Computational Complexity and Lexical.Functional Grammar
人工智能领域中英文专有名词汇总
名词解释中英文对比<using_information_sources> social networks 社会网络abductive reasoning 溯因推理action recognition(行为识别)active learning(主动学习)adaptive systems 自适应系统adverse drugs reactions(药物不良反应)algorithm design and analysis(算法设计与分析) algorithm(算法)artificial intelligence 人工智能association rule(关联规则)attribute value taxonomy 属性分类规范automomous agent 自动代理automomous systems 自动系统background knowledge 背景知识bayes methods(贝叶斯方法)bayesian inference(贝叶斯推断)bayesian methods(bayes 方法)belief propagation(置信传播)better understanding 内涵理解big data 大数据big data(大数据)biological network(生物网络)biological sciences(生物科学)biomedical domain 生物医学领域biomedical research(生物医学研究)biomedical text(生物医学文本)boltzmann machine(玻尔兹曼机)bootstrapping method 拔靴法case based reasoning 实例推理causual models 因果模型citation matching (引文匹配)classification (分类)classification algorithms(分类算法)clistering algorithms 聚类算法cloud computing(云计算)cluster-based retrieval (聚类检索)clustering (聚类)clustering algorithms(聚类算法)clustering 聚类cognitive science 认知科学collaborative filtering (协同过滤)collaborative filtering(协同过滤)collabrative ontology development 联合本体开发collabrative ontology engineering 联合本体工程commonsense knowledge 常识communication networks(通讯网络)community detection(社区发现)complex data(复杂数据)complex dynamical networks(复杂动态网络)complex network(复杂网络)complex network(复杂网络)computational biology 计算生物学computational biology(计算生物学)computational complexity(计算复杂性) computational intelligence 智能计算computational modeling(计算模型)computer animation(计算机动画)computer networks(计算机网络)computer science 计算机科学concept clustering 概念聚类concept formation 概念形成concept learning 概念学习concept map 概念图concept model 概念模型concept modelling 概念模型conceptual model 概念模型conditional random field(条件随机场模型) conjunctive quries 合取查询constrained least squares (约束最小二乘) convex programming(凸规划)convolutional neural networks(卷积神经网络) customer relationship management(客户关系管理) data analysis(数据分析)data analysis(数据分析)data center(数据中心)data clustering (数据聚类)data compression(数据压缩)data envelopment analysis (数据包络分析)data fusion 数据融合data generation(数据生成)data handling(数据处理)data hierarchy (数据层次)data integration(数据整合)data integrity 数据完整性data intensive computing(数据密集型计算)data management 数据管理data management(数据管理)data management(数据管理)data miningdata mining 数据挖掘data model 数据模型data models(数据模型)data partitioning 数据划分data point(数据点)data privacy(数据隐私)data security(数据安全)data stream(数据流)data streams(数据流)data structure( 数据结构)data structure(数据结构)data visualisation(数据可视化)data visualization 数据可视化data visualization(数据可视化)data warehouse(数据仓库)data warehouses(数据仓库)data warehousing(数据仓库)database management systems(数据库管理系统)database management(数据库管理)date interlinking 日期互联date linking 日期链接Decision analysis(决策分析)decision maker 决策者decision making (决策)decision models 决策模型decision models 决策模型decision rule 决策规则decision support system 决策支持系统decision support systems (决策支持系统) decision tree(决策树)decission tree 决策树deep belief network(深度信念网络)deep learning(深度学习)defult reasoning 默认推理density estimation(密度估计)design methodology 设计方法论dimension reduction(降维) dimensionality reduction(降维)directed graph(有向图)disaster management 灾害管理disastrous event(灾难性事件)discovery(知识发现)dissimilarity (相异性)distributed databases 分布式数据库distributed databases(分布式数据库) distributed query 分布式查询document clustering (文档聚类)domain experts 领域专家domain knowledge 领域知识domain specific language 领域专用语言dynamic databases(动态数据库)dynamic logic 动态逻辑dynamic network(动态网络)dynamic system(动态系统)earth mover's distance(EMD 距离) education 教育efficient algorithm(有效算法)electric