mpute r Dat a Inp ut Op erato r 计算机资料输入员Com puter Engi neer计算机工程师Co mpute r Pro cessi ng Op erato r 计算机处理操作员Com puter Syst em Ma nager计算机系统部经理Copy write r 广告文字撰稿人Depu ty Ge neral Mana ger 副总经理Econ omicResea rch A ssist ant 经济研究助理Ele ctric al En ginee r 电气工程师E ngine ering Tech nicia n 工程技术员E nglis h Ins truct or/Te acher英语教师Exp ort S alesManag er 外销部经理Expor t Sal es St aff 外销部职员Fin ancia l Con troll er 财务主任F inanc ial R eport er 财务报告人F.X.(Fore ign E xchan ge) C lerk外汇部职员F.X. Set tleme nt Cl erk 外汇部核算员Fun d Man ager财务经理Gene ral A udito r 审计长Gen eralManag er/Pr eside nt 总经理Ge neral Mana ger A ssist ant 总经理助理Gene ral M anage r‘s S ecret ary 总经理秘书Har dware Engi neer（计算机）硬件工程师Im portLiais on St aff 进口联络员Impo rt Ma nager进口部经理In suran ce Ac tuary保险公司理赔员Inter natio nal S alesStaff国际销售员In terpr eter口语翻译Leg al Ad viser法律顾问Lin e Sup ervis or 生产线主管Main tenan ce En ginee r 维修工程师M anage mentConsu ltant管理顾问Man ager经理M anage r for Publ ic Re latio ns 公关部经理Manuf actur ing E ngine er 制造工程师Manuf actur ing W orker生产员工Mar ket A nalys t 市场分析员M arket Deve lopme nt Ma nager市场开发部经理Marke tingManag er 市场销售部经理Mar ketin g Sta ff 市场销售员Marke tingAssis tant销售助理Mark eting Exec utive销售主管Mar ketin g Rep resen tativ e 销售代表Ma rketi ng Re prese ntati ve Ma nager市场调研部经理Mecha nical Engi neer机械工程师Min ing E ngine er 采矿工程师Music Teac her 音乐教师Nava l Arc hitec t 造船工程师O ffice Assi stant办公室助理Of ficeClerk职员Opera tiona l Man ager业务经理Pac kageDesig ner 包装设计师Pass enger Rese rvati on St aff 乘客票位预订员Pe rsonn el Cl erk 人事部职员Pers onnel Mana ger 人事部经理Plan t/Fac toryManag er 厂长Pos tal C lerk邮政人员Priv ate S ecret ary 私人秘书Produ ct Ma nager生产部经理Pr oduct ion E ngine er 产品工程师Profe ssion al St aff 专业人员Progr ammer电脑程序设计师Proje ct St aff （项目）策划人员P romot ional Mana ger 推销部经理Proo f-rea der 校对员P urcha singAgent采购（进货）员Qual ity C ontro l Eng ineer质量管理工程师Real Esta te St aff 房地产职员Recr uitme nt Co ordin ator招聘协调人Reg ional Mang er 地区经理R esear ch &Devel opmen t Eng ineer研究开发工程师Resta urant Mana ger 饭店经理Offic e Ass istan t 办公室助理O ffice Cler k 职员Oper ation al Ma nager业务经理Pa ckage Desi gner包装设计师Pas senge r Res ervat ion S taff乘客票位预订员P erson nel C lerk人事部职员Per sonne l Man ager人事部经理Pla nt/Fa ctory Mana ger 厂长Po stalClerk邮政人员Pri vateSecre tary私人秘书Prod uct M anage r 生产部经理P roduc tionEngin eer 产品工程师Prof essio nal S taff专业人员Prog ramme r 电脑程序设计师Proj ect S taff（项目）策划人员Promo tiona l Man ager推销部经理Pro of-re ader校对员Purch asing Agen t 采购（进货）员Qua lityContr ol En ginee r 质量管理工程师Rea l Est ate S taff房地产职员Rec ruitm ent C oordi nator招聘协调人Re giona l Man ger 地区经理Resea rch & Deve lopme nt En ginee r 研究开发工程师Rest auran t Man ager饭店经理Sale s and Plan ningStaff销售计划员Sa les A ssist ant 销售助理Sales Cler k 店员、售货员Sales Coor dinat or 销售协调人Sales Engi neer销售工程师Sal es Ex ecuti ve 销售主管S alesManag er 销售部经理Sales perso n 销售员Sel ler R epres entat ive 销售代表Sales Supe rviso r 销售监管Sc hoolRegis trar学校注册主任Se creta rialAssis tant秘书助理Secr etary秘书Secur ities Cust ody C lerk保安人员Secu rityOffic er 安全人员S enior Acco untan t 高级会计Se niorConsu ltant/Advi ser 高级顾问Senio r Emp loyee高级雇员Sen ior S ecret ary 高级秘书Servi ce Ma nager服务部经理Si multa neous Inte rpret er 同声传译员Softw are E ngine er （计算机）软件工程师Super visor监管员Syst ems A dvise r 系统顾问Sy stems Engi neer系统工程师Sys temsOpera tor 系统操作员Tech nical Edit or 技术编辑T echni cal T ransl ator技术翻译Tech nical Work er 技术工人T eleco mmuni catio n Exe cutiv e 电讯（电信）员Tele phoni st/Op erato r 电话接线员、话务员To urist Guid e 导游Trad e Fin anceExecu tive贸易财务主管Tr ainee Mana ger 培训部经理Tran slati on Ch ecker翻译核对员Tr ansla tor 翻译员T rustBanki ng Ex ecuti ve 银行高级职员Typi st 打字员Wo rd Pr ocess ing O perat or 文字处理操作员答:1.MAKE TINGAND S ALES(市场与销售部分) Vic e-Pre siden t ofSales销售副总裁Senio r Cus tomer Mana ger 高级客户经理S alesManag er 销售经理 Regi onalSales Mana ger 地区销售经理P rocur ement Mana ger 采购经理P rocur ement Agen cy 采购代办所 Sal es As sista nt 销售助理 Whol esale Buye r 批发采购员 Tele-Inte rview er 电话调查员 Rea l Est ate A pprai ser 房地产评估师M arket ing C onsul tant市场顾问 Ma rketi ng an d Sal es Di recto r 市场与销售总监 Ma rketResea rch A nalys t 市场调查分析员 Ma nufac turer’s Re prese ntati ve 厂家代表 Dire ctorofSu bsidi ary R ights分公司权利总监 Sal es Re prese ntati ve 销售代表 Assi stantCust omerExecu tive客户管理助理Marke tingInter n 市场实习Marke tingDirec tor 市场总监 Ins uranc e Age nt 保险代理人 Cus tomer Mana ger 客户经理 Vic e-Pre siden t ofMarke ting市场副总裁R egion al Cu stome r Man ager地区客户经理Sales Admi nistr ator销售主管 Te lemar ketin g Dir ector电话销售总监 Tele marke ter 电话销售员 Sa les E xecut ive 销售执行者 Ma rketi ng As sista nt 市场助理 Reta ilBu yer 零售采购员 Re al Es tateManag er 房地产经理 Rea l Est ate B roker房地产经纪人 Purc hasin g Age nt 采购代理 Prod uct D evelo per 产品开发 Mar ketin gMan ager市场经理 Ad verti singCoord inato r 广告协调员 Adve rtisi ng As sista nt 广告助理 Ad C opywr iter(Direc t Mai l) 广告文撰写人 Cu stome r Rep resen tativ e 客户代表2.COM PETER ANDMATHE MATIC S(计算机部分) Man agerof Ne tworkAdmi nistr ation网络管理经理 MISManag er 电脑部经理 Pro jectManag er 项目经理 Tech nical Engi neer技术工程师D evelo pment al En ginee r 开发工程师Syst ems P rogra mmer系统程序员A dmini strat or 局域网管理员 Op erati ons A nalys t 操作分析Compu ter O perat or 电脑操作员 Pro ductSuppo rt Ma nager产品支持经理 Comp uterOpera tions Supe rviso r 电脑操作主管 Dir ector of I nform ation Serv ices信息服务主管Syste ms En ginee r 系统工程师 Hard wareEngin eer 硬件工程师Ap plica tions Prog ramme r 应用软件程序员 In forma tionAnaly st 信息分析 LANSyste ms An alyst系统分析S tatis ticia n 统计员3.HUMA N RES OURCE S（人力资源部分） Di recto r ofHuman Reso urces人力资源总监 Assi stant Pers onnel Offi cer 人事助理 Com pensa tionManag er 薪酬经理 Empl oymen t Con sulta nt 招募顾问Faci lityManag er 后勤经理 JobPlace mentOffic er 人员配置专员La bor R elati ons S pecia list劳动关系专员Recru iter招聘人员 Tr ainin g Spe ciali st 培训专员 Vice-Pres ident of H umanResou rces人力资源副总裁 Assi stant Vice-Pres ident of H umanResou rces人力资源副总裁助理 Pe rsonn el Ma nager职员经理B enefi ts Co ordin ator员工福利协调员 Empl oyerRelat ionsRepre senta tive员工关系代表Perso nnelConsu ltant员工顾问T raini ng Co ordin ator培训协调员4 EXEC UTIVE ANDMANAG ERIAL(管理部分) Chief Exec utive Offi cer(C EO) 首席执行官 Di recto r ofOpera tions运营总监V ice-P resid ent 副总裁 Bran ch Ma nager 部门经理R etail Stor e Man ager零售店经理H MO Pr oduct Mana ger 产品经理Ope ratio ns Ma nager操作经理A ssist ant V ice-P resid ent 副总裁助理Fi eld A ssura nce C oordi nator土地担保协调员 Man ageme nt Co nsult ant 管理顾问Dis trict Mana ger 市区经理 Hos pital Admi nistr ator医院管理 Im port/Expor tMan ager进出口经理I nsura nce C laims Cont rolle r 保险认领管理员 Pr ogramMana ger 程序管理经理I nsura nce C oordi nator保险协调员Proje ct Ma nager项目经理I nvent ory C ontro l Man ager库存管理经理Regio nal M anage r 区域经理Chief Oper ation s Off icer(COO)首席运营官G enera l Man ager总经理 Exe cutiv eMar ketin g Dir ector市场行政总监 Cont rolle r(Int ernat ional) 国际监管FoodServi ce Ma nager食品服务经理 Prod uctio n Man ager生产经理 Ad minis trato r 医疗保险管理 Pro perty Mana ger 房地产经理 Cl aimsExami ner 主考官 Cont rolle r(Gen eral)管理员 Se rvice Mana ger 服务经理 Man ufact uring Mana ger 制造业经理 Ve nding Mana ger 售买经理 Tel ecomm unica tions Mana ger 电信业经理 Tr anspo rtati onMa nager运输经理W areho use M anage r 仓库经理Assis tantStore Mana ger 商店经理助理A dvert ising Mana ger 广告经理 Tra vel A gent旅行代办员S alesp erson销售员 Ac count ing A ssist ant 会计助理 Acc ounti ng Cl erk 记帐员 Acco untin gMan ager会计部经理A ccoun tingStall会计部职员Accou nting Supe rviso r 会计主管Admin istra tionManag er 行政经理 Admi nistr ation Staf f 行政人员Admin istra tiveAssis tant行政助理 Ad minis trati ve Cl erk 行政办事员 Ad verti singStaff广告工作人员 Airl inesSales Repr esent ative航空公司定座员 Air lines Staf f 航空公司职员 App licat ion E ngine er 应用工程师 Ass istan t Man ager副经理 Bon d Ana lyst证券分析员B ond T rader证券交易员Busin ess C ontro ller业务主任Bu sines s Man ager业务经理 Bu yer 采购员 Cash ier 出纳员 Chem icalEngin eer 化学工程师 Ci vil E ngine er 土木工程师 Cle rk/Re cepti onist职员／接待员 Cler kTyp ist & Secr etary文书打字兼秘书 Com puter Data Inpu t Ope rator计算机资料输入员 Co mpute r Eng ineer计算机工程师 Comp uterProce ssing Oper ator计算机处理操作员 Com puter Syst em Ma nager计算机系统部经理 Co pywri ter 广告文字撰稿人Deput y Gen eralManag er 副总经理 Econ omicResea rch A ssist ant 经济研究助理E lectr icalEngin eer 电气工程师 En ginee ringTechn ician工程技术员Engli shIn struc tor/T eache r 英语教师Expor t Sal es Ma nager外销部经理Expor t Sal es St aff 外销部职员 Fi nanci al Co ntrol ler 财务主任 Fin ancia l Rep orter财务报告人F.X.(Fore ign E xchan ge) C lerk外汇部职员F.X. S ettle mentClerk外汇部核算员 Fund Mana ger 财务经理 Gen eralAudit or 审计长Gener al Ma nager/Pres ident总经理Ge neral Mana ger A ssist ant 总经理助理 Ge neral Mana ger‘s Secr etary总经理秘书Hardw are E ngine er （计算机）硬件工程师 Imp ort L iaiso n Sta ff 进口联络员Imp ort M anage r 进口部经理 Insu rance Actu ary 保险公司理赔员Inter natio nal S alesStaff国际销售员Inter prete r 口语翻译Legal Advi ser 法律顾问 Lin e Sup ervis or 生产线主管 Mai ntena nce E ngine er 维修工程师 Man ageme nt Co nsult ant 管理顾问Man ager经理 Mana ger f or Pu blicRelat ions公关部经理M anufa cturi ng En ginee r 制造工程师 Manu factu ringWorke r 生产员工Marke t Ana lyst市场分析员M arket Deve lopme nt Ma nager市场开发部经理 Mar ketin g Man ager市场销售部经理Mark eting Staf f 市场销售员 Mark eting Assi stant销售助理M arket ing E xecut ive 销售主管 Mar ketin g Rep resen tativ e 销售代表Marke tingRepre senta tiveManag er 市场调研部经理M echan icalEngin eer 机械工程师 Mi ningEngin eer 采矿工程师Mu sic T eache r 音乐教师Naval Arch itect造船工程师Offic e Ass istan t 办公室助理 Offi ce Cl erk 职员Opera tiona l Man ager业务经理 Pa ckage Desi gner包装设计师P assen ger R eserv ation Staf f 乘客票位预订员 Pe rsonn el Cl erk 人事部职员Pe rsonn el Ma nager人事部经理Plant/Fact ory M anage r 厂长 Po stalClerk邮政人员P rivat e Sec retar y 私人秘书Produ ct Ma nager生产部经理Produ ction Engi neer产品工程师P rofes siona l Sta ff 专业人员 Prog ramme r 电脑程序设计师 Pr oject Staf f （项目）策划人员P romot ional Mana ger 推销部经理 Pr oof-r eader校对员Pu rchas ing A gent采购（进货）员 Qual ity C ontro l Eng ineer质量管理工程师 Rea l Est ate S taff房地产职员R ecrui tment Coor dinat or 招聘协调人 Reg ional Mang er 地区经理 Rese arch& Dev elopm ent E ngine er 研究开发工程师R estau rantManag er 饭店经理 Sale s and Plan ningStaff销售计划员Sales Assi stant销售助理S alesClerk 店员、售货员 Sale s Coo rdina tor 销售协调人 Sa les E ngine er 销售工程师 Sal esEx ecuti ve 销售主管 Sale s Man ager销售部经理S alesp erson销售员 Se llerRepre senta tive销售代表 Sa les S uperv isor销售监管 Sc hoolRegis trar学校注册主任Secre taria l Ass istan t 秘书助理Secre tary秘书 Secu ritie s Cus todyClerk保安人员S ecuri ty Of ficer安全人员S enior Acco untan t 高级会计Senio rCon sulta nt/Ad viser高级顾问S enior Empl oyee高级雇员 Se niorSecre tary高级秘书 Se rvice Mana ger 服务部经理 Si multa neous Inte rpret er 同声传译员 Sof tware Engi neer（计算机）软件工程师S uperv isor监管员 Sys temsAdvis er 系统顾问Syst ems E ngine er 系统工程师 Sys temsOpera tor 系统操作员 Te chnic al Ed itor技术编辑 Te chnic al Tr ansla tor 技术翻译 Tec hnica l Wor ker 技术工人Tel ecomm unica tionExecu tive电讯（电信）员 Tele phoni st/Op erato r 电话接线员、话务员Touri st Gu ide 导游Trade Fina nce E xecut ive 贸易财务主管T raine eMan ager培训部经理T ransl ation Chec ker 翻译核对员 Tr ansla tor 翻译员 Trus t Ban kingExecu tive银行高级职员Typis t 打字员W ord P roces singOpera tor 文字处理操作员5.立法机关 LEG ISLAT URE 中华人民共和国主席/副主席Pres ident/Vice Pres ident, the Peop l e’sRepub lic o f Chi na 全国人大委员长/副委员长C hairm an/Vi ce Ch airma n, Na tiona l Peo ple’s Cong ress秘书长 Sec retar y-Gen eral主任委员 Ch airma n 委员 Me mber（地方人大）主任Chai rman, Loca l Peo ple’s Cong ress人大代表 De putyto th e Peo ple’s Cong ress政府机构GO VERNM ENT O RGANI ZATIO N 国务院总理 Prem ier,State Coun cil 国务委员Sta te Co uncil or 秘书长Secre tary-Gener al （国务院各委员会）主任Min isterin C harge of C ommis sionfor （国务院各部）部长 Min ister部长助理A ssist ant M inist er 司长D irect 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fe_mechanical_engineering
MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGMECHANICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS Stress AnalysisSee MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section. Failure TheoriesSee MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section and the MATERIALS SCIENCE section. Deformation and Stiffness See MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section. ComponentsSquare Thread Power Screws : The torque required to raise, T R , or to lower, T L , a load is given by,22c c m m m Rd F l d d l Fd T µ+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛µ−ππµ+=22c c m m mL d F l d l d Fd T µ+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛µ+π−πµ=, where d c mean collar diameter,d m = meanthread diameter, l =lead, F = load,µ = coefficient of friction for thread, and µc = coefficient of friction for collar.The efficiency of a power screw may be expressed asη = Fl /(2πT )Mechanical SpringsHelical Linear Springs : The shear stress in a helical linear spring is38d FD K s π=τ, whered = wire diameter, F = applied force, D =mean spring diameter K s = (2C + 1)/(2C ), and C =D /d .The deflection and force are related by F = kx where the spring rate (spring constant) k is given byND G d k 348=where G is the shear modulus of elasticity and N is thenumber of active coils. See Table of Material Properties at the end of the MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section for values of G .Spring Material : The minimum tensile strength of commonspring steels may be determined from S ut = A /d mwhere S ut is the tensile strength in MPa, d is the wire diameter in millimeters, and A and m are listed in the following table.Material ASTM mA Music wireOil-tempered wire Hard-drawn wire Chrome vanadium Chrome siliconA228 A229 A227 A232 A4010.163 0.193 0.201 0.155 0.091 2060 1610 1510 1790 1960Maximum allowable torsional stress for static applications may be approximated asS sy = τ 0.45S ut cold-drawn carbon