主题二__人格差异(The theme of the two __ personality differences)

主题二__人格差异（The theme of the two __ personality
differences）
The second chapter is personality
I. definition of personality
Two, personality theory
Three, personality difference and its origin
Four, personality structure
Five, personality difference and job matching
I. personality definition
G.W Allport wrote Personality in 1937, and collected nearly fifty definitions of "personality" from the literature and grouped them into the following categories.
1, general definition (Omnibus, definition): in this definition, the personality is considered to be the sum of all the attributes of a person.
2, comprehensive definition (egrative, andcoimguratlon, delinltlon): this definition emphasizes that personality is the whole of all aspects of individual attributes.
3, the definition of rank (Hierarchicaldd nition): a personality trait is divided into several levels or grades,
usually at the top of the integration or leadership role.
4, the definition of adaptability (Definition In terms of austthent), this definition emphasizes the personality in the adaptation function.
5, the definition of the individual (DCfithtiofl ill tCfffiS StlllCt1V8ll6SS Of shirt): this class pay more attention to the uniqueness of the individual, the difference between personal and others; each individual is out of the ordinary.
(Definition In terms of essence the person of the): this kind of definition emphasizes that personality is the representative behavior pattern of individual. He is not just different from others, but that he has his own characteristics and is what he is personally.
7. Definition (iosocial)
The average person identifies his personality with the exception of everyone else, and emphasizes only the value of his social stimulus. Allport quite disagreed with it because it only noticed the impression of a person's outward appearance, only noticed the influence of personality on others, and neglected its own internal organization. In contrast, Allport tends to refer to the concept of biophysical (conceptions), which means that no matter what a person thinks about others, someone still has his own personality.
The definition of Allport: personality is the dynamic organization of a person's internal psychological and
physiological system, which determines the unique adaptation of the person to his environment. It determines all the thoughts and actions of the person. (Allport)
In others, the book defines personality as a stable process of behavior and interpersonal processes that originate within individuals.
Two, personality theory
On the personality, there is not an accepted concept, for convenience, we have a lot of personality theory into six general types: psychoanalytic schools, schools of humanistic qualities, genre, behavioral / social learning and cognitive school schools. In explaining individual differences in personality, each school emphasizes a different emphasis. Although they differ in their opinions about behavior, in order to understand human personality, they can be thought of in these six schools in a complementary pattern.
Why are some people more aggressive than others? For such behavior,
Which genre is the most convincing of the six schools?
1. psychoanalytic theory
The act of interpreting usually without conscious process. The classic psychoanalytic explanation for aggression is that everyone has an unconscious instinct to die - a desire for self destruction. However, a person with a healthy personality will
not be self destructive, so the impulse will turn outward and be expressed in an attack on others or on the outside. Later psychologists explained that aggression occurs when people are trying to achieve their goals. A person who experiences great setbacks, such as those who have repeatedly failed to achieve his goals, may have relatively persistent attacks.
2. personality theory of idiosyncratic school
1, pay attention to individual differences in the stability of aggressive behavior. A research team many years ago had been measured the attack characteristics of 8 year olds, they ask questions like pupils in several primary school, such as "who is the most love, my child push? "(Huesmann, Eron, Yarmel, 1987).
22 years later, the researchers interviewed the men who were now 30 years old. They found that people who were considered aggressive in elementary school were also prone to aggressive behavior when they grew up. Those who like to push and hold other children often suffer spousal abuse and violent crimes when they grow up.
3., the personality psychology of the biological school
Personality psychologists in the genre are also relatively interested in stable aggressive behavior. They believe that genetic predisposition is one of the reasons for the stability of aggression. Now there is evidence that some people are naturally more love than others (RllChtof, FulkCf, N68lC attack, Ni8S, EySCflCk, 1986). Although to confirm what is born, which is the child grow up to learn, it is always very difficult, but indeed, some people are born with aggressive quality, coupled
with the education environment, and later became aggressive adult. There are some physiological variables, Rugao pill hormone may also have an effect on the number of attacks (DILallaGottesman, 1991).
The personality psychology of the 4. humanism schools
1, human nature is good.
2, when certain factors impede the process of natural growth, there will be problems.
3, the solution is to provide a warm and respectful environment for the growth of people.
Human psychologist Carle Rodgers said: "all living things in the world have the needs and functions of self development and self-improvement.".