commerce 电子商务electronic health records(电子健康档案) entity disambiguation 实体消歧entity recognition 实体识别entity recognition(实体识别)entity resolution 实体解析event detection 事件检测event detection(事件检测)event extraction 事件抽取event identificaton 事件识别exhaustive indexing 完整索引expert system 专家系统expert systems(专家系统)explanation based learning 解释学习factor graph(因子图)feature extraction 特征提取feature extraction(特征提取)feature extraction(特征提取)feature selection (特征选择)feature selection 特征选择feature selection(特征选择)feature space 特征空间first order logic 一阶逻辑formal logic 形式逻辑formal meaning prepresentation 形式意义表示formal semantics 形式语义formal specification 形式描述frame based system 框为本的系统frequent itemsets(频繁项目集)frequent pattern(频繁模式)fuzzy clustering (模糊聚类)fuzzy clustering (模糊聚类)fuzzy clustering (模糊聚类)fuzzy data mining(模糊数据挖掘)fuzzy logic 模糊逻辑fuzzy set theory(模糊集合论)fuzzy set(模糊集)fuzzy sets 模糊集合fuzzy systems 模糊系统gaussian processes(高斯过程)gene expression data 基因表达数据gene expression(基因表达)generative model(生成模型)generative model(生成模型)genetic algorithm 遗传算法genome wide association study(全基因组关联分析) graph classification(图分类)graph classification(图分类)graph clustering(图聚类)graph data(图数据)graph data(图形数据)graph database 图数据库graph database(图数据库)graph mining(图挖掘)graph mining(图挖掘)graph partitioning 图划分graph query 图查询graph structure(图结构)graph theory(图论)graph theory(图论)graph theory(图论)graph theroy 图论graph visualization(图形可视化)graphical user interface 图形用户界面graphical user interfaces(图形用户界面)health care 卫生保健health care(卫生保健)heterogeneous data source 异构数据源heterogeneous data(异构数据)heterogeneous database 异构数据库heterogeneous information network(异构信息网络) heterogeneous network(异构网络)heterogenous ontology 异构本体heuristic rule 启发式规则hidden markov model(隐马尔可夫模型)hidden markov model(隐马尔可夫模型)hidden markov models(隐马尔可夫模型) hierarchical clustering (层次聚类) homogeneous network(同构网络)human centered computing 人机交互技术human computer interaction 人机交互human interaction 人机交互human robot interaction 人机交互image classification(图像分类)image clustering (图像聚类)image mining( 图像挖掘)image reconstruction(图像重建)image retrieval (图像检索)image segmentation(图像分割)inconsistent ontology 本体不一致incremental learning(增量学习)inductive learning (归纳学习)inference mechanisms 推理机制inference mechanisms(推理机制)inference rule 推理规则information cascades(信息追随)information diffusion(信息扩散)information extraction 信息提取information filtering(信息过滤)information filtering(信息过滤)information integration(信息集成)information network analysis(信息网络分析) information network mining(信息网络挖掘) information network(信息网络)information processing 信息处理information processing 信息处理information resource management (信息资源管理) information retrieval models(信息检索模型) information retrieval 信息检索information retrieval(信息检索)information retrieval(信息检索)information science 情报科学information sources 信息源information system( 信息系统)information system(信息系统)information technology(信息技术)information visualization(信息可视化)instance matching 实例匹配intelligent assistant 智能辅助intelligent systems 智能系统interaction network(交互网络)interactive visualization(交互式可视化)kernel function(核函数)kernel operator (核算子)keyword search(关键字检索)knowledege reuse 知识再利用knowledgeknowledgeknowledge acquisitionknowledge base 知识库knowledge based system 知识系统knowledge building 知识建构knowledge capture 知识获取knowledge construction 知识建构knowledge discovery(知识发现)knowledge extraction 知识提取knowledge fusion 知识融合knowledge integrationknowledge management systems 知识管理系统knowledge management 知识管理knowledge management(知识管理)knowledge model 知识模型knowledge reasoningknowledge representationknowledge representation(知识表达) knowledge sharing 知识共享knowledge