steel (A227,A228, A229) S sy = τ 0.50S ut hardened and tempered carbon andlow-alloy steels (A232, A401)Compression Spring Dimensions Type of Spring EndsTermPlainPlain andGroundEnd coils, N e Total coils, N t Free length, L 0 Solid length, L s Pitch, p0 NpN + d d (N t + 1) (L 0 – d )/N 1 N + 1 p (N + 1) dN tL 0/(N + 1)TermSquared or ClosedSquared and GroundEnd coils, N e Total coils, N t Free length, L 0 Solid length, L s Pitch, p 2 N + 2 pN + 3d d (N t + 1) (L 0 – 3d )/N 2 N + 2 pN + 2d dN t(L 0 – 2d )/NHelical Torsion Springs : The bending stress is given asσ = K i [32Fr /(πd 3)]where F is the applied load and r is the radius from the center of the coil to the load. K i = correction factor= (4C 2 – C – 1) / [4C (C – 1)] C = D /dThe deflection θ and moment Fr are related byFr = k θwhere the spring rate k is given byDNE d k 644=where k has units of N·m /rad and θ is in radians.Spring Material : The strength of the spring wire may be found as shown in the section on linear springs. The allowable stress σ is then given byS y = σ = 0.78S ut cold-drawn carbon steel (A227,A228, A229) S y = σ = 0.87S ut hardened and tempered carbonand low-alloy steel (A232, A401)Ball/Roller Bearing SelectionThe minimum required basic load rating (load for which 90% of the bearings from a given population will survive 1 million revolutions) is given byaPL C 1=, whereC = minimum required basic load rating, P =design radial load,L = design life (in millions of revolutions), and a = 3 for ball bearings, 10/3 for roller bearings. When a ball bearing is subjected to both radial and axial loads, an equivalent radial load must be used in the equation above. The equivalent radial load isP eq = XVF r + YF a , whereP eq = equivalent radial load, F r = applied constant radial load, and F a = applied constant axial (thrust) load. For radial contact, deep-groove ball bearings: V = 1 if inner ring rotating, 1.2 if outer ring rotating, If F a /(VF r ) > e,and5130where 8400and 56023602470,C F .e C F .Y ,.X .o a .o a ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛==−C o = basic static load rating, from bearing catalog. IfF a /(VF r ) ≤ e , X = 1 and Y = 0.Intermediate- and Long-Length Columns The slenderness ratio of a column is S r = l/k , where l is the length of the column and k is the radius of gyration. The radius of gyration of a column cross-section is,A I k = where I is the area moment of inertia and A is the cross-sectional area of the column. A column is considered to be intermediate if its slenderness ratio is less than or equal to (S r )D , where()and ,2yD r S ES π= E = Young's modulus of respective member, and S y = yield strength of the column material.For intermediate columns , the critical load is⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛π−=221ry y cr S S E S A P , where P cr = critical buckling load,A = cross-sectional area of the column, S y = yield strength of the column material, E = Young's modulus of respective member, and S r = slenderness ratio.For long columns , the critical load is22r cr S EAP π=where the variables are as defined above.For both intermediate and long columns, the effective column length depends on the end conditions. The AISC recommended values for the effective lengths of columns are, for: rounded-rounded or pinned-pinned ends, l eff = l ; fixed-free, l eff = 2.1l ; fixed-pinned, l eff = 0.80l ; fixed-fixed, l eff = 0.65l . The effective column length should be used when calculating the slenderness ratio.Power Transmission Shafts and AxlesStatic Loading : The maximum shear stress and the von Mises stress may be calculated in terms of the loads from()()[],88221223T Fd M dmax ++π=τ()[]212234884T Fd M d ++π=σ′, whereM the bending moment, F =the axial load, T =the torque, and d = the diameter.Fatigue Loading : Using the maximum-shear-stress theory combined with the Soderberg line for fatigue, the diameter and safety factor are related by 2122332⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛++⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+=πe a fs y m e a f y m S T K S T S M K S M n d where d = diameter, n =safety factor,M a =alternating moment, M m meanmoment, T a =alternating torque, T m =mean torque, S e = fatigue limit, S y =yield strength, K f = fatigue strength reduction factor, and K fs = fatigue strength reduction factor for shear.JoiningThreaded Fasteners : The load carried by a bolt in a threaded connection is given byF b = CP + F i F m < 0 while the load carried by the members is F m = (1 – C ) P – F iF m < 0, where C =joint coefficient, = k b /(k b + k m )F b = total bolt load, F i=bolt preload, F m = totalmaterial load, P = externally applied load,k b = the effective stiffness of the bolt or fastener in thegrip, andk m = the effective stiffness of the members in the grip. Bolt stiffness may be calculated fromdt t d t d b l A l A E A A k +=, whereA d = major-diameter area, A t =tensile-stressarea, E = modulus of elasticity,l d = length of unthreaded shank, andl t = length of threaded shank contained within the grip. If all members within the grip are of the same material, member stiffness may be obtained fromk m = dEAeb (d/l ), whered =bolt diameter,E = modulus of elasticity of members, and l = grip length.Coefficients A and b are given in the table below for various joint member materials.Material A bSteel 0.78715 0.62873 Aluminum 0.79670 0.63816 Copper 0.79568 0.63553 Gray cast iron 0.77871 0.61616The approximate tightening torque required for a given preload F i and for a steel bolt in a steel member is given by T = 0.2 F i d .Threaded Fasteners – Design Factors : The bolt load factor is n b = (S p A t – F i )/CPThe factor of safety guarding against joint separation isn s = F i / [P (1 – C )]Threaded Fasteners – Fatigue Loading : If the externally applied load varies between zero and P , the alternating stress isσa = CP /(2A t )and the mean stress isσm = σa + F i /A tBolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear:Failure by pure shear , (a)τ = F /A, whereF =shear load, andA = cross-sectional area of bolt or rivet.Failure by rupture , (b)σ = F /A, whereF = load andA = net cross-sectional area of thinnest member.MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Failure by crushing of rivet or member , (c)σ = F /A, whereF =load andA = projected area of a single rivet.Fastener groups in shear , (d)The location of the centroid of a fastener group with respect to any convenient coordinate frame is:∑∑=∑∑=====ni ini ii ni ini ii A y A y ,A x A x 1111, wheren = total number of fasteners,i = the index number of a particular fastener, A i = cross-sectional area of the i th fastener,x i =x -coordinate of the center of the i th fastener, and y i = y -coordinate of the center of the i th fastener. The total shear force on a fastener is the vector sum of the force due to direct shear P and the force due to the moment M acting on the group at its centroid.The magnitude of the direct shear force due to P isThis force acts in the same direction as P . The magnitude of the shear force due to M isThis force acts perpendicular to a line drawn from the group centroid to the center of a particular fastener. Its sense is such that its moment is in the same direction (CW or CCW) as M .Press/Shrink FitsThe interface pressure induced by a press/shrink fit is222222220.5o i o i o io i p r r r r r r v v E E r r r r δ=⎛⎞⎛⎞+++++⎜⎟⎜⎟−−⎝⎠⎝⎠where the subscripts i and o stand for the inner and outermember, respectively, andp = inside pressure on the outer member and outsidepressure on the inner member,δ the diametral interference, r= nominal interference radius, r i = inside radius of inner member, r o = outside radius of outer member,E = Young's modulus of respective member, and v= Poisson's ratio of respective member.See the MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section on thick-wall cylinders for the stresses at the interface. The maximum torque that can be transmitted by a press fit joint is approximatelyT = 2πr 2µpl ,where r and p are defined above, T = torque capacity of the joint,µ = coefficient of friction at the interface, andl= length of hub engagement.KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS, AND VIBRATIONS Kinematics of Mechanisms Four-bar LinkageThe four-bar linkage shown above consists of a reference (usually grounded) link (1), a crank (input) link (2), a coupler link (3), and an output link (4). Links 2 and 4 rotate about the fixed pivots O 2 and O 4, respectively. Link 3 is joined to link 2 at the moving pivot A and to link 4 at the moving pivot B . The lengths of links 2, 3, 4, and 1 are a , b , c , and d , respectively. Taking link 1 (ground) as the reference (X-axis), the angles that links 2, 3, and 4 make with the axis are θ2, θ3, and θ4, respectively. It is possible to assemble a four-bar in two different configurations for a given position of the input link (2). These are known as the “open” and “crossed” positions or circuits..nP F i =1.r Mr F n i ii i∑==122MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Position Analysis. Given a , b , c , and d , and θ21,242arctan 2⎛−±θ=⎜⎜⎟⎝⎠B Awhere A = cos θ2 – K 1 – K 2 cos θ2 + K 3 B =2sin θ2C = K 1 – (K 2 + 1) cos θ2 + K 3 , andac d c b a K c d K a dK 2 , ,2222321++−=== In the equation for θ4, using the minus sign in front of theradical yields the open solution. Using the plus sign yields the crossed solution.1,232arctan 2⎛−±θ=⎜⎜⎟⎝⎠E Dwhere D =cos θ2 – K 1 + K 4 cos θ2 + K 5E = –2sin θ2F =K 1 + (K 4 – 1) cos θ2 + K 5 , andab b a d c K bd K 2 ,222254−−−== In the equation for θ3, using the minus sign in front of theradical yields the open solution. Using the plus sign yields the crossed solution.Velocity Analysis. Given a , b , c , and d , θ2, θ3, θ4, and ω2()()422334sin sin θ−θωω=θ−θa b ()()232443sin sin θ−θωω=θ−θa c 2222sin , cos =−ωθ=ωθAx Ay V a V a 3333sin , cos =−ωθ=ωθBAx BAy V b V b4444sin , cos =−ωθ=ωθBx By V c V cSee also Instantaneous Centers of Rotation in the DYNAMICS section.Acceleration analysis. Given a , b , c , and d , θ2, θ3, θ4, and ω2, ω3, ω4, and α234, , where −−α=α=−−CD AF CE BFAE BD AE BD43sin , sin =θ=θA c B b22222223344sin cos cos cos =αθ+ωθ+ωθ−ωθC a a b c43cos , cos =θ=θD c E b22222223344cos sin sin sin =αθ−ωθ−ωθ+ωθF a a b cGearingInvolute Gear Tooth NomenclatureCircular pitch p c = πd/NBase pitch p b = p c cos φ Module m = d/NCenter distance C = (d 1 + d 2)/2whereN = number of teeth on pinion or gear d = pitch circle diameter φ =pressure angleGear Trains : Velocity ratio , m v , is the ratio of the output velocity to the input velocity. Thus, m v = ωout / ωin . For a two-gear train, m v = –N in /N out where N in is the number of teeth on the input gear and N out is the number of teeth on the output gear. The negative sign indicates that the output gear rotates in the opposite sense with respect to the input gear. In a compound gear train , at least one shaft carries more than one gear (rotating at the same speed). The velocity ratio for a compound train is:gearsdriven on teeth of number of product gearsdriver on teeth of number of product ±=v mA simple planetary gearset has a sun gear, an arm that rotates about the sun gear axis, one or more gears (planets) that rotate about a point on the arm, and a ring (internal) gear that is concentric with the sun gear. The planet gear(s) mesh with the sun gear on one side and with the ring gear on the other. A planetary gearset has two independent inputs and one output (or two outputs and one input, as in a differential gearset).Often, one of the inputs is zero, which is achieved by grounding either the sun or the ring gear. The velocities in a planetary set are related byv armL arm f m ±=ω−ωω−ω, whereωf= speed of the first gear in the train,ωL = speed of the last gear in the train, and ωarm = speed of the arm.Neither the first nor the last gear can be one that has planetary motion. In determining m v , it is helpful to invert the mechanism by grounding the arm and releasing any gears that are grounded.Dynamics of MechanismsGearingLoading on Straight Spur Gears : The load, W , onstraight spur gears is transmitted along a plane that, in edge view, is called the line of action . This line makes an angle with a tangent line to the pitch circle that is called the pressure angle φ. Thus, the contact force has two components: one in the tangential direction, W t , and one in the radial direction, W r . These components are related to the pressure angle byW r = W t tan(φ).MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Only the tangential component W t transmits torque from one gear to another. Neglecting friction, the transmitted force may be found if either the transmitted torque or power is known:,22mNTd T W t ==ω=ω=mN Hd H W t 22, where W t = transmitted force (newton), T = torque on the gear (newton-mm), d = pitch diameter of the gear (mm),N = number of teeth on the gear,m = gear module (mm) (same for both gears in mesh), H=power (kW), and ω = speed of gear (rad /sec).Stresses in Spur Gears : Spur gears can