5. behaviorism and social learning theory
1. The key to explaining behavior is that rewarding behavior repeats itself. (behaviorism)
2, or, when people see a behavior rewarded, they learn to do that. (Social Learning Theory)
6. cognitive psychology
1, cognitive psychologists believe that how people respond to situations depends on how people interpret them.
A comparison of the schools of personality theory
Although each theory tends to emphasize a different part of personality, each theorist describes the nature of his personality,
It is necessary to discuss several important issues in depth. Generally speaking, all six school theorists illustrate these issues in the following way.
1. genetic influences on the environment
People are born after grow up for his personality and sowed the seeds, or with no genetic predisposition, every healthy babies are like other children, may become a great philanthropist, a criminal or a mental illness? There are countless differences between the two points of view. But most personality psychologists have raised the question of how much personality is the result of genetic predisposition, and how much of it is the result of environmental influences There is a great deal of disagreement over the issue. Many schools of biology and idiosyncratic theorists firmly believe that we have largely ignored the role of genetic predispositions. To a lesser extent, psychoanalytic theorists also emphasize innate needs and ways of acting, albeit unconsciously. However, humanism, behaviorism and social learning theory and cognitive theorists argue that heredity has little or no effect on personality.
To some extent, the answer to this question is only empirical. More and more studies have found the influence of some genetic
factors on personality development.
2. does consciousness determine behavior or unconscious decision behavior?
To what extent can people understand the causes of their behavior? Siegmund Floyd believes that many people's behavior is affected by unconscious power control, B.F. Skinner, a tremendous impact on the behavior of the theorists, the unconscious is defined as people are not aware of what he thinks, people tend to think of themselves as their own reasons for understanding, and it is not aware of. By contrast, trait theorists and cognitive theorists rely on self-report data to develop their theory and research. They assume that people can understand and report their level of social anxiety, and how they organize information in their minds.
However, on this issue, all schools do not take an absolute attitude. Trait theorists often talk about behavioral genetic factors like biological psychologists, and cognitive behavioral therapists acknowledge that people are not aware of the cognitive processes that lead to their problems. Humanistic theorists usually adopt eclecticism in this issue. They admit that no one knows themselves better than they do, but they also think that many people are not sure why they do that.
The conclusion of 3. free will
To what extent can we determine our own destiny, and to what extent are we determined by the external forces that dominate us? This is an old problem in psychology that originates from
philosophy and theology. At one extreme, we can see the behaviorist / Social School of what is known as the radical behaviorist. The most direct one in this question is probably Skinner, who believes that our actions are not freely chosen; it is a direct result of the environmental stimuli we face. Skinner says freedom is nothing but a myth. The school of psychoanalytic theorists generally do not take absolute positions on this issue,
But they emphasize innate needs and unconscious mechanisms that make human behavior largely impossible to control themselves. At the other extreme are humanistic theorists who examine individual choice and responsibility more and see them as the basis of mental health. Humanistic therapists often encourage their patients to realize that they have more direct responsibility for the direction of their lives than the society makes them believe.
Although this journal and title are still unclear, idiosyncratic theorists, biological schools and cognitive school theorists are probably among the other genres. Trait theorists and biological school theorists are more emphasis on genetic quality, the genetic quality of development is limited to a specific range. But none of these scholars would think that personality is totally taken up and inherited. Similarly, cognitive therapists often encourage their patients to think about how they have caused problems for themselves, and teach them how to avoid the difficulties they face in the future.
Figure L - the position of the six schools of L on three theoretical issues
Six summary
1. personality psychology has received different attention in the population. There is no accepted concept about personality. In this book, we define personality as a stable way of behavior and interpersonal processes that originate within individuals.
2., for convenience, we classify a large number of personality theories into six general types: psychoanalytic schools, idiosyncratic schools, humanistic schools, behaviorism / social learning schools and cognitive schools. In explaining individual differences in personality, each school emphasizes a different emphasis. Although they differ in their opinions about behavior, in order to understand human personality, they can be thought of in these six schools in a complementary pattern.
3. in recent years, personality psychologists have become increasingly aware of the need to take into account the culture of a person. In this book, most of the research results mentioned above are from the United States such individualism culture. But these findings do not always generalize to collectivist culture, the study found.
4., to better understand human personality, in addition to theoretical research, but also need more things. Therefore, we will examine, each school is how to be applied in real life, how to carry out various schools of personality assessment, will also introduce some related research and application problems, and some problems are derived from the theory of.