storageknowledge technology 知识技术knowledge verification 知识验证language model(语言模型)language modeling approach(语言模型方法) large graph(大图)large graph(大图)learning(无监督学习)life science 生命科学linear programming(线性规划)link analysis (链接分析)link prediction(链接预测)link prediction(链接预测)link prediction(链接预测)linked data(关联数据)location based service(基于位置的服务) loclation based services(基于位置的服务) logic programming 逻辑编程logical implication 逻辑蕴涵logistic regression(logistic 回归)machine learning 机器学习machine translation(机器翻译)management system(管理系统)management( 知识管理)manifold learning(流形学习)markov chains 马尔可夫链markov processes(马尔可夫过程)matching function 匹配函数matrix decomposition(矩阵分解)matrix decomposition(矩阵分解)maximum likelihood estimation(最大似然估计)medical research(医学研究)mixture of gaussians(混合高斯模型)mobile computing(移动计算)multi agnet systems 多智能体系统multiagent systems 多智能体系统multimedia 多媒体natural language processing 自然语言处理natural language processing(自然语言处理) nearest neighbor (近邻)network analysis( 网络分析)network analysis(网络分析)network analysis(网络分析)network formation(组网)network structure(网络结构)network theory(网络理论)network topology(网络拓扑)network visualization(网络可视化)neural network(神经网络)neural networks (神经网络)neural networks(神经网络)nonlinear dynamics(非线性动力学)nonmonotonic reasoning 非单调推理nonnegative matrix factorization (非负矩阵分解) nonnegative matrix factorization(非负矩阵分解) object detection(目标检测)object oriented 面向对象object recognition(目标识别)object recognition(目标识别)online community(网络社区)online social network(在线社交网络)online social networks(在线社交网络)ontology alignment 本体映射ontology development 本体开发ontology engineering 本体工程ontology evolution 本体演化ontology extraction 本体抽取ontology interoperablity 互用性本体ontology language 本体语言ontology mapping 本体映射ontology matching 本体匹配ontology versioning 本体版本ontology 本体论open government data 政府公开数据opinion analysis(舆情分析)opinion mining(意见挖掘)opinion mining(意见挖掘)outlier detection(孤立点检测)parallel processing(并行处理)patient care(病人医疗护理)pattern classification(模式分类)pattern matching(模式匹配)pattern mining(模式挖掘)pattern recognition 模式识别pattern recognition(模式识别)pattern recognition(模式识别)personal data(个人数据)prediction algorithms(预测算法)predictive model 预测模型predictive models(预测模型)privacy preservation(隐私保护)probabilistic logic(概率逻辑)probabilistic logic(概率逻辑)probabilistic model(概率模型)probabilistic model(概率模型)probability distribution(概率分布)probability distribution(概率分布)project management(项目管理)pruning technique(修剪技术)quality management 质量管理query expansion(查询扩展)query language 查询语言query language(查询语言)query processing(查询处理)query rewrite 查询重写question answering system 问答系统random forest(随机森林)random graph(随机图)random processes(随机过程)random walk(随机游走)range query(范围查询)RDF database 资源描述框架数据库RDF query 资源描述框架查询RDF repository 资源描述框架存储库RDF storge 资源描述框架存储real time(实时)recommender system(推荐系统)recommender system(推荐系统)recommender systems 推荐系统recommender systems(推荐系统)record linkage 记录链接recurrent neural network(递归神经网络) regression(回归)reinforcement learning 强化学习reinforcement learning(强化学习)relation extraction 关系抽取relational database 关系数据库relational learning 关系学习relevance feedback (相关反馈)resource description framework 资源描述框架restricted boltzmann machines(受限玻尔兹曼机) retrieval models(检索模型)rough set theroy 粗糙集理论rough set 粗糙集rule based system 基于规则系统rule based 基于规则rule induction (规则归纳)rule learning (规则学习)rule learning 规则学习schema mapping 模式映射schema matching 模式匹配scientific domain 科学域search problems(搜索问题)semantic (web) technology 语义技术semantic analysis 语义分析semantic annotation 语义标注semantic computing 语义计算semantic integration 语义集成semantic interpretation 语义解释semantic model 