fail in eitherbending (as a cantilever beam, near the root) or by surface fatigue due to contact stresses near the pitch circle. AGMA Standard 2001 gives equations for bending stress and surface stress. They are:,bending and σ=ta mb s B I vW K K K K K FmJ Ksurface stress σ=c C , whereσb= bending stress,σc surface stress, W t = transmitted load, F = face width, m =module, J= bending strength geometry factor, K a = application factor, K B = rim thickness factor, K 1 = idler factor,K m = load distribution factor, K s = size factor, K v = dynamic factor, C p = elasticcoefficient, I =surface geometry factor,d = pitch diameter of gear being analyzed, and C f surfacefinish factor. C a , C m , C s , and C v are the same as K a , K m , K s , and K v , respectively.Rigid Body DynamicsSee DYNAMICS section.Natural Frequency and ResonanceSee DYNAMICS section. Balancing of Rotating and Reciprocating EquipmentStatic (Single-plane) Balanceiyni i byb ix ni i bx b Rm R m Rm R m ∑∑==−=−=11,⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=bx b by b b R m R m arctan θ()()22by b bx b b b R m R m R m +=where m b = balance massR b = radial distance to CG of balance mass m i = i th point massR i = radial distance to CG of the ith point massθb = angle of rotation of balance mass CG with respect to a reference axisx ,y = subscripts that designate orthogonalcomponentsDynamic (Two-plane) BalanceTwo balance masses are added (or subtracted), one each on planes A and B . iiy ni i BByB iix ni i BBxB l R m l R ml R m l R m ∑∑==−=−=111 ,1Bx B ixni i Ax A R m Rm R m −−=∑=1 By B iyni i Ay A R m Rm R m −−=∑=1wherem A = balance mass in the A plane m B = balance mass in the B planeR A = radial distance to CG of balance mass R B = radial distance to CG of balance massand θA , θB , R A , and R B are found using the relationships given in Static Balance above.MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Balancing EquipmentThe figure below shows a schematic representation of atire/wheel balancing machine.Ignoring the weight of the tire and its reactions at 1 and 2, 22120x x A Ax B Bx F F m R m R ++ω+ω= 22120y y A Ay B By F F m R m R ++ω+ω= 211220x x B Bx B F l F l m R l ++ω= 211220y y B By B F l F l m R l ++ω=11222x x B Bx B F l F l m R l +=ω11222y y B By B F l F l m R l +=ω122x xA Ax b Bx F F m R m R +=−−ω122y yA Ay b By F F m R m R +=−−ωMATERIALS AND PROCESSING Mechanical and Thermal Properties See MATERIALS SCIENCE section. Thermal ProcessingSee MATERIALS SCIENCE section. TestingSee MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section.MEASUREMENTS, INSTRUMENTATION, AND CONTROLMathematical FundamentalsSee DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS and LAPLACE TRANSFORMS in the MATHEMATICS section, and the Response segment of the CONTROL SYSTEMS section.System DescriptionsSee LAPLACE TRANSFORMS in the MATHEMATICS section and the Response segment of the CONTROL SYSTEMS section.Sensors and Signal ConditioningSee the Measurements segment of the MEASUREMENT and CONTROLS section and the Analog Filter Circuits segment of the ELECTRICAL and COMPUTER ENGINEERING section.Data Collection and ProcessingSee the Sampling segment of the MEASUREMENT and CONTROLS section.Dynamic ResponseSee the Response segment of the CONTROL SYSTEMS section.THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESSES Ideal and Real GasesSee THERMODYNAMICS section. Reversibility/IrreversibilitySee THERMODYNAMICS section. Thermodynamic EquilibriumSee THERMODYNAMICS section.PsychrometricsSee additional material in THERMODYNAMICS section.HVAC—Pure Heating and Cooling()Ckg kJ 0211212⋅=.C pm pm a aMECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)ωTωTCooling and Dehumidification()()[]()2121321outω−ω=ω−ω−−=a w f a m m h h h m QHeating and Humidification()()()ina 21w a 42w 42or Q m h h mm m ′=−=ω−ω=ω−ωAdiabatic Humidification (evaporative cooling)()()wbf a w T h h m m h h h at 31212312=ω−ω=ω−ω+= Adiabatic Mixing322113322113a a a a a a mm m m h ω+ω=ω= distance 3213a a __mm= × distance __12 measured onpsychrometric chartMECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Performance of Components Fans, Pumps, and CompressorsScaling Laws15325312222212222213231323⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛ρ=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛ρ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛ρ=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛ρ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛ρ=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛ρ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛DN W D N WD N P D N P D N H D N H ND m ND m ND Q ND Q whereQ = volumetric flow rate, m= mass flow rate, H = head, P = pressure rise, W= power, ρ = fluid density, N = rotational speed, and D = impeller diameter.Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to different but similar machines or to different operating conditions of the same machine.Fan CharacteristicsTypical Backward Curved FansfPQ Wη∆= , where W= fan power, ∆P = pressure rise, and ηf =fan efficiency.Pump CharacteristicsNet Positive Suction Head (NPSH )gP g V g P NPSH vi i ρ−+ρ=22, whereP i = inlet pressure to pump, V i = velocity at inlet to pump, and P v = vapor pressure of fluid being pumped.ηρ=gHQ W, where W = pump power,η = pump efficiency, and H = head increase.MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Cycles and ProcessesInternal Combustion EnginesOtto Cycle (see THERMODYNAMICS section) Diesel Cycle12r c = V 3/V 2()⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡−−−=η−11111c k c k r k r rk = c P /c vBrake PowerFRN TN W b π=π=22 , where = brake power (W), T =torque (N·m),N = rotation speed (rev/s),F = force at end of brake arm (N), and R = length of brake arm (m).Indicated Powerfb i W W W +=, where i W = indicated power (W), and fW = friction power (W). Brake Thermal Efficiency()HV mW f bb =η, whereηb = brake thermal efficiency, f m= fuel consumption rate (kg/s), and HV=heating value of fuel (J/kg).Indicated Thermal Efficiency()HV mW f ii =η Mechanical Efficiency i b ib m WW ηη==ηDisplacement Volume42SB V d π=, m 3 for each cylinderTotal volume = V t = V d + V c , m 3V c = clearance volume (m 3).Compression Ratior c = V t /V cbWMECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Mean Effective Pressure (mep)Nn V n W mep c d s=, wheren s = number of crank revolutions per power stroke, n c = number of cylinders, and V d = displacement volume per cylinder.mep can be based on brake power (bmep ), indicated power (imep ), or friction power (fmep ).Volumetric EfficiencyNn V mc d a a v ρ=η 2 (four-stroke cycles only)wherea m= mass flow rate of air into engine (kg/s), and ρa = density of air (kg /m 3).Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)J kg 1,HV Wm sfc f η== Use ηb and b W for bsfc and ηi and iW for isfc . Gas TurbinesBrayton Cycle (Steady-Flow Cycle)w 12 = h 1 – h 2 = c P (T 1 – T 2)w 34 = h 3 – h 4 = c P (T 3 – T 4) w net = w 12 + w 34 q 23h 3 – h 2 = c P (T 3 – T 2) q 41 h 1 – h 4 = c P (T 1 – T 4) q net q 23 + q 41 ηw net /q 23Steam Power Plants Feedwater HeatersMECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)MIDNIGHT6 AMNOON6 PMMIDNIGHTTIME OF DAYD E M A N D P O W E R , k WJunctionPumpSee also THERMODYNAMICS section.Combustion and Combustion Products See THERMODYNAMICS section Energy StorageEnergy storage comes in several forms, including chemical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal. Thermal storage can be either hot or cool storage. There are numerous applications in the HVAC industry where cool storage is utilized. The cool storage applications include both ice and chilled water storage. A typical chilled water storage system can be utilized to defer high electric demand rates, while taking advantage of cheaper off-peak power. A typical facility load profile is shown below.The thermal storage tank is sized to defer most or all of the chilled water requirements during the electric utility’s peak demand period, thus reducing electrical demand charges. The figure above shows a utility demand window of 8 hours (noon to 8 pm), but the actual on-peak period will vary from utility to utility. The Monthly Demand Reduction (MDR ), in dollars per month, is=∆on-peak MDR P R , whereReduced on-peak power, kW on-peak P ∆= On-peak demand rate, $/kW/month R =The MDR is also the difference between the demand charge without energy storage and that when energy storage is in operation.A typical utility rate structure might be four months of peak demand rates (June – September) and eight months of off-peak demand rates (October – May). The customer’s utility obligation will be the sum of the demand charge and the kWh energy charge.FLUID MECHANICS AND FLUID MACHINERY Fluid StaticsSee FLUID MECHANICS section. Incompressible FlowSee FLUID MECHANICS section.Fluid Machines (Incompressible)See FLUID MECHANICS section and Performance of Components above.Compressible Flow Mach NumberThe local speed of sound in an ideal gas is given by:kRT c = , wheresound of speed local ≡cvp C C k =≡heats specific of ratioconstant gas ≡Re temperatur absolute ≡TThis shows that the acoustic velocity in an ideal gasdepends only on its temperature. The Mach number (Ma) is the ratio of the fluid velocity to the speed of sound.cV ≡Ma velocity fluid mean ≡VMECHANICAL ENGINEERING (continued)Ma > 1Ma < 112NORMAL SHOCKINLET in Isentropic Flow RelationshipsIn an ideal gas for an isentropic process, the following relationships exist between static properties at any two points in the flow.()kk k T T P P ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=−1211212ρρ The stagnation temperature, T 0, at a point in the flow is related to the static temperature as follows:pC V T T ⋅+=220 The relationship between the static and stagnation properties (T 0, P 0, and ρ0) at any point in the flow can be expressed as a function of the Mach number as follows:2011Ma 2T k T −=+⋅()()12100Ma 211−−⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛⋅−+=⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛=k k k kk T T P P()()1121100Ma 211ρρ−−⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛⋅−+=⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛=k k k T TCompressible flows are often accelerated or decelerated through a nozzle or diffuser. For subsonic flows, the velocity decreases as the flow cross-sectional area increases and vice versa. For supersonic flows, the velocity increases as the flow cross-sectional area increases and decreases as the flow cross-sectional area decreases. The point at which the Mach number is sonic is called the throat and its area is represented by the variable, A *. The following area ratio holds for any Mach number.()()()()1212*121Ma 1211Ma 1−+⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡+−+=k k k k A Awhere A ≡ area [length 2]A * ≡ area at the sonic point (Ma = 1.0)Normal Shock RelationshipsA normal shock wave is a physical mechanism that slows a flow from supersonic to subsonic. It occurs over an infinitesimal distance. The flow upstream of a normal shock wave is always supersonic and the flow downstream is always subsonic as depicted in the figure.The following equations relate downstream flow conditionsto upstream flow conditions for a normal shock wave.()()1Ma 22Ma 1Ma 21212−−+−=k k k()[]()()212212112Ma 11Ma 2Ma 12+−−−+=k k k k T T()[]1Ma 2112112−−+=k k k P P()()2Ma 1Ma 1ρρ21212112+−+==k k V V0201T T =Fluid Machines (Compressible) CompressorsCompressors consume power in order to add energy to the fluid being worked on. This energy addition shows up as an increase in fluid pressure (head).For an adiabatic compressor with ∆PE = 0 and negligible ∆KE :()iecomph h m W −−= For an ideal gas with constant specific heats: ()iepcompT T C mW −−= Per unit mass:()i e p comp T T C w −−=。