Key terms
Personality is a stable way of behavior and its interpersonal processes derived from the individual.
Individualism culture emphasizes the individual needs, value personal achievement culture.
Collectivist culture emphasizes the culture of individuals belonging to larger groups, such as families, clans, and nations.
Now let's move back to the question ahead: why do some people show a steady attack?
It should be clear now: there is no easy answer to this question. Six personality schools have different interpretations, which is true? There is the possibility that only one interpretation is correct and that future studies should confirm the theory. But the second possibility is that the six schools say that for the part, six (or more) different causes lead to aggressive behavior. There are third possibilities. The six explanations do not contradict each other, except that the emphasis is different. Aggressive boys show hostility as a trait of aggression, which is relatively stable in different situations and times (trait theory). But it's also possible that the boy interpreted the vague events as threats (Cognitive Explanations), because they used to be beaten in the past (behaviorism and social studies). The boy may be born with tendency to threats to attack the (biological genre), but if
they live in a frustration environment (psychoanalytic schools), or living in a basic needs can be met in the family (humanism school), they will be able to overcome their own attack nature. The key is that each explanation provides a starting point for understanding the behavior of the attack. But how to explain the attack, to explain, and which steps to take depends on which school we stand in.
Three, personality differences and the root of Minnesota research achievements
At the end of 1986, the Minnesota team completed a major collection of data. At present, a total of 44 personality traits were found to be of considerable consistency between separate foster twins. The paper also includes 331 pairs of twins reared together with 217 pairs of identical twins and 114 pairs of fraternal twins.
Conclusion:
1, the trait with the highest heritability is the traditional, the trait of being willing to comply with authority, with a heritability of 0.60.
2, among these traits, the only trait that exhibits a higher heritability is social competence, including traits such as overconfidence, leadership, motivation, and being attracted to attention.
3, there is a strange high genetic component - consistency, for 0.55--, is an aesthetic ability, such as listening to symphony
concerts.
4, there is no genetic basis: that is, social affection and the trait of love. The heritability of this trait is 0.29
Coincidentally, the standard of genetic significance was somewhat arbitrarily delineated. If you are gentle and loving, you may come from a warm and loving family. But remember, if a trait has a high heritability, that is, higher than 0.60, many people may still have this trait because of environmental influences rather than their genetic makeup.
5, there are other noteworthy figures. Among the five categories of test stress, aggression, aggression, control, conservatism, and concentration, the twin pairs of separate twins were slightly more consistent than identical twins. The paper does not explain this oddity, and the Minnesota panel does not care.
6, there is no trait with a heritability of 0, and the heritability of most traits ranges from 0.45 to 0.60.
At the end of the essay, a modest generalization of the surprising findings of the Minnesota group was made: "therefore, personality differences are more due to genetic differences than environmental differences.". "The paper also asserts that a common family environment can have a negligible effect on personality. Social kissing is the only trait that has been shown to be largely influenced by the family environment.
The study of personality in Minnesota has not gone through a
long period of preservation before publication. The results of the study are listed in the New York Times in the December 2, 1986 science. The 11 characteristics are examined, and the heritability of each trait is given.
1, the trait with the highest heritability is social competence (0.61)
2, conservative (0.60).
Heritability of five traits ranges from 0.50 to 0.60:
3. Stress response,
4, concentration,
5, exclusive,
6, health
7, avoid harm.
Heritability of the three traits ranged from 0.40 to 0.50:
8, aggressive,
9, sense of achievement
10, control.
11, in the end is the social pro, the revised heritability rate
of 0.33, barely beyond the significant level.
A pair of gentle and loving twins must have arrived in Minneapolis, thus increasing the heritability they had previously derived.
12, IQ has a high heritability of 0.70
Four, personality structure
1. MBTI personality theory and personality measurement
2. AB personality
3. 16PF
4. Edward personality preferences
5. Big Five personality
6. TA interaction theory
7. Enneagram
8., Freud's personality theory
Five, personality difference and job matching
(I) capacity
Ability (ability) reflects the individual's likelihood of
completing various tasks in a particular job. This is a present assessment of what an individual can do. A person's overall abilities can be divided into two broad categories: mental and physical abilities.