语义模型semantic network 语义网络semantic relatedness 语义相关性semantic relation learning 语义关系学习semantic search 语义检索semantic similarity 语义相似度semantic similarity(语义相似度)semantic web rule language 语义网规则语言semantic web 语义网semantic web(语义网)semantic workflow 语义工作流semi supervised learning(半监督学习)sensor data(传感器数据)sensor networks(传感器网络)sentiment analysis(情感分析)sentiment analysis(情感分析)sequential pattern(序列模式)service oriented architecture 面向服务的体系结构shortest path(最短路径)similar kernel function(相似核函数)similarity measure(相似性度量)similarity relationship (相似关系)similarity search(相似搜索)similarity(相似性)situation aware 情境感知social behavior(社交行为)social influence(社会影响)social interaction(社交互动)social interaction(社交互动)social learning(社会学习)social life networks(社交生活网络)social machine 社交机器social media(社交媒体)social media(社交媒体)social media(社交媒体)social network analysis 社会网络分析social network analysis(社交网络分析)social network(社交网络)social network(社交网络)social science(社会科学)social tagging system(社交标签系统)social tagging(社交标签)social web(社交网页)sparse coding(稀疏编码)sparse matrices(稀疏矩阵)sparse representation(稀疏表示)spatial database(空间数据库)spatial reasoning 空间推理statistical analysis(统计分析)statistical model 统计模型string matching(串匹配)structural risk minimization (结构风险最小化) structured data 结构化数据subgraph matching 子图匹配subspace clustering(子空间聚类)supervised learning( 有support vector machine 支持向量机support vector machines(支持向量机)system dynamics(系统动力学)tag recommendation(标签推荐)taxonmy induction 感应规范temporal logic 时态逻辑temporal reasoning 时序推理text analysis(文本分析)text anaylsis 文本分析text classification (文本分类)text data(文本数据)text mining technique(文本挖掘技术)text mining 文本挖掘text mining(文本挖掘)text summarization(文本摘要)thesaurus alignment 同义对齐time frequency analysis(时频分析)time series analysis( 时time series data(时间序列数据)time series data(时间序列数据)time series(时间序列)topic model(主题模型)topic modeling(主题模型)transfer learning 迁移学习triple store 三元组存储uncertainty reasoning 不精确推理undirected graph(无向图)unified modeling language 统一建模语言unsupervisedupper bound(上界)user behavior(用户行为)user generated content(用户生成内容)utility mining(效用挖掘)visual analytics(可视化分析)visual content(视觉内容)visual representation(视觉表征)visualisation(可视化)visualization technique(可视化技术) visualization tool(可视化工具)web 2.0(网络2.0)web forum(web 论坛)web mining(网络挖掘)web of data 数据网web ontology lanuage 网络本体语言web pages(web 页面)web resource 网络资源web science 万维科学web search (网络检索)web usage mining(web 使用挖掘)wireless networks 无线网络world knowledge 世界知识world wide web 万维网world wide web(万维网)xml database 可扩展标志语言数据库附录 2 Data Mining 知识图谱（共包含二级节点15 个，三级节点93 个）间序列分析)监督学习)领域 二级分类 三级分类。
ON THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHMS
ON THE COMPUTATIONALCOMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHMSBYJ. HARTMANIS AND R. E. STEARNSI. Introduction. In his celebrated paper [1], A. M. Turing investigated the computability of sequences (functions) by mechanical procedures and showed that the setofsequencescanbe partitioned into computable and noncomputable sequences. One finds, however, that some computable sequences are very easy to compute whereas other computable sequences seem to have an inherent complexity that makes them difficult to compute. In this paper, we investigate a scheme of classifying sequences according to how hard they are to compute. This scheme puts a rich structure on the computable sequences and a variety of theorems are established. Furthermore, this scheme can be generalized to classify numbers, functions, or recognition problems according to their compu-tational complexity.The computational complexity of a sequence