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Met0928-1258 NEUROPATHOLOGY NEUROPATHOLOGY0919-6544 PATHOL BIOL PATHOLOGIE BIOLOGIE0369-8114 PATHOL INT PATHOLOGY INTERNATIONAL1320-5463 PATHOL ONCOL RES PATHOLOGY & ONCOLOGY RESEARCH1219-4956 PATHOL RES PRACT PATHOLOGY RESEARCH AND PRACTICE0344-0338 PATHOLOGE PATHOLOGE0172-8113 PEDIATR DEVEL PATHOL PEDIATRIC AND DEVELOPMENTAL PATHOLOGY1093-5266POL J PATHOL POLISH JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY1233-9687 SCI JUSTICE SCIENCE & JUSTICE1355-0306 SEMIN DIAGN PATHOL SEMINARS IN DIAGNOSTIC PATHOLOGY0740-2570 ULTRASTRUCT PATHOL ULTRASTRUCTURAL PATHOLOGY0191-3123 VET PATHOL VETERINARY PATHOLOGY0300-9858 POLYM TEST POLYMER TESTING0142-9418 PROG CRYST GROWTH CH PROGRESS IN CRYSTAL GROWTH AND CHARACTERIZATION 0960-8974 EXP MECH EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS0014-4851 MATER CHARACT MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION1044-5803 NANOSC MICROSC THERM Nanoscale and Microscale Thermophysical Engineer1556-7265 NDT&E INT NDT & E INTERNATIONAL0963-8695 ENG FAIL ANAL ENGINEERING FAILURE ANALYSIS1350-6307 J NONDESTRUCT EVAL JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION0195-9298 J SANDW STRUCT MATER JOURNAL OF SANDWICH STRUCTURES & MATERIALS1099-6362 J STRAIN ANAL ENG JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS FOR ENGINEERING DESIG0309-3247 MECH ADV MATER STRUC MECHANICS OF ADVANCED MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES1537-6494 MECH TIME-DEPEND MAT MECHANICS OF TIME-DEPENDENT MATERIALS1385-2000 RES NONDESTRUCT EVAL RESEARCH IN NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION0934-9847 STRAIN STRAIN0039-2103 ADV STEEL CONSTR Advanced Steel Construction1816-112X ARCH MECH ARCHIVES OF MECHANICS0373-2029 BETON- STAHLBETONBAU Beton- und Stahlbetonbau0005-9900 COMPUT CONCRETE Computers and Concrete 1598-8198 EXP TECHNIQUES EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES0732-8818 INSIGHT INSIGHT1354-2575 J TEST EVAL JOURNAL OF TESTING AND EVALUATION0090-3973 MATER EVAL MATERIALS EVALUATION0025-5327 MATER PERFORMANCE MATERIALS PERFORMANCE0094-1492 MATER TEST Materials Testing-Materials and Components Techn0025-5300 NONDESTRUCT TEST EVA Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation1058-9759 PART PART SYST CHAR 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MINERALS METALS & MATERIALS S1047-4838 KONA POWDER PART J KONA Powder and Particle Journal0288-4534 KOREAN J MET MATER Korean Journal of Metals and Materials1738-8228 KOVOVE MATER KOVOVE MATERIALY-METALLIC MATERIALS0023-432X LASER ENG LASERS IN ENGINEERING0898-1507 MACH SCI TECHNOL MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY1091-0344 MAG CONCRETE RES MAGAZINE OF CONCRETE RESEARCH0024-9831 MAT SCI SEMICON PROC MATERIALS SCIENCE IN SEMICONDUCTOR PROCESSING1369-8001 MATER CONSTRUCC MATERIALES DE CONSTRUCCION0465-2746 MATER CORROS MATERIALS AND CORROSION-WERKSTOFFE UND KORROSION0947-5117 MATER DESIGN MATERIALS & DESIGN0261-3069 MATER HIGH TEMP MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES0960-3409 MATER MANUF PROCESS MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES1042-6914 MATER RES INNOV MATERIALS RESEARCH INNOVATIONS1432-8917 MATER RES-IBERO-AM J Materials Research-Ibero-american Journal of Mat1516-1439 MATER SCI TECH-LOND MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY0267-0836 MATER SCI+MATERIALS SCIENCE1068-820X MATER SCI-MEDZG 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OPTOELECTRON ADV MAT Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials-Rapid Com1842-6573 P I MECH ENG L-J MAT PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENG1464-4207 PARTICUOLOGY Particuology1674-2001 PHILOS MAG PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE1478-6435 PHYS STATUS SOLIDI A PHYSICA STATUS SOLIDI A-APPLICATIONS AND MATERIA1862-6300 PLAST ENG PLASTICS ENGINEERING0091-9578 PROG NAT SCI PROGRESS IN NATURAL SCIENCE1002-0071 RAPID PROTOTYPING J RAPID PROTOTYPING JOURNAL1355-2546 RARE METAL MAT ENG RARE METAL MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING1002-185X RARE METALS RARE METALS1001-0521 RECENT PAT NANOTECH Recent Patents on Nanotechnology1872-2105 REV ADV MATER SCI REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE1606-5131 REV ROM MATER Revista Romana de Materiale-Romanian Journal of 1583-3186 ROAD MATER PAVEMENT Road Materials and Pavement Design1468-0629 SAMPE J SAMPE JOURNAL0091-1062 SCI CHINA TECHNOL SC Science China-Technological Sciences1674-7321 SCI MODEL SIMUL Scientific Modeling and Simulations1874-8554 SCI TECHNOL ENERG MA Science and Technology of Energetic Materials 1347-9466 SCI TECHNOL WELD JOI SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF WELDING AND JOINING1362-1718 SEMICOND SCI TECH SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY0268-1242 SENSOR MATER SENSORS AND MATERIALS0914-4935 SOLDER SURF MT TECH SOLDERING & SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY0954-0911 T FAMENA Transactions of FAMENA 1333-1124 VACUUM VACUUM0042-207X ZKG INT ZKG INTERNATIONAL0949-0205 SIAM J IMAGING SCI SIAM Journal on Imaging Sciences1936-4954 IEEE T MED IMAGING IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING0278-0062 REMOTE SENS ENVIRON REMOTE SENSING OF ENVIRONMENT0034-4257 INT J REMOTE SENS INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING0143-1161 ISPRS J PHOTOGRAMM ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSI0924-2716 PHOTOGRAMM ENG REM S PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING AND REMOTE SENSING0099-1112 PHOTOGRAMM REC PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD0031-868X EURASIP J IMAGE VIDE EURASIP Journal on Image and Video Processing1687-5176 IEEE J-STARS IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth1939-1404 IMAGING SCI J IMAGING SCIENCE JOURNAL1368-2199 INT J IMAG SYST TECH INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMAGING SYSTEMS AND TEC0899-9457 J APPL REMOTE SENS Journal of Applied Remote Sensing1931-3195 J ELECTRON IMAGING JOURNAL OF ELECTRONIC IMAGING1017-9909 J IMAGING SCI TECHN JOURNAL OF IMAGING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY1062-3701 J REAL-TIME IMAGE PR Journal of Real-Time Image Processing1861-8200 PHOTOGRAMM FERNERKUN Photogrammetrie Fernerkundung Geoinformation1432-8364 RIV ITAL TELERILEVAM Rivista Italiana di Telerilevamento1129-8596 SIGNAL IMAGE VIDEO P Signal Image and Video Processing1863-1703 SMPTE MOTION IMAG J SMPTE MOTION IMAGING JOURNAL0036-1682 ANN FAM MED ANNALS OF FAMILY MEDICINE1544-1709 BRIT J GEN PRACT BRITISH JOURNAL OF GENERAL PRACTICE0960-1643 J AM BOARD FAM MED Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine1557-2625 SCAND J PRIM HEALTH SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE0281-3432 AM FAM PHYSICIAN AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN0002-838X。
2013年的SCI杂志分区表
序号分区1121314151617181911011111211311411511611711811912012112212312412512612712812913013113213313413510079-6425PROG MATER SCI 0927-796X MAT SCI ENG R 1087-0156NAT BIOTECHNOL 1301-8361ENERGY EDUC SCI TECH1530-6984NANO LETT1523-9829ANNU REV BIOMED ENG1748-0132NANO TODAY 0360-1285PROG ENERG COMBUSTISSN 刊名简称1476-1122NAT MATER 1748-3387NAT NANOTECHNOL 1531-7331ANNU REV MATER RES1936-0851ACS NANO 0935-9648ADV MATER 1616-301X ADV FUNCT MATER 0734-9750BIOTECHNOL ADV 0079-6816PROG SURF SCI 0167-7799TRENDS BIOTECHNOL 0142-9612BIOMATERIALS 1947-5438ANNU REV CHEM BIOMOL0958-1669CURR OPIN BIOTECH1369-7021MATER TODAY 0360-0300ACM COMPUT SURV1558-3724POLYM REV 1613-6810SMALL0960-8974PROG CRYST GROWTH CH0950-6608INT MATER REV 1549-9634NANOMED-NANOTECHNOL 0897-4756CHEM MATER 1473-0197LAB CHIP 0021-9517J CATAL 1884-4049NPG ASIA MATER 1062-7995PROG PHOTOVOLTAICS0018-9219P IEEE 0956-5663BIOSENS BIOELECTRON 0079-6727PROG QUANT ELECTRONN NAT Energy Ed CURRENT BIOT ANNUAL REVIEAnnual Review ofPROGREMATERIALS SCPROGRESS IN EAANNUAL REV PROGR TREN ADVANCINTERNA Nanomedicine-PROG PROGRESS IN CRYSTMATERIALSACMCHEPROGRES PRO JO BIOSEN3613713813914014114214314414514614714814915015115215315415515615715815916016116216316416516616716816917017110883-7694MRS BULL 0959-9428J MATER CHEM 0738-8551CRIT REV BIOTECHNOL2040-3364NANOSCALE1096-7176METAB ENG1364-0321RENEW SUST ENERG REV 0008-6223CARBON0162-8828IEEE T PATTERN ANAL 1553-877X IEEE COMMUN SURV TUT 1053-5888IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG1754-6834BIOTECHNOL BIOFUELS0276-7783MIS QUART 0024-9297MACROMOLECULES 0749-6419INT J PLASTICITY 1742-7061ACTA BIOMATER 0960-8524BIORESOURCE TECHNOL1936-4954SIAM J IMAGING SCI 1744-683X SOFT MATTER 1613-4125MOL NUTR FOOD RES 0278-0046IEEE T IND ELECTRON 0065-2156ADV APPL MECH 1388-2481ELECTROCHEM COMMUN 0378-7753J POWER SOURCES 1040-8398CRIT REV FOOD SCI 1022-1336MACROMOL RAPID COMM 0927-0248SOL ENERG MAT SOL C 1089-778X IEEE T EVOLUT COMPUT 0360-3199INT J HYDROGEN ENERG1359-0286CURR OPIN SOLID ST M 0920-5691INT J COMPUT VISION 0737-0024HUM-COMPUT INTERACT 1475-2859MICROB CELL FACT 0304-3894J HAZARD MATER 1361-8415MED IMAGE ANAL 0129-0657INT J NEURAL SYST 0924-2244TRENDS FOOD SCI TECHJOURNAMEIEEE SIG IEEE TRANSACTIONINTELLIGENCERENEWABLE &CRITICALIEEE Comm BIOR ADVANC INTERNATIBSIAM SOLAR ENERGJOURCRITICAL REVIEW CURRENT OPINIONELECTROC MOLECULAR IEEE TRANSACT MACROMOLE ME HUMANMInternati INTERNATIONA IEEE TRANSACTIO INTERNATIONAJOURNALTRENDS IN721731741751761771781791801811821831841851862872882892902912922932942952962972982992100210121022103210421052106210720733-8716IEEE J SEL AREA COMM1566-1199ORG ELECTRON 1944-8244ACS APPL MATER INTER 0006-3592BIOTECHNOL BIOENG 1359-6454ACTA MATER 0306-2619APPL ENERG 0013-4686ELECTROCHIM ACTA 1941-1413ANNU REV FOOD SCI T 0885-8993IEEE T POWER ELECTR 0961-9534BIOMASS BIOENERG 0376-7388J MEMBRANE SCI 0925-4005SENSOR ACTUAT B-CHEM 0957-4484NANOTECHNOLOGY 0730-0301ACM T GRAPHIC 1063-6706IEEE T FUZZY SYST0308-8146FOOD CHEM 0570-4928APPL SPECTROSC REV 1077-260X IEEE J SEL TOP QUANT 1613-4982MICROFLUID NANOFLUID0360-5442ENERGY 1557-1955PLASMONICS 1741-2560J NEURAL ENG 0740-0020FOOD MICROBIOL 1387-2176BIOMED MICRODEVICES 0016-2361FUEL1565-1339INT J NONLIN SCI NUM 1617-7959BIOMECH MODEL MECHAN 0018-9200IEEE J SOLID-ST CIRC 0175-7598APPL MICROBIOL BIOT 1570-1646CURR PROTEOMICS 1385-8947CHEM ENG J 1468-6996SCI TECHNOL ADV MAT 0168-1605INT J FOOD MICROBIOL1178-2013INT J NANOMED 0268-005X FOOD HYDROCOLLOID0010-938XCORROS SCIACS Ap BIOTECHN IEEE TRANSACIEEE JOURNAL ON SORACM TR JOURN SENSORS APPLIEDBI ELAnnual RevieJou MicIEEE JOURNALELECTRONICSIEEE TRANBiomechanic IEEE JOUR INTERNATIONALINTERNATIONAL JONUMERICAL SIMULATION FBIOMAPPLIED MICRCInternati CHEMICSCIENCE AND TECFO1082109211021112112211321142115211621172118211921202121212221232124212521262127212821292130213121322133213421352136213721382139214021412142214321431-9276MICROSC MICROANAL 1751-6161J MECH BEHAV BIOMED1364-8152ENVIRON MODELL SOFTW0163-6804IEEE COMMUN MAG0010-2180COMBUST FLAME 0278-3649INT J ROBOT RES 1436-2228MAR BIOTECHNOL 1548-7660J STAT SOFTW 1615-6846FUEL CELLS 1388-0764J NANOPART RES 0266-3538COMPOS SCI TECHNOL0168-1656J BIOTECHNOL 0020-0255INFORM SCIENCES 0109-5641DENT MATER 1057-7149IEEE T IMAGE PROCESS 1083-4419IEEE T SYST MAN CY B 1556-603X IEEE COMPUT INTELL M 1392-3730J CIV ENG MANAG 0143-7208DYES PIGMENTS 1932-4529IEEE IND ELECTRON M 1452-3981INT J ELECTROCHEM SC1540-7489P COMBUST INST 0017-1557GOLD BULL 1093-9687COMPUT-AIDED CIV INF 1383-5866SEP PURIF TECHNOL0969-0239CELLULOSE 1045-9227IEEE T NEURAL NETWOR1359-6462SCRIPTA MATER 1549-3296J BIOMED MATER RES A 0896-8446J SUPERCRIT FLUID 0883-9115J BIOACT COMPAT POL 1532-4435J MACH LEARN RES0018-8646IBM J RES DEV0004-5411J ACM1066-8888VLDB J1931-7573NANOSCALE RES LETTMICROSJournal of the MecCOJOURNAL OMA Jou INFINTERNATIONALENVIRONMEIEEE COJournal of C IEEE TRANSAIEEE TRANSACTIONPART B-CYBERNETICSInternationalCOMPOSITEJOUR IEEE Com COMPUTER-AIDED CI JOURNAL OF BIOMPROCEEDINGSD IEEE InSEPARATIONJJOURNAL OF BIOJOURNAL OFJOURNA IEEE TRANSASIBM JOURNAL ONa1442145214621472148214921502151215221532154215521562157215821592160216121622163216421652166216721682169217021712172217321742175217621772178217920741-3106IEEE ELECTR DEVICE L 0018-9448IEEE T INFORM THEORY 1743-0003J NEUROENG REHABIL 0376-0421PROG AEROSP SCI 0378-3820FUEL PROCESS TECHNOL 1466-8564INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 0963-9969FOOD RES INT 1947-2935SCI ADV MATER 1758-5082BIOFABRICATION 0098-5589IEEE T SOFTWARE ENG0956-7135FOOD CONTROL 0066-4200ANNU REV INFORM SCI 0724-6145ADV BIOCHEM ENG BIOT1472-6750BMC BIOTECHNOL 0004-3702ARTIF INTELL 1524-9050IEEE T INTELL TRANSP1541-1672IEEE INTELL SYST 1556-4959J FIELD ROBOT 0736-6205BIOTECHNIQUES 1942-0862MABS-AUSTIN 0960-1481RENEW ENERG 1083-4435IEEE-ASME T MECH 1552-3098IEEE T ROBOT 0005-1098AUTOMATICA 1541-4337COMPR REV FOOD SCI F 0278-6915FOOD CHEM TOXICOL0196-2892IEEE T GEOSCI REMOTE1369-703X BIOCHEM ENG J 1089-7801IEEE INTERNET COMPUT 1069-2509INTEGR COMPUT-AID E 8755-2930EARTHQ SPECTRA 1570-8268J WEB SEMANT 0031-3203PATTERN RECOGN0272-1732IEEE MICRO 1053-587X IEEE T SIGNAL PROCES 1381-5148REACT FUNCT POLYMInnovative Foo Journal of N PROGREIEEE ELIEEE TRANSACFUEL P BANNUAL REVIEW OF INIEEEIEEE TRANSACTFOOD RScieADVANCES IN BIOCHEIEEE-ASME TRCOMPREHENSIVE RSAFETYJ ARIEEE TRANSACTIONSYSTEMSRINTEGRATEDIEEE TRANSACTIONSBIOCHEMPAFOOD AIEEEIEEEREACTIVEA JoIEEE TRANSA1802181218221832184218521862187218821892190219121922193219421952196219721982199220022012202220322042205220622072208220922102211221222132214221520887-0624ENERG FUEL 1359-835X COMPOS PART A-APPL S 1540-7977IEEE POWER ENERGY M 0008-8846CEMENT CONCRETE RES 0885-8969IEEE T ENERGY CONVER 0924-2716ISPRS J PHOTOGRAMM 1751-7575ENTERP INF SYST-UK0268-3962J INF TECHNOL 1536-1233IEEE T MOBILE COMPUT0360-1315COMPUT EDUC 0733-5210J CEREAL SCI 0191-2615TRANSPORT RES B-METH 0013-4651J ELECTROCHEM SOC 0733-8724J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL0090-6964ANN BIOMED ENG 1568-4946APPL SOFT COMPUT 0021-9614J CHEM THERMODYN 1134-3060ARCH COMPUT METHOD 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R0309-1740MEAT SCI1063-6560EVOL COMPUT 0950-3293FOOD QUAL PREFER 1536-1268IEEE PERVAS COMPUT 0924-1868USER MODEL USER-ADAP0038-092X SOL ENERGY 1536-1276IEEE T WIREL COMMUN1536-1284IEEE WIREL COMMUN1932-4553IEEE J-STSP 0018-9286IEEE T