Mental ability (intellectual, ability) is the ability to engage in mental activity. IQ tests are used to determine the overall mental ability of a person. In addition, the college entrance examination subjects such as SAT and ACT, the postgraduate entrance examination such as GMAT (postgraduate entrance examination of business school), LSAT (Postgraduate Entrance Examination Research Institute), MCAT (postgraduate entrance examination of Medical College), also belong to this type of test. Generally speaking, there are 7 dimensions in mental ability, namely, arithmetic, speech comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive inference, deductive reasoning, spatial visual perception, and memory. As shown in table 1. Different jobs require employees to use different mental abilities. For jobs that require information processing, a high level of overall intelligence and verbal ability is a necessary guarantee for successful completion of the job. Of course, high IQ is not a prerequisite for all jobs. In fact, in many jobs, employees behave very regularly and have little opportunity to make a difference. Right now,
High IQ and job performance can be said to be irrelevant. However, a rigorous summary of the report points out that no matter what level of work, in speech.
Test scores in arithmetic, spatial, and perceptual abilities are effective predictors of job proficiency. Therefore,
measuring specific dimensions of intelligence tests is important for predicting job performance.
Business executives in the use of mental ability test "selection, promotion, training and other personnel decisions, the main problems encountered are: the test of some ethnic groups have held special beliefs and adverse effects. There is evidence that, in general, in speech, arithmetic, and spatial ability tests, scores for certain minority groups are lower than for whites.
Table 1 dimensions of mental abilities
dimension
describe
Working example
arithmetic
The ability to perform arithmetic quickly and accurately
Accountant: calculate sales tax in a series of items
Speech understanding
Understand the ability to read and hear, and the relationship between words
Plant managers: implement enterprise policies
Perception speed
The ability to quickly and accurately identify visual similarities and differences
Fire Investigator: evidence and clues to identify arson responsibility
Inductive reasoning
The ability to identify the logical consequences of a problem and to solve the problem
Market researcher: forecast the market demand of a product for a period of time
Deductive reasoning
The ability to use logic to assess an argument's value
Supervisor: make a choice among two different recommendations offered by the employee
Spatial visual perception
The ability to visualize the shape of an object when it changes its spatial position
Interior decorator: redecorating the Office
Memory
The ability to maintain and recall past experiences
Salesperson: recall the name of the customer
Physique ability
Psychological ability plays an important role in complex tasks requiring information processing. Similarly, for those less skilled and standardized work, the physical ability (physic. 18bility) is very important to the success of the job. For example, the success of some tasks requires endurance, finger flexibility, leg strength, and other related abilities, so that employees' physical ability levels need to be identified in management.
The researchers surveyed hundreds of different job requirements and finally identified 9 basic abilities in physical activity work. As shown in Table 2, these are listed in the table. There is a degree of difference between individuals in each ability. What's more, the correlation between these abilities is very low. It is not difficult to understand that a person's high score in one ability does not mean a higher score in another ability. If managers are able to determine the extent to which each job requires each of these 9 competencies, and ensure that employees who do this work have this level of competence, they will definitely improve their performance.
Table 29 basic physical abilities
Force factor
One
Dynamic strength: the ability to repeat or continuously use muscle forces over a period of time
2. trunk strength: the ability to use muscles of the trunk (especially the abdominal muscles) to achieve a certain muscular strength
3. static power: the ability to block the forces of an external object
4. explosive power: the ability to produce maximum energy in one or a series of bursts
Flexibility factor
5. breadth of flexibility: the ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible
6. dynamic flexibility: ability to perform rapid and repetitive joint movements
Other factors
7. physical coordination: the ability to coordinate each other in different parts of the body
8. balance: the ability to maintain body balance when threatened by external forces
9. stamina: the ability to maintain maximum continuity when required for extended effort
(two) temperament -- the 9 dimension of Thomas and Chess's temperament
Temperament is innate and genetic in personality.
From a familiar environment into an unfamiliar environment, it is a matter of identifying people's temperament. Thomas and Chess identified 9 dimensions of temperament differences (ThomaChess, 1977). They believe that temperament changes in 9 dimensions of activity level, adaptability, initiative or withdrawal, distraction, intensity, emotion, persistence, rhythm, and response threshold (see chart below).
The 9 dimensions are as follows three temperament types (ThomasChess, 1977). The first is the children of parenting style. In the new situation, they are more active rather than backward. They are adaptable and usually have positive emotions. The teacher wants the students to be like this. But there are also some students in the classroom who are called "difficult" students. Instead of taking the initiative, the children face new situations, typically difficult students who adapt to the environment more slowly and are often tense and passive
Seven。