AUTOMAT CONTR 0254-0584MATER CHEM PHYS 0001-0782COMMUN ACM 1934-8630BIOINTERPHASES 1748-6041BIOMED MATER 0167-739X FUTURE GENER COMP SY 0304-3991ULTRAMICROSCOPY 0957-4530J MATER SCI-MATER M1569-4410PHOTONIC NANOSTRUCT 1552-4973J BIOMED MATER RES B 0963-8687J STRATEGIC INF SYST0925-8388J ALLOY COMPD 1532-2882J AM SOC INF SCI TEC 1077-2626IEEE T VIS COMPUT GR0045-7825COMPUT METHOD APPL M0166-5162INT J COAL GEOL 0167-9236DECIS SUPPORT SYST 0219-1377KNOWL INF SYST0011-9164DESALINATION 0889-1575J FOOD COMPOS ANAL 0960-1317J MICROMECH MICROENG 1063-6692IEEE ACM T NETWORK1064-5462ARTIF LIFE 0002-7820J AM CERAM SOC 0167-577X MATER LETT 0899-7667NEURAL COMPUTUSER MODELINGEVOLU FOOD Q IEEE WAUSTRALIAN JOURIEEEIEEE TRANSACMATERIAIEEE Journal ofIEEE TRANSACTIOCOMMJOURNALPhotonics and NanoJOURNAL OF BIOMEAPPLIED BIOMATERIALSCOMPUTER METENGINEERINGJOURNAL OF MATERFUTURE GEN JOURNAL OF SJOURNAL OF FDECIKNOWLEDGINTERNATION JOURNAL OF THE ASCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYIEEE TRANSACTIONGRAPHICSNEJOURNAL OF T JOURNAL OF MICROIEEE-ACM TRM2522253225422552256225722582259226022612262226322642265226622672268226922702271227222732274227522762277227822792280228122822283228422852286228721552-6283INT J SEMANT WEB INF0360-1323BUILD ENVIRON 0263-8223COMPOS STRUCT 1070-9932IEEE ROBOT AUTOM MAG 0018-9197IEEE J QUANTUM ELECT0890-8044IEEE NETWORK 0378-3812FLUID PHASE EQUILIBR 1083-4427IEEE T SYST MAN CY A0169-7439CHEMOMETR INTELL LAB 0017-9310INT J HEAT MASS TRAN 0196-8904ENERG CONVERS MANAGE1551-3203IEEE T IND INFORM 0001-1541AICHE J 0885-3282J BIOMATER APPL 0966-9795INTERMETALLICS 0098-1354COMPUT CHEM ENG 0018-9294IEEE T BIO-MED ENG0933-2790J CRYPTOL 0742-1222J MANAGE INFORM SYST 1057-7157J MICROELECTROMECH S 1051-8215IEEE T CIRC SYST VID 1432-8488J SOLID STATE ELECTR 0025-5408MATER RES BULL 1944-0049FOOD ADDIT CONTAM A1094-6977IEEE T SYST MAN CY C 1536-9323J ASSOC INF SYST 0142-0615INT J ELEC POWER 0888-5885IND ENG CHEM RES 1069-4730J ENG EDUC 1822-427X BALT J ROAD BRIDGE E 0920-5063J BIOMAT SCI-POLYM E 0893-6080NEURAL NETWORKS 1292-8941EUR PHYS J E 0890-6955INT J MACH TOOL MANU 0268-2575J CHEM TECHNOL BIOT 1550-4859ACM T SENSOR NETWORKInternational JournalBUILDIEEE JOURNINTERNATIONAL JOFLIEEE TRANSACTIONPART A-SYSTEMS AND HUMANSCOIEEE ROBOCHEMOMETRICS AN JOUCOMPUTEIEEE TRANSACTIONSTECHNOLOGYJOURNAL O ENERGY CO IEEE TranIEEE TRANSACTJournal of theMATER FOOD AD JOURNAL JOURNAL OF S JOURNAL OF MA JOURNAL OF MICIEEE TRANSACTIONPART C-APPLICATIONS AND REINTERNATIONA MANUFACTURE JOURNAL OF BIOMJOURNAL OF CHEMICBaltic JournINTERNATIONAL JOUSYSTEMS INDUSTRIAL & ENEUROPACM Tra2882289229022912292229322942295229622972298229923002301230223032304230523062307230823092310231133123313331433153316331733183319332033213322332330304-386X HYDROMETALLURGY 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JOENGINEERINGH ENMATERIALS SCIENMATERIALS PROPERTIES MICROST INTERNATIONACOMP JourFuIEEE TRANSACTTECHNIQUES SMARTSELECTROCHEAPPLIE SURFACEIEEE TRANSACTIONSIEEE TRANSACTIOMECJOURNAL OF INDUSIEEE TRANSA INTERNATIONAL JOPOBIOPROCESS STRUCTURAL HEA JOURNALCEMENTCO IDATA MININGJOURNTRANSPORTATION RMECHANICAL S MACROMOLECUJo3243325332633273328332933303331333233333334333533363337333833393340334133423343334433453346334733483349335033513352335333543355335633573358335930305-0548COMPUT OPER RES 0379-6779SYNTHETIC MET 1290-0729INT J THERM SCI 0929-5607ADSORPTION 1559-1131ACM T WEB 0959-1524J PROCESS CONTR 0040-6090THIN SOLID FILMS 1077-3142COMPUT VIS IMAGE UND 0925-9635DIAM RELAT MATER 1366-5545TRANSPORT RES E-LOG0169-4332APPL SURF SCI 0300-9440PROG ORG COAT 1520-9210IEEE T MULTIMEDIA 0160-564X ARTIF ORGANS 0098-3500ACM T MATH SOFTWARE0021-9568J CHEM ENG DATA 1556-6013IEEE T INF FOREN SEC0018-9162COMPUTER0195-6574ENERG J1545-5963IEEE ACM T COMPUT BI1932-4545IEEE T BIOMED CIRC S 0734-2071ACM T 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A Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering
A Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering*DAVID ELATA and ISAAC GARAWAYFaculty of Mechanical Engineering,TechnionÐIsrael Institute of Technology,32000Haifa,Israel.E-mail:elata@tx.technion.ac.ilThis paper describes a new introductory course developed at the Technion for freshmen Mechanical Engineering students.Through unconventional teaching methods,this course provides a clear overview of the different fields within Mechanical Engineering,and also provides a clear description of the engineer's work.By challenging the students to design devices that perform specific tasks,this course raises their awareness of scientifically relevant physical phenomena they encounter later in their studies.At the same time,it elucidates the importance and necessity of analysis tools such as simplified physical models of a system and mathematical formulation of its response.Working in small teams,the students conduct research and development and consult with senior peers and faculty,to optimize the design and construction of their devices.The quality of the devices they build is then measured within a framework of a dramatic competition between all teams.The competitive spirit is used to increase the motivation and involvement of the students,and to promote creativity.Following the competition,the projects are scientifically analyzed in class,and relevant physical models and related mathematical tools are presented.It is demonstrated that simple modeling and calculations may help in identifying and characterizing optimal solutions for engineering problems.In addition,the students are required to analyze the design process they have conducted,and many of the conclusions they draw are valid lessons that are relevant even to professional engineers.INTRODUCTIONUNDERGRADUATE ENGINEERING curri-cula emphasize fundamental courses in mathe-matics and physics in the freshmen year.These courses are designed to provide the students with basic analysis tools (physical models,their mathe-matical formulation,and techniques for solving the related field equations)and are therefore crucial for their success further on in their studies.At the Technion,as in many other universities,these courses are taught by the teaching staff of the mathematics and physics faculties,who are the most qualified for this task.As these courses are given to freshmen students of other faculties as well,they are generally given at facilities that are physically apart from the Mechanical Engineering (ME)faculty.For the same reason,these courses cannot elaborate the significance of the presented material to the specific field of ME.As a result,ME students often have difficulties assimilating the mathematical tools and physical models they are taught,and thus are unsuccessful in implementing them effectively when analyzing engineering problems.Some students even regard these funda-mental courses as just `another hurdle on the way to graduation'because they fail to see their relevance.Many students become frustrated because instead of getting the practical engineering training they anticipated,they are overburdenedby `theoretical material'.Due to this misperception and the lack of direct contact with the ME faculty,some students tend to feel detached and find it hard to identify with the engineering field they have chosen.Consequently,some students feel overwhelmed and lose their motivation to succeed in their studies,while others concentrate on attain-ing high grades rather than on internalizing the analytical material.Many students have an ambition to become engineers because of the popular perception of the vocation (`engineering promises financial,professional,and career opportunities').Also,many students choose ME as their major due to their natural affinity towards the field.However,once they begin their studies,they realize that they lack a clear and comprehensive understanding of the actual work of an engineer.This relevant perspective that they lack,can only be attained through practical experience in `real life'engineer-ing work.Often,students do not have the oppor-tunity to benefit from such an experience until they engage in engineering projects during their senior year.These academic hardships have a long-term effect that can be observed in the attitude of many junior and senior students towards their studies (as is evident in the students'solutions of exam questions and project assignments).It may even be argued that the same problems during the freshman year adversely affect the graduates by accustoming them to inadequate thinking and studying habits.*Accepted 18February 2002.566Int.J.Engng Ed.Vol.18,No.5,pp.566±575,20020949-149X/91$3.00+0.00Printed in Great Britain.#2002TEMPUS Publications.Due to their superficial comprehension of the basic analysis tools,many students tend to concen-trate on the`technique'of problem solving(i.e. choosing and using the correct formulae)rather than on developing habits of systematic analysis for solving problems.It appears that not only do many students have difficulties assimilating the theoretical material they were taught in their first year,but they also have difficulties in applying it later on in their studies.To help resolve these issues,a new course for freshmen students entitled Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering was developed.The objec-tives of this course are:1.Provide a clear overview of the different fieldswithin ME.2.Introduce the essence of engineering work andthe process of the design and development of new technological products.3.Help the students develop an awareness ofphysical phenomena that are relevant to ME.4.Raise the students'awareness to the importanceand necessity of analysis as a means of finding optimal solutions for engineering problems. 5.Acquaint the freshman students with the MEfaculty and their fields of expertise.The next section presents the teaching methodol-ogy developed to best meet these objectives.The course structure is then presented followed by case studies of specific projects carried out by the students in this course.TEACHING METHODOLOGYThe course is specifically designed for students in their freshman year.In this course,the students are encouraged to develop a personal perspective of the field of Mechanical Engineering and of the Engineering vocation.The aim is to simulate the process of design and development of a new product(in a limited scope),and to get the students emotionally involved in this process.Over a seme-ster of14weeks the students are given four design projects,each relating to a different field within ME.The project begins with a challenge that is presented in class,which requires the construction of a device that will perform a specific task.The challenge includes a pre-defined explicit formula for measuring the quality of the device,based on the device performance.Working in small teams (cooperative group work,[1,ch.8]),the students have three weeks to complete their design and build a device.The quality of the different devices is then measured in class within the framework of a competition between all the teams.The grade granted to each device is proportional to its quality relative to that of its competitors.As a result of this competition,the students are driven to find advantages over their peers(motiva-tion to learn[2]).In search of such advantages, the students consult with senior students,graduate students,teaching assistants,and faculty whose expertise is relevant to the project at hand.In this way the students develop,and learn the importance of developing,a network of profes-sional references.They create a mental map of the various fields of Mechanical Engineering,and familiarize themselves with the faculty and their specific fields of interest.Along with this`network-ing',the students also become familiar with sourcing relevant information,using textbooks, Internet sites,and various other sources. Contest day is conducted in a specific fashion to maximize team interaction and the spirit of compe-tition,while still retaining an academic context by emphasizing the scientific relevance of the observa-tions made throughout the competition.The contest begins with a preliminary popular vote in order to estimate the quality of all the devices based only on their appearance.Next,a member of each group is given five minutes to present his groups'device.This presentation includes the research and development that lead to the final design,the various models built and tested,and the device quality as measured by the group before the contest.A second preliminary popular vote is then conducted in order to estimate the quality of all the devices based on the information provided in the presentation.Then comes the competition that is recorded on camera for later reference.During the competition,the students are very attentive and closely observe the devices and their performance.Having invested much time and energy to create a product that is now being tested before their peers,the students become excited and emotional.The atmosphere in class provides an excellent opportunity to point out characteristic features of the device response(as will be described in the example projects),and add new notions to the students'vocabulary of physi-cal phenomena(stimulating Initial Learning[1]). Strong emphasis is given to the meticulous exam-ination of the device response,and to the process of articulating all observations.Simple,prelimin-ary explanations given at this stage seem to be very well assimilated due to the fact that the considered phenomena are visually apparent to the students. Although`tearing'devices apart in a competition is fun,the event is made academically meaningful only through the process of verbally analyzing and understanding the reasons for the success or failure of each device[3,pp.67±71].This analysis is performed during the next class meeting. Following the competition,each team submits a scientific report.This report describes the research and development process,the various designs that were considered,and the considerations leading to the final design.In addition,the students are asked to describe knowledge and information that would have enabled them to find better solutions for the problems they encountered.Writing this report encourages the students to consider the project in a broad engineering perspective,and to categorize the problems encountered by order of importance.A Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering567This also encourages them to acknowledge weak points in their design process.In our experience, this has shown to help the teams make better design decisions in subsequent projects,and help them prioritize and strategize early on in the design stage.Writing the report helps the students develop a clearer picture of the project as a whole,and helps them elucidate the relevance of the drawn conclusions.In some cases,as a result of this repetitive process of design,competition,and reporting we have seen complete changes in the performance of weak teams as the semester progressed.These teams realized that it was entirely up to them to determine the quality of their work and by imple-menting their conclusions they improved their performance in the following challenges.In the class meeting following the competition, the challenge is analyzed from a scientific and engineering point of view,and basic physical models and mathematical tools related to its analysis are presented.It is demonstrated that very simple`back of an envelope'calculations can help identify the dominant effects in a com-plicated problem,and can also help to outline characteristics of an optimal design for a specific problem.Each of the design projects is in effect a cycle of experiential learning[4].Through repetition of these cycles the students learn how to approach engi-neering problems while making use of the broad perspective gained from previous experience.THE COURSE STRUCTUREThe course is designed for a14-week semester with a single,3-hour meeting each week.In the first course meeting,an introductory lecture is given that describes the role of engineering in human culture.This lecture illustrates various things that technology enables mankind to do that nature has not intended.Examples are given from human activities such as:.travel over land and sea,and flight within the atmosphere and in space;.information storage and retrieval(from hand-written records to stored digital data);.instantaneous communication over vast dis-tances;.food supply;controlled environment;.medicine and biomedical engineering;.destruction capabilities(from the revelation of fire to H-bombs).The changes and advancement in these human activities are considered in perspectives of the last few decades,centuries and millennia.The broad picture that emerges reveals the importance of engineering and the crucial contribution of the technology it creates to modern life.At the end of this lecture the first design challenge is presented to the class.In the next two meetings,a mini-course on the development of a new product is given.Systematic methods for generating design concepts,and several approaches for categorizing these concepts are presented.Also,various methods for selecting the most promising concepts are described.Due to the fact that at this point in their studies the students do not have sufficient analysis tools, emphasis is given to preliminary experimentation with simple prototypes.Investigation of the reasons for success or failure of a prototype should lead to improvements of design concepts. In this mini-course,much attention is given to developing design concepts.Real life examples are discussed that demonstrate how the design concepts determine the success or failure of commercial technological products.This lesson is frequently learned in class from their own projects, as will be described in the following section. Every semester new and original projects are defined.Projects from previous semesters are documented in the course website[5]along with pictures of the various devices built and a few outstanding project reports submitted by the teams.This website serves as a reference source and a testimony to the resourcefulness and crea-tivity of previous students in their effort to create optimal devices.The four different projects are given in succes-sion;each project being tested three weeks after the problem definition was presented in class.In addi-tion to the projects,the students participate in a `tear-it apart'laboratory.The objectives of this laboratory are to expose the students to the mechanical engineering aspect of`hi-tech' devices,and to reconstruct the design considera-tions that relate to an existing product.In the next section,example projects are described followed by a detailed description of the`tear-it apart'laboratory.EXAMPLE PROJECTSThe intention of the first project in every seme-ster is to create drama and competition.This project will typically involve a direct battle between two devices at a time,or will require a controlled destruction of the devices.This dramatic beginning of the semester helps unite the teams into cooperative working groups,and invokes competitive spirits and high motivation. Subsequent projects,though still competitive, do not involve direct contact between devices. Rather,these projects are more closely related to specific fields within ME,and the competition is between the performances of each of the devices as measured in an isolated environment. These projects can be directly connected to fundamental ME courses.In this way they serve to raise the students'awareness of various physi-cal phenomena that they will encounter later on in their studies.D.Elata and I.Garaway 568A typical first project:ramming barrelThe challenge is to build a barrel of limited dimensions and weight that is driven by the elastic energy stored in a single standard rubber band. The barrels compete against each other in a`head-on'ramming competition within a narrow walled runway.When the barrels have come to rest,that which is farthest from its starting point is declared the winner.This challenge forced the students to consider conversion of stored elastic energy into kinetic energy,and the rate and efficiency of this conver-sion.Also,the students had to address rigid body dynamics(axial and angular momentum),and to consider possible competition strategies(preparing for unknown competitors).The winning device built by the students is shown in Fig.1.Although this device is not a cylindrical barrel,its design is in agreement with the challenge definition.As in this device,most of the devices connected a pendulum weight to the rubber band that was wrapped under tension around the barrel axis.The tension in the rubber band applied a torque that simultaneously lifted the pendulum and propelled the barrel into motion.In the meeting following the competition,the problem was analyzed by considering a simplified model(i.e.the mass of all parts was neglected except for the pendulum).This analysis proved that the maximal acceleration that could be obtained by this design concept is equal to the gravity acceleration g,and that this result is independent of the mass of the pendulum or the diameter of the device.To optimize the design, using this information,the mass and diameter of the barrel should be maximized within the pre-defined bounds in order to maximize the momen-tum at impact.This is an example of cases where simple analysis can increase the efficiency of the design process.This meeting also included an overview of physical phenomena that were observed in class and presented a map of the relevant undergraduate courses in which these phenomena are studied.Bridge of strawsThe challenge is to build a bridge from drinking straws and sewing thread only,with bridge span and other dimensions specified.The quality of a bridge is defined as the ratio of the maximal weight it carries to its own weight.In this project many students made use of their knowledge of trusses,taught during the same semester in the Statics course.Some quickly realized that a more creative approach would be required to win the contest.The winning bridge, shown in Fig.2a,carried200times its own weight. The bridge with the worst performance,shown in Fig.2b,carried only26times its own weight. The winning bridge relied on a primary tension string to carry the load while the beam structure, constructed from parallel straws bonded together, was purely loaded in compression.To impede the first mode of buckling,that the teamidentified Fig.1.The winning ramming barrel.A Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering569in early experiments,a secondary string was connected that impeded the upward deflection of the beam center (Fig.2c),and consequently increased the load-carrying capacity of the bridge.In their freshman year,ME students have not yet learned about buckling.Nevertheless,the students of the winning group were resourceful enough to identify the mode of failure and to try to impede it.The difference between the design processes of these two groups was that the winning group devoted 98%of their time to research and devel-opment,which included the construction of many simple model structures,and 2%of their timetoFig.2b.The least effective bridge ofstraws.Fig.2a.The winning bridge of straws.D.Elata and I.Garaway570build their contesting bridge.In contrast,the other group invested less than 5%of their time to derive the design concept (`beautiful arc bridges are supposed to be strong')and in the remaining time,struggled to build the bridge.The lesson that the concept design was dominant in determin-ing the performance of the product was clear to all.Following the analysis of the project,a general preview of solid mechanics and of the mechanical response of solid structures was presented.The phenomenon of buckling was described and exam-ples were given of products that make use of buckled elastic components.Candle-flame driven liftIn most thermodynamics textbooks,a simple system that converts heat into work is discussed.In this project the students were asked to actually build such a system.The challenge is to build a device that will lift a 50-gram weight using the energy emitted by a candle flame.The quality of the device is linearly proportional to the height to which the mass is lifted after 4minutes of operation.In search of possible solutions,some teams considered the concepts of hot air balloons or mechanical lifts driven by miniature steam turbines.However,experiments with prototypes revealed the impracticality of these concepts.All teams eventually settled on the general concept of using the candle heat to boil a fluid,and then use the produced steam pressure to lift the weight.While some devices failed miserably,the winning device shown in Fig.3a lifted the weight to a height of 3.5meters.The dominant factors that had to bedealt with in order to reach an optimal design were efficient combustion,efficient use of the heat,and thermal isolation to reduce heat loss.The winning team used a light bicycle pump (minimal heat capacity)that was coated with isolating thermal wool (Fig.3b).The pump was partially filled with a mixture of ethyl alcohol and water,and was then sealed.The candle was posi-tioned within a chamber that was designed to maximize heat transfer to the bicycle pump,with-out obstructing the air supply to the flame.A simple mechanism of pulleys amplified the exten-sion of the bicycle pump 14times (the students verified that the pump could withstand the pres-sure developed).The optimization of the device was so thorough,that only the exact amount of fluid required was injected into the pump.During the meeting following the competition,the challenge was analyzed.The physical quantities of heat and temperature were discussed and clarified.To explain why all the produced heat may not be converted into mechanical work,the Carnot cycle was described and simply explained (inevitably using some `hand waving').Shaking spaghetti towerThe challenge is to build a slender tower made of spaghetti sticks and glue that will endure an orbital motion of its base with frequency gradually increased from 1to 5Hz.The tower is to be at least one meter high,and have a cross-section that does not exceed a square of 4Â4cm.The quality of the tower is proportional to the maximal frequency it endures without collapsing,and inver-sely proportional to its weight.ThechallengeFig.2c.Principle of operation of the winning bridge.A Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 571definition does not restrict the amplitude of the structure deflection,aslongasfailure doesnotoccur.In an attempt to find the optimal solution,one of the losing teams consulted a Civil Engineering faculty member whose field expertise is structure stability.The team's device ended up looking like a very sturdy building frame designed to withstand an earthquake.The structure however was far too heavy.This team failed to realize that their design aimed at minimizing the amplitude ofdeflectionFig.3a.The winning candle lift.Fig.3b.Principle of operation of the winning candle lift.D.Elata and I.Garaway572was irrelevant to the problem definition.In contrast,the winning team,through many preli-minary experiments derived the optimal concept of a lightweight,slender,and flexible structure,which withstood the orbital motion without failure (Fig.4).The lesson from this project was that a complete understanding of the design requirements is crucially important.Moreover,expert advice is effective only when given within the context of the exact problem definition .In the meeting following the competition the dynamical response of deformable structures was discussed.Specifically the notion of natural frequencies and modes,mode coupling (e.g.,`cross-talk'between bending and torsion modes),resonance,the dependence of natural frequency on the deflection amplitude,and damping were explained.The relevance of these phenomena to technological products was emphasized.Often in dealing with new projects,students consult with faculty staff members that have relevant expertise.In many cases the students are referred to undergraduate textbooks,and then express typical frustrations such as `we know we can solve the heat conduction problem by solving this partial differential equation,but PDE's will only be taught next year'.Even though they do not always obtain complete answers,the students gain a preview of the material they will encounter later on in their studies.When they do finally enroll in these courses,they already have a general idea of what they are about to learn and the relevanceofFig.4.Schematic description of the shaking tower.A Creative Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 573the material.From student feedback this early exposure to advanced material helps them assim-ilate new material more efficiently later on in their studies.TEAR-IT-APART LABORATORYThe objective of this laboratory is to analyze an existing product and identify the considerations of the engineers whom have designed it.A computer hard-drive was chosen to serve this purpose as it includes many different technologies.By default, ME students assume hard-drives are designed exclusively by electrical engineers and physicists. This device is naturally identified as a`high-tech' component and the students initially fail to see its relevance to the field of ME.Through this lab the students realize that the mechanical engineer has an important role in designing computer hard-drives and that there is still much work to be done to improve these products.To give structure to the lab the students are given a list of leading questions that have to be addressed in the lab report.By considering the questions the students realize that there is an intention behind each and every component they see.They are encouraged to identify the problems that these components were designed to resolve. Working in teams,the students systematically take apart the hard-drive while documenting their find-ings in a way that facilitates writing the lab report.A few of the features in hard-drives that are related to the field of ME are:.aerodynamically driven filtering system;.venting system for pressure equilibration;.hydrodynamic bearing of the read/write head; .disk and head driving systemÐopen or closed loop controls,static and dynamic balancing, inertia reduction.Also,careful inspection of the dismantled device helps identify many manufacturing and packaging considerations.The electronics card is given special attention.A general overview of VLSI fabrication technology is given with emphasis on the mechanical properties of microelectronic devices and of the manufacturing machines.The processes used in microchip packaging,i.e.dicing, wire bonding,and polymer casting,are explained, and the mechanics and machines relating to each process are described.Although the structure and operation of hard-drives is well documented,it is only by direct personal investigation that the student can inter-nalize the operation principles of the device.More-over the differences between the hard-drives made by different manufacturers demonstrate that the solution to some engineering problems may be very diverse(even though engineering seems to be an`exact'science).Occasionally the dismantled devices reveal economic considerations affecting the design.For example,some hard drive models include a few extra disks whose read/write heads are not installed.In this way the production of the next generation of hard drives,with more disk space,can be manufactured in precisely the same process because the old and new models are identical except for the final connection of several read/write heads.This exercise as a whole educates the students to critically examine engineering products and to try and understand the broad considerations that lead to its design.In addition,this exercise encourages the students to learn from the experience of other engineers and thus make their own design process more efficient.CONCLUSIONThe course presented in this paper,addresses some of the difficulties experienced by freshmen ME students.Many of these difficulties emanate from the lack of a clear perception and under-standing of the ME vocation.One effect of this is that many students find it hard to see the relevance of the theoretical material they are taught. Another effect is that the students do not identify with the field they have chosen.Student feedback confirms that the course helps them develop a clear perception of ME,and also gives them a general idea of what engineering work is about.Moreover,the course prepares them for later studies in the sense that it shows the relevance of physical models and mathematical tools to engineering.The course provides a positive experience of personal involvement in the learning process. Through teamwork and competition with peers, the students gain an intimate perspective of the process of research and development of new tech-nological products.Also,the course assists in familiarizing the students with the faculty and their different fields of expertise,and in this way promotes the students'identification with the field of ME.An additional advantage of the teaching meth-odology is that it gives students an opportunity to considerably improve their performance as the semester progresses.During the course,many teams seemed to have suddenly realized that it was entirely up to them to determine the quality of their work thus stimulating them to demand more of themselves and realize more of their potential.The course and methodology presented in this work are continuously being improved.The course is currently being monitored by education experts in order to quantitatively measure its quality and its effectiveness in meeting the course objectives. AcknowledgementsÐThe authors acknowledge the support of the Ohio chapter of the American Technion Society(ATS)that is funding the new Cleveland Creative Design Student Laboratory.D.Elata and I.Garaway 574。
你对钻井了解多少？
你对钻井了解多少？一等1你对钻井了解多少?.C.Gohts,.着第二部分解释答案《WorldOil编者注:读者中谁读了《世界石油》1996年5月号上的钻井测验,现在也许对答案有自己的问题.(本刊注:测验和答案登载在本刊199"/年第2期64页)Goins先生将在这里解答这些问题,希望以他的论据来支持推荐的答案如我们在上一次说明的,我们是重复十年前提供的同一特辑的练习.我们再一次希望,这将既是激励也是教育,并且在钻一口井的事例中证实古老的格言,就是"许多事物变化.许多事物不变".关于钻井可以提出许多问题,它可以是知识,特别是机械技术的直接测验.选择所提出问题的目的不是要测验一般的知识,而是提出作者发现即使对于有经验的工程师也经常被误解的那些问题有些是直觉颠倒的,有些代表普通误解的,有些是关键性的,因为了解它们可以防止严重的井下复杂情况,有些是测验观察能力的,而有些仅仅是为了提高兴趣.经验指出有些答案受到怀疑.然而,作者的意见是这些是能容易地检验的,或者由文献证明是更合适的.本文试图为答案提供一个简要的,但是足够的基础,以及另外的参考文献, 在这些文献中答案看来是合适的.欢迎提出任何技术上有根据的不同意见.1.1000英尺5英寸19.5磅/英尺的E级XH接头的钻杆在空气中重多少?a.209000磅b.195000碚"\I/cE2.z李自俊译c.221000磅答案是209000磅,实际上是208900磅. APIRP7G列举包括钻杆加厚端和钻杆接头的单位长度重是20.89磅/英尺.2.如果你循环清水并用水力半径公式(D=D#_一Dt})来计算雷诺数,那么你更希望钻铤段环空还是钻杆段环空是紊流?通常的计算表明,钻杆段环空的雷诺数最大.用水力半径代替D;足:KDVp/ls:K(DIf—Df)Vp/,u环空速度由流量和环空截面积计算V:Q/A和A一(D目一Df)/4因此,通过代入R=4KQP/,vJr(D~目+Df)式中:Re——雷诺数;——单位常数;Q——流量;——速度;——粘度;A——面积;P——密度;D——直径因为井径和管径之和在钻杆段环空为最小,所以钻杆段环空算得的R大于钻铤段环三三)36国外站井技求第十二卷1997年第6期空的m.可以注意到,按照公式,如管径增大(间隙减小),忍减小;但是如井径增大(间隙增大),Re也减小.这似乎有点儿荒谬,但这个方程是通常采用的.实质上,当湿周增加时雷诺数减小.当钻井液或水泥浆的有效粘度算出来并用于时,则得相反结果,因为间隙较小处将较高这是因为窄间隙中剪切速率增大可使有效粘度降低和Re增大,使说明的条件无效.计算钻井液和水泥浆的雷诺数也应包括计算管子旋转在降低有效粘度方面的作用,但是没有简易的方法能这样计算.最后,明显的是为了避免紊流和井眼扩大(或者为了保证紊流注水泥),环空临界速度的计算是相当不确定的.而且,对于牛顿流体,钻杆段环空的井眼冲蚀将大于钻铤段环空的想法是几乎不可接受的.3.当你在一给定井上以一定的钻柱和钻井泵向更深处钻进时,为了获得最大钻头木功率,你应该需要更大的,相同的还是较小的泵功率?你需要较小的泵功率.这是因为,对于一给定的井眼和钻柱尺寸为了维持最大的钻头水功率或冲击力,地面泵功率必须随井深而减小.基本上,只有在大尺寸井眼中才需要大的泵功率获得合适的环空流速.任何钻头公司手册中设计程序的结果都将表明这个结论(如H.A.Kendall和w.C.Goins,Jr.所写的"喷射钻头最大钻头水功率,冲击力或射流速度程序设计",译文载《石油译丛》勘探和开发,1965 年第6期).必须保持最大的实际地面压力以便将液能最有效地传递给钻头.例如,在优化流量范围内,对于最大钻头水功率钻头压降应为地面压力的65,而管路系统压力损失为35,当钻杆接长时必须减少流量以保持地面压力和正确的压力比例.地面泵功率是压力和流量乘积的函数,因此泵功率要减步.4.当挠性(连续)油管下人井中时,循环压力应升高,降低还是保持不变?当油管从滚筒上展开成为非卷绕状时,它的总长的较高百分比部分成为直的,所循环压力将降低,因为循环通过直的管子的摩擦阻力要小于通过卷绕状管子的摩阻力.5,井中钻井液发生漏失,然后用清水灌注环空,在漏失深度处殛以下,静液压力是否减少?答案是不减少.当钻井液停止下降,它不是平衡裂缝延伸压力,就是平衡地层流体压力("开启"水道).如加入水,钻井液面下降.但的静液压力保持和裂缝延伸压力或地层流体压力相同而且,如果加入的水量是用环空容量计算,那么可算出水的高度.而如果假设裂缝是在套管鞋处,那么可以算出钻井涟高度.因为水的静液压力加上钻井液的压力等于裂缝延伸压力,从这些数字,可算出能建立循环的钻井液密度.要点是如果在初始漏失时井莰有流出,那么当水加入或套管鞋以上的钻井液用能建立循环的钻井液替代时,井将不会没有流出.在这些条件下为恢复循环不需要堵漏材料.6,如果套管柱在钻井液中悬离井底,(1)管柱底邮是处于拉伸,中性还是压缩?(2)套管柱是直的还是压曲的?管柱底部在钻井液中处于轴向压缩,但管柱是直的.如不计空气的静压,空气中管柱底端是处于轴向载荷中性和直的名词"浮力"最好的概念是对端面施加静液压造成的压缩力并不会引起压曲.M,F. Hawkins和monf写的"钻杆应力分析" (Drm.&Prod,Prac.,API,1949),用应变计表明,当井充满水时,井中一杆的底端是处于轴向压缩他们断定这会引起压曲倾向,但是后来修正了他们的假设.也见A.Klinkdenberg 的评论,"钻杆和套管的中性区及其对压曲和挤扁的重要性"(Dr|11,~Prod,Prac..AP1. 1951).在H,B.Woods的评论中指出,当一管柱的径向应力和切向应力的平均值超过轴向应国外钻井技术37力时将不发生压曲.在A.J.Chesney,Jr.和J. Garcia写的管柱的载荷和稳定性分析"中(paper69一Pet一15,ASMEPet.Mech.Eng., Conf.,Tulsa,Oklahoma,1969),把这个改变为稳定性力和轴向载荷概念更容易应用.要点是钻井液中的套管或钻杆柱有两个中性点一个点的下部管柱是压曲的,而其上部管柱是直的.另一个(总是较浚)是轴的载荷中性点这在图1中可以说明.悬挂于钻井{臣中在钻井{臣中梧开一点矗重(耳加一些钻压)橙开一些(■加一些钻压)图1轴向载荷中性点和压曲中性点%轴向应力:0径向应力切向应力其他参考文献是A.Lubinsky的"旋转钻柱的压曲研究(Dril1.&Prod.Prac.,API, 1950)和w.C.Goins,Jr.的"更好了解预防管柱的压曲问题"第1和第2部分(《w0r】dOil》Jan.&Feb.1980),以及讲到的其他参考文献. 只有在空气中,并且不计空气的静压,才可以这样说,当轴向压缩时管柱是压曲的,而当拉伸时管柱是直的.7.在下人起初几根套管之后,在什么时候井中流出钻井液?是当下人一套管单根时, 还是当套管坐上卡瓦时?在起初几根之后,钻井液通常是在套管柱不动情况下(坐上卡瓦)从井中流出.如果你不信这个,注意你的下一次下套管作业.下入套管加速钻井液的质量(也许是500000磅),而当套管恢复下人时钻井液并不是立刻从井中流出8.油管封隔器已解封,然后下人绳索工具,但在接近封隔器处遏阻.什么简单的操作可以使工具下至井底?给环空施加压力可以使工具下至井底理由是内压引起压曲(减少稳定性力),而外压使它变直(增加稳定性力)参考文献包括以上第6题注明的A.J.Chesney和J.Garcia(1969)的文章以及其他的.9.你如何确定环空中钻井液密度由于岩屑而增大的值?当停泵进行接单根时,放回水前的立管压力就是平衡岩屑载荷的压力,如下所示:△=dp/(0.052H式中:△户——密度增大的值,磅/加仑;——放回水前的立管压力,磅/英寸;H——井的真垂深,英尺.l0.起钻时如使用一精确的用于灌注井眼的钻井液罐,那么正常情况下你预期应灌人的钻井液量为等于,多于还是少于起出的钢材体积?灌注井眼的钻井液量为多于起出的管材体积滤失和从排放一边的钻杆内流出钻井液都造成钻井液的损失.这是有些公司采用起下钻登记簿的原因.I1.在循环而钻柱提离井底时,指重表显示的是少于,多于还是等于浮重?■■■■蠢簟+=●ll¨●一●■警囊^少予瀑1.下一次你开曩对浇纛柑l寰.由予豫撼外的舳■囊由和村蠢冲击力一宥上擒的忭用.1■■|'■相.'业一■一霉一■一●一栩■■■时?—IF■■煞■鼍予■由■蕾中性点,压缩还墨拉伸?接头是处于压缩,因为包括钻杆在内你将控制的按空气中重力来说是轴向中性的.然而,在静液压力接艇到倒开钻杆端部的一刹那,静液压力补偿这个差别,钻杆在长度没有变化下卸扣而粘扣.如倒扣上提拉力采用空气中重力值,压力将使钻柱缩短而在旋转中粘扣.为了参考,可见W.C.Goms,Jr.写的"更好了解预防管柱的压曲问艇第二部分(~Wofld叫'I,eb.1980).l3.钻井I■击器下人一9oo英尺钻镪桂的硪蕾下面.钻压为钻鼍滓一的帅,总深度墨l舯∞英尺,两钻井液密度墨lO磅/加仑.那么I一击曩墨处于轴向拉伸,轴向压缩还墨轴向簟荷中性点?圈2震击嚣受力答案是轴向压绾,并且这是个有许多误解的领域.这样装置的目的是将震击器下八一个不受压曲倾向的井段.正如钻柱应力的任何计算表明,轴向载荷中性点是在压曲中性点的上面,并且常常是在钻铤的顶部.参考文献包括W.C.G0ins,Jr.的文章,如上面第12题所注.l4.1'.s磅/英尺E缀xⅡ接头的钻杆(Nc—SO),其容积墨等于,小于还是大于s缀的,謇撰太予S■的.羹曩由墨攮羲垒郝是由哺一种悄●I造的.当.{f杆悄圾摄嵩对应把接头■避棒■煞(内强小些),以保持管体和接头抗摁强度闻的平衡.因此较低锕般的钻杆有着较大的容积,见APISpec.5D.15?PlD5,PI10和T95这三种管材钢级哪一种墨API油管用钢级,API套管用橱级或者=者都不用的钢级?答案是~P105是二者都不用的钢级;P110是API油管用钢级;而P110和T95都是API 套管用钢级.APISpee.5CT,第4版,1992,停止P105作为油管用钢级并规定T95作为套管用钢级.16.在一次溢流后正在用加重钻井液循环压井.在压井用加重钻井液返到地面以前由于环空堵塞而发生卡钻.立管压力为零,套压救捧.在钻镊顶部倒扣,井将保持静止,开始流出还墨漏失?井也许开始流出因为环空内钻井液的密度较小,倒扣时,地层压力大于静液压力而钻井液开始流出.为了防止这个,倒扣前应该用水泥将钻铤堵住,如有些人曾从他们的教训中学习到的.另一方面,用另一"管线"把高的压力引导到上都井段是难于把溢流压制住的. 17.在井深l00O英尺处用19.5磅/英尺x级钻杆以平衡法注水jJ已塞.为了在一规则并最内m●水泥爰隔离水选劐平衡,你采用5英寸mu钻杆的容积值(0.01776桶/英尺)加上从注水泥泵到钻杆的管线客积.那么你是精确地平衡了,少替了还是多警了约5桶隔离水和/或钻井液进人水泥塞位置?你是多替了.在计算通过钻杆往下的顶替量时,总是应该考虑到接头和钻杆加厚部分,但这部分体积常被忽视.这是水泥塞常常是软的一个原因在这个例子中,5桶的多替量表示在水泥塞中有280英尺隔离液.APISpec.5D表明尺寸.而有些公司有它们自己的表明实际值的容积表和顶替量表.通常,最好是削减顶替量使之这不到目标,而让生成密度较大国外钻井技术39的水泥塞l8.对于在钻井液中的钻杆,或者悬挂着压在井底或者放松的情况下,下面哪个是真实的;处在轴向压缩但是直的,处在轴向拉伸但是压曲的,处在轴向压缩且是压曲的或者处在轴向拉伸且是直的?实际上,全都是正确的.应该修--I'q压曲课程以证明所有这些,而且它们在Lubinsky,Chesney和Garcia(经常参考的)以及其他人的论文中所描述的压曲判断准则中都有证明.例如,Lubinsky对于压在封隔器上的油管的虚构压曲力是:Ff"=Ff+F..=A(pi—p)+F(A—Po)+一F当F是正的,F或可以是正的(压缩)或者是负的(拉伸),如是负的,没有压曲而F可以是正的或是负的.式中——封隔器通孔截面积,英寸;A,A——封隔器处的内外压力,磅/英寸#——虚构压曲力,磅;F——存在封隔器约束下的虚构压曲力,磅;F——油管对封隔器的力,磅;——自由活动的油管底端存在的压缩力,磅;——由于压力和封隔器约束在油管底端存在的压缩力,磅.19.为了下套管你装上10粮钢丝绳代替8根钢丝绳.如不计钢丝绳重,那么并架受的载荷是不变,变小还是变大?.载荷是变小.这是因为死和快绳跨过矢车滑轮并连至井架大腿或绞车.因此,这些钢丝绳中减少了的拉坦使井式腿中裁荷嚣.这个例子之一如下:.用8根钢丝绳,每根钢丝绳拉力为w/8,则井架载荷为w+2(W/8)一1,25W.用10根钢丝绳,每根钢丝绳拉力为w/1O,则井架载荷为w+2(w/lo)=1.;w20.在墨西哥海湾威其它主要墨磅岩和页岩的地区钻井,并渭往往发生在最近下_人的套管鞋处最近下人的套蕾鞋下!oo英尺以内,最近下入的套管鞋下500英尺以内还是井底7答案是,最近下入的套管鞋下500英尺以内——但是例子中只有约80是这样其它20或许显着地在50O英尺以下.见w.e eoins,jr.写的"如何与井漏斗争"中现场数据(《Od8LGasJ.}June9,195Z)在29次例子中漏失深度是通过地面泵入和转子流量检测搜找出的.在套管鞋处请失的假定,并以几英尺操眼进行的泄漏试验,使对潺失深度的估计有某些不准确..方钻杆的激动压力较大并有一负的激动压力原因是与问题7给出的相同,随着钻井液减速时的激动之后井底压力有一降低.当一立根下入时,有一些液流经过钻头返流,而钻井液没有加速到象方钻杆下入时或在钻柱中有一止回阀时相同的程度.参考文献与问题20中的相同,那里实际的井底压力是量溯了的.1●一22.溢流发生后你正在控制立管压力不变下循环排出侵人的地层流体.你使循环l加快并通过调节节流器而控制同一立管压力你这榉是使井底压力升高,降低还是不变?答案是降低.更多部分的立管压力成为克服摩阻的循环压力,所以井底压力是降低的.在井控中这是一个关键性概念,而且经常是被误解的.当循环速度增大时,甚至在地面压力增加情况下可以导致井底压力降低.必须保持循环速度不变以避免在溢流控制期间的混乱状态.40国界站井技求第十二卷1997年第6期23你钻一口直井,下人技术套管,水泥返高为套管下人深度的2o%,并在同井时以垂蕾的叁童来悬挂.l然后你提高钻井液密度向史深处钴进.你将造成套管上显着的压曲和磨损昵连蹇在套管垂直度上没有变化?鞲造成庄曲套管内钻井液密度的提高和水泥面以上平均温度的升高,二者都会压曲套管.压曲大小将决定于水泥面附近井眼扩大情况,假设水泥面以下不发生压曲(一些例子曾报告过).如水泥面增高,那里将较少压曲,但只有套管外水泥返到地面,压曲倾向通常才会消除.参考文献包括TB.Dellinger和J.C. McLean写的"防止中间套管柱部分注水泥时的不稳定"(SPEFallM&ting,LasV egas, Nevada,Sept.30～Oct.3,1973)以及Chesney和Gareia的文章.24.一般用半许算破裂压力的当量钻井液密度公式l墨破裂压力物理过程的基本表达式,裂缝延伸压,】物撞过挥的基本表达式,还是采用由经验导出的基岩应力系数的裂缝延伸压力方程?答案是裂缝延伸压力方程实际上,有裂缝破裂压力和延伸压力的事实在文献中并不总是理解清楚的.并且因为那里并没有破裂压力的基本方程,就修改了裂缝延伸压力方程.Hubbert和W]llis提出了裂缝延伸压力的基本方程. Maffhews和Keuy测量了墨西哥海湾经验的基岩应力系数K和深度的关系,然后用这些计算破裂压力.Eatqn做了相同的工作以获得代替圮的.在Eaton的赢程中,定义为_?白松比,但它也是经验的下面给出描述裂缝破裂机理的基本方程和有关概念的说明:尸/H—US~H)一(p/h)+(p/H)基岩应力系数K=i1Hubbert和Willis—K.Maffhews和Kelly一/(1一)Eaton式中尸——裂缝延伸压力;——深度;S——上覆岩层压力;P——孔隙压力或流体压力;——基岩应力系数(水平的对垂直的基岩应力之比);——泊松比.P'ct■S●一pl*图3裂缝延伸压力图参考文献包括:M.K.Hubbert和D.G.Willis写的"水力压裂机理(J.Pet.Tech..June1957);W.R.Mafhews和J.Kelly写的如何预测地层压力和破裂压力梯度(Oil&. GasJ.,Feb.2o,1967);B.E.Eaton写的"破裂压力梯度预测及其在钻井,增产和二次采油作业中的应用"(SPE2163,1968).25.你用纯水泥对渗透性砂层挤水泥,得到最后的并底挤注压力等于上覆岩层压力.那么对着射孔孔眠(以及其上几英尺)的套管中的水泥是:与还在工作管柱内的水泥性质一样的水泥浆,同体的水泥滤饼,还是密度稍微增国外钻井技术4l大的水泥浆?套管内充满水泥滤饼.H.J.Beach,T.B.O'Brien和W.C.Goins,Jr.用挤水泥作业后横过射孔孔眼切割一水泥岩心来说明(见"挤水泥中滤失的作用",Dril1.&Prod.Prac.,API. 1961)不是水泥浆,而是滤饼的密度在2O磅/加仑以上.当清楚地认识到纯水泥的API滤失量是1200~1400cc时,这是可以理解的了除非滤失得到控制,不然产生的滤饼可以将一些射孔孔眼与最后的挤注压力隔绝起来. 26.在一口钻着的井中套管内压力在下列哪一个条件下最大:井喷并在干天然气博况下关井时,还是爰生大的天然气溢流并关井时?答案是,当井喷并关井时,最大套压将是井底压力或者破裂压力中的较小者减去天然气自重从该处到地面的压力.如果有些钻井液留在井中,套压将是较小的,虽然有些套管设计者为内压设计选择的管子抗内压屈服值是基于有溢流井关井的情况.27.一套工作压力5000磅/英寸(试验压力10000磅,英寸)的防喷器在关闭时是设计用来控制5000,10000,还是7500磅/英寸的压力的?答案是5000磅/英寸.API试验压力是一种只在阀开启下进行的体部试验压力.试压只施加工作压力.否则应在为关闭的阀的设计中包括有要求.虽然防喷器有时也许控制高于工作压力的,但它们不是可信赖的'28.你在钻一个厚的含气砂层,当气侵钻井液到达地面时,钻井液密度由l8降至9磅/ 加仑.那么井底压力的降低值约相当于1,2, 还是小于0.2磅/加仑?答案是小于0.2磅,力Ⅱ仑.即使从底部到顶部每一桶钻井液中含有相同质量的气体,由于气体的压缩,9磅/加仑的气侵钻井液随着深度而迅速使密度增加,所以到底部它的平均密度是17.8磅/加仑.可参考W.C.Goins,Jr.和R.Sheffield写的《防止井喷》第二版. 29.你在用司钻法循环排出侵人的地层流体.当气体的主要部分经过表层套管鞋时, 套压连续上升,那么套管鞋处压力将升高,降低,还是保持不变?压力保持不变.这里你是用井底压力不变的方法循环排出侵入的地层流体,因此,当气体后面的钻井液到达套管鞋时,套管鞋以下的静液压力是不变的.这样,即使套压升高并且然后降低,套管鞋处压力仍是保持不变. 30.你在接近等于孔隙压力的情况下钻过两个砂层,滤液侵害更大些的是有着渗透率100毫达西,孔隙度20的一层呢,还是有着渗透率5毫达西,孔隙度5的一层?答案是渗透率5毫达西,孔隙度5的一层.这是因为钻井液滤饼渗透率是在10-a毫达西的量级上,而且总是完全地控制着滤失速率.相同时间内的相同滤失量能更深地侵害孔隙度低的地层.31.泵的水锤效应是由于脉动消除不充分,吸人压头不足,活塞在未充满的液缸中冲撞钻井液,还是活塞慢时钻井液冲撞活塞?因为压头不足,钻井液冲撞活塞.充足的压头将消除这个问题.如果活塞在其冲程开始时动得比允许钻井液在后头注满的惯性快.造成了一空隙.当活塞在其冲程终点处缓慢时,钻井渡赶上,锤击活塞.参考见S.L.Collier写的《钻井泵手册》(GulfPublishingCo..Hous ton,1983).Collier用压力记录仪进行大量试验证明该论点.(译自《WoldOID1996年6月号)。
[整理版]英语名词描述词动词后缀
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名词后缀（1）具有某种职业或动作的人1）-n, -in, 表示"……地方的人，精通……的人“mericn, historin,2）-l, 表示"具有……职务的人" principl,3）-nt,-ent, 表示"……者“merchnt, gent, servnt, student,4）-r, 表示"……的人“scholr, lir, peddler5）-rd, -rt, 表示"做……的人“cowrd, lggrd, brggrt（夸张者）6）-rin, 表示"……派别的人，……主义的人“humnitrin, vegetrin7）-ry, 表示"从事……的人" secretry, missionry8）-nt, 表示"具有……职责的人" cndidte, grdute9）-tor, 表示"做……的人" eductor, specultor（投机者）10）-crt, 表示"某种政体，主义的支持者" democrt, bureucrt11）-ee, 表示"动作承受者" employee, exminee12）-eer, 表示"从事于……人" engineer, volunteer13）-er, 表示"从事某种职业的人, 某地区，地方的人" bnker, observer, Londoner, villger14）-ese, 表示" ……国人，………地方的人“Jpnese, Cntonese15）-ess, 表示"阴性人称名词，ctress, hostess, mngeress16）-eur, 表示"……家“mteur, littérteur17）-in, 表示"……地方人，信仰…….教的人，从事……职业的人“Christin, physicin（内科医生），musicin18）-icin, 表示"精通者，……家，“electricin, mgicin, technicin19）-icist, 表示"……家，…….者, …….能手“physicist, phoneticist, technicist20）-ic, 表示"……者，……师" mechnic, critic21）-ie, 表示"爱，指小" derie, untie, lssie（小姑娘）22）-ier, 表示"从事……职业“cvlier, clothier, brzier（黄铜匠）23）-ine, in, 表示"阴性人称" heroine, bllerin24）-ist, 表示"从事……研究者，信仰……主义者" pinist, communist, dentist, rtist, chemist25）-ive, 表示"动作者，行为者“ntive, cptive26）-logist, 表示"……学家，研究者" biologist, geologist（地质学家）27）-or, 表示"……者" uthor, doctor, opertor,28）-ster, 表示"做…….事情的人“youngster, gmester（赌徒），songster29）-yer, 表示"从事……职业者“lwyer（2）. 构成，具有抽象名词的含义本文1）-cy, 表示"性质，状态，境遇" ccurcy, diplomcy2）-ge, 表示"状态，行为，身份及其结果，总称" courge, storge, mrri ge3）-l, ）表示"事物的动作，过程“reusl, rrivl, survivl, denil, pprovlb）表示具体的事物mnul, signl, editoril, journl4）-nce, -ence表示"性质，状况，行为，过程，总量，程度“endurnce, importnce, diligence, dierence, obedience5）-ncy, -ency, 表示"性质，状态，行为，过程" requency, urgency, ei ci ency,6）-bility, 表示"动作，性质，状态" possibility, esibility,7）-crt, 表示"工艺，技巧“woodcrt, hndicrt, sttecrt（治国策）8）-crcy, 表示"统治，支配" bureucrcy, democrcy9）-cy, 表示"性质，状态，职位，级别" bnkruptcy（破产），supremcy10）-dom, 表示"等级，领域，状态" reedom, kingdom, wisdom11）-ery, -ry, 表示"行为，状态，习性" brvery, bribery, rivlry12）-ety, 表示"性质，状态“vriety, dubiety（怀疑）13）-ction, -cture, 表示"作成，……化，作用" stisction, mnucture14）-hood, 表示"资格，身份, 年纪，状态" childhood, mnhood, l sehood15）-ice, 表示"行为，性质，状态" notice, justice, service16）-ine, 表示"带有抽象概念" medicine, discipline, mine17）-ing, 表示"动作的过程，结果" building, writing, lerning18）-ion, -sion, -tion, -tion, -ition, 表示"行为的过程，结果，状况" ction, solution, conclusion, destruction, expression, correction19）-ise, 表示"性质，状态“exercise, merchndise（商业）20）-ism, 表示"制度，主义，学说，信仰，行为" socilism, criticism, colloquilism, heroism21）-ity, 表示"性质，状态，程度“purity, relity, bility, clmity22）-ment, 表示"行为，状态，过程，手段及其结果tretment, movement, judgment, punishment, rgument23）-mony, 表示"动作的结果，状态" ceremony, testimony24）-ness, 表示"性质，状态，程度" goodness, kindness, tiredness, riendliness25）-or, -our, 表示"动作，性质，状态" vor, error,26）-osity, 表示"动作，状态“curiosity27）-ship, 表示"情况，性质，技巧，技能及身份，职业“hrdship, membership, riendship 28）-th, 表示"动作，性质，过程，状态" depth, welth, truth, l ength, growth29）-tude, 表示"性质，状态，程度" ltitude, ltitude（海拔）30）-ure, 表示"行为，结果" exposure, pressure, ilure, proc edure（手续），31）-y, 表示"行为的结果，状态，性质“glory, history, victory, i nqui ry（3）带有场所，地方的含义1）-ge, 表示"住所，地点" villge, cottge2）-ry, 表示"住所，场地" librry, grnry （谷仓）3）-ery, ry, 表示"工作场所，饲养所，地点" lundry, nursery, surgery（手术室）4）-ory, 表示"工作场所，住处" ctory, dormitory, lbortory, observtory（4）带有学术，科技含义1）-grpy, 表示"……学，写法“biogrphy, clligrphy, geogrphy2）-ic, ics, 表示"……学……法" logic, mechnics, optics, electronics3）-ology, 表示"……学……论“biology, zoology, technology（工艺学）4）-nomy, 表示"……学……术" stronomy, economy, bionomy（生态学）5）-ery, 表示"学科，技术" chemistry, cookery, mchinery6）-y, 表示"……学，术，法“photogrphy, philosophy（5）表示人和事物的总和，集合含义1）-ge, bggge, tonnge2）-dom, newspperdom（新闻界）3）-hood, neighbourhood, womnhood4）-ery, cvlry, ministry（内阁）5）-ure, legislture, judicture（6）表示物品和物质名称的含义1）-nt, ent, solvent, constnt2）-l, signl, pictoril（画报）3）r, collr, pillr（石柱）4）- er, boiler, computer, wsher, cooker5）-ery, drpery（绸缎）6）-ing, clothing, mtting,7）-ment, instrument, equipment, ttchment（7）表示“细小”的含义1）-cle, prticle,2）-cule, molecule（分子）3）-el, prcel4）-en, chicken, miden5）-et, pocket, ticket6）-ett, -ette, etto, cigrette, essyette（短文）7）-kin, npkin8）-ling, duckling,9）-let, booklet10）-y, bby, doggy形容词后缀（1）带有“属性，倾向，相关”的含义1）-ble, -ible, movble, comortble, pplicble, visible, responsible2）-l, nturl, dditionl, eductionl3）-n, ne, urbn, suburbn, republicn4）-nt, -ent, distnt, importnt, excellent5）-r, similr, populr, regulr6）-ry, militry, voluntry7）-ice, -tie, icl, politic, systemtic, historic, physicl, 8）-ine, msculine, eminine, mrine9）-ing, moving, touching, dring10）-ish, oolish, bookish, selish11）-ive, ctive, impressive, decisive12）-ory, stisctory, compulsory13）-il, -ile, -eel, rgile, genteel（文雅的）（2）表示“相象，类似”的含义1）-ish, boyish, childish2）-esque, picturesque3）-like, mnlike, childlike4）-ly, mnly, therly, scholrly, motherly5）-some, troublesome, hndsome6）-y, milky, psty（3）表示“充分的”含义1）-ul, beutiul, wonderul, helpul, truthul2）-ous, dngerous, generous, courgeous, vrious 3）-ent, violent,（4）表示由某种物质形成，制成或生产的含义1）-en, wooden, golden, woolen2）-ous, gseous3）-ic, scientiic（5）表示方向的含义1）-ern, estern, western2）-wrd, downwrd, orwrd（6）表示“倍数”的含义1）-ble, double, treble2）ple, triple3）-old, twoold, tenold（7）表示“数量关系”的含义1）-teen, thirteen2）-ty, ity3）-th, ourth, itieth（8）表示国籍，语种，宗教的含义1）-n, Romn, Europen2）-ese, Chinese,3）-ish, English, Spnish（9）表示“比较程度”的含义1）-er, greter2）-ish, reddish, yellowish3）-est, highest4）-most, oremost, topmost（10）其他的含义-less, 表示否定，countless, stinless, wireless动词后缀-ize, ise 表示“做成，变成，……化”：modernize, mechnize, democrtize, orgnize-en 表示“使成为，引起，使有”：quicken, weken, soten, hrden-y 表示“使……化，使成”beutiy, puriy, intensiy, signiy, si mpli y-ish 表示“使，令”：inish, bolish, diminish, estblish。
eng结尾的形容物物语ed结尾修饰人的例子
eng结尾的形容物物语ed结尾修饰人的例子
摘要：
一、引言
二、以“eng”结尾的形容词
三、以“ed”结尾的形容人的例子
四、结论
正文：
【引言】
在中文中，我们常常使用形容词来描述事物或人的特征。
有些形容词以“eng”结尾，有些形容词以“ed”结尾，它们分别用来修饰物和修饰人。
本文将介绍一些以“eng”结尾的形容词以及以“ed”结尾的形容人的例子。
【以“eng”结尾的形容词】
以“eng”结尾的形容词通常用来修饰事物，表示事物的某种状态或特征。
例如：
1.沉甸甸：表示物体很重，如“沉甸甸的果实”。
2.香喷喷：表示食物香气扑鼻，如“香喷喷的烤鸭”。
3.绿油油：表示植物茂盛、翠绿的颜色，如“绿油油的草地”。
【以“ed”结尾的形容人的例子】
以“ed”结尾的形容词通常用来修饰人，表示人的性格、特点或状态。
例如：
1.勇敢的战士：表示勇敢无畏的人，如“勇敢的战士在战场上奋勇杀
敌”。
2.温柔的母亲：表示性格温和、关爱子女的母亲，如“温柔的母亲照顾着生病的孩子”。
3.懒惰的学生：表示学习态度不积极、懒惰的学生，如“懒惰的学生总是逃避课堂学习”。
【结论】
通过以上分析，我们可以看到，以“eng”结尾的形容词主要用于修饰物，以“ed”结尾的形容词主要用于修饰人。
在实际运用中，我们要根据需要选择合适的形容词来描述事物或人。
人教版高考英语一轮总复习 选择性必修第四册 UNIT 5 LAUNCHING YOUR CAREER
that we all liked English very much.Besides,she offered to 3. help us
out 4. was
(帮助……克服困难)whenever we got into trouble.So she
very popular with
(受……欢迎) us.
Ⅱ.短语小测
1. Looking back
(回顾),I often think of Mrs Li—my English teacher
in primary school.She 2. was passionate about
(对……热情)her work
and always focused on her lessons.Her lessons were so lively and interesting
The first time they visited the Science Museum ,they showed great
interest in everything they saw.
3.一旦他下定决心,说服他改变主意就没有意义了。(there’s no point in
doing sth)
n.参加;参与
3. detective n.侦探;警探→ detect vt.侦察出;发现
4. accountant n.会计;会计师→ account n.账目;账户
5. justice n.公平;公正;合理→ justify vt.证明;为……辩解
6. receptionist n.接待员→ reception n.接待;欢迎;招待会→ receive vt.
专注于
5.be passionate about 对……热情
图纸上英文缩写
图纸上英文缩写图纸上英文缩写缩写全称翻译ACCESS Accessory 附件ADJ Adjustable，Adjust 调整ADPT Adapter 使适应ADV Advance 提前AL Aluminum 铝ALLOW Allowance 允许ALT Alternate 改变ALY Alloy 合金AMT Amout 数量ANL Anneal 锻炼ANSL Amer Natl Stds InstituteAPPROX Approximate 大约ASME Amer Society of Mech Engrs ASSEM Assemble 装配ASSY Assembly 装配AUTH Authorized 授权的AUTO Automatic 自动的AUX Auxiliary 辅助的AVG Average 平均AWG American Wire GaugeBC Bolt Circle 螺栓圆周BET Between 之间BEV Bevel 斜角BHN Brinell Hardness Number 布氏硬度值BLK Blank ,Block 空白B/NM Bill of Material 材料费BOT Bottom 底部BP or B/P Blueprint 蓝图BRG Bearing 轴承BRK Break 破裂BRKT Bracket 支架BRO Broach 钻孔BRS Brass 黄铜BRZ Bronze 青铜B＆S Brown＆Shape 棕色＆形状BSC Basic 基本的BUSH Bushing 套管BWG Birmingham Wire GaugeC TO C Center—to—Center 中心到中心CAD Computer—Aided Drafting 电脑辅助设计CAM Computer-Aided MfgCAP Capacity 容量CAP SCR Cap Screw 螺帽CARB Carburize 使渗碳CBORE Counterbore 扩孔CCW Counter Clockwise 逆时针CDRILL CounerdrillCDS Cold-Drawn Steel缩写全称翻译EFF Effective 有效的ENCL Enclose，Enclosure 附上ENG Engine 引擎ENGR Engineer 工程师ENGRG Engineering 工程学EQLSP Equally Spaced 等距EQUIV Equivalent 相等EST Estimate 估计EX Extra 额外EXH Exhaust 消耗EXP Experimental 实验性的EXT Exension，External 范围,外部FAB Fabricate 伪造FAO Finish All OverFDRY Foundry 铸造FIG Figure 数据FIL Fillet，fillister 带子FIM Full Indicator MovementFIN FinishFLX Fixture 结构FLX Floor。
工程师简称——精选推荐
工程师英文简称P E: Pr oduct ion E ngine er产品工程师.T E: Te st En ginee r 测试工程师.I E: In dustr y Eng ineer工业工程师.AE: Aut omati c Eng ineer自动化工程师.R&D: R esear ch De velop mentEngin eer 研发设计工程师.MF G: Ma nufac turin g. 制造部.QE: Qua lityEngin eer 品保工程师.Pilo t Run: 试量产.SPC: Sta tisti c Pro cessContr ol. 统计制程控制.R&D: Res earch & De velop ment研发R MA:Re turnMater ial A udit退料认可VQA:V ender Qual ity A ssura nce 厂商品质管理QA :Quali ty As suran ce 品质保证MI S :Ma nagem ent I nform ation Syst em 管理信息系统OQC :Outpu t Qua lityContr ol 出货质量保证IQC :Incom ing Q ualit y Con trol来料品质保证IPQ C :In Proc ess Q ualit y Con trol制程中的品质管制人员ME :Mecha nical Engi neer机构工程师品质的历程：检验出来→制造出来→设计出来→预估出来→习惯出来的,这个历程说明了什么呢，早期产品品质是靠品管检查出来的，后来发现都是生产过程中制造得以控制的，再来生产得以控制但还是有不良发生，哦，是设计不好造成的，后来设计者也在完善电路和layou t，但是新产品推到市场上的le adtim e太长，因为要等pi lotru n后才能完善其电气性能，这样又推出了，品质是预估出来的，是的，吃一堑长一智嘛，在研发阶段就作同步工程，以大大缩短lead time．可是最近，很多成型的公司，推广了TQM，通过了IS O认证，还进行了FM EA(失败模式与效益分析)以及sixsi gma等一系列品质活动后，发现，proc ess（制程)的重要性,原来品质是每个员工"习惯"出来的.cost(成本)=材料+制造工时+工厂费用,而一般材料,R&D(研发工程)在电路设计时,已决定了80%,想c ostdo wn想必有点困难,那么制程方面就占有两大因素,可以发挥,聪明的你就知道,制程的重要性了吧..从E VT(工程验证测试)→DVT(设计验证测试)→MV T(生产验证测试)→MP(导入量产),每个环节,都有其key-poin t(关健参数)，和资讯，都需要工程师来整合和完善产品的特性，以利顺产，达到利润的目的一般PE是指产品工程师,prod ucten ginee r.P E 工程师有两种，P roces s Eng ineer(过程工程师即工艺工程师)和P roduc tEngi neer（产品工程师）；前者负责产品制造工艺的设计和贯彻；后者负责产品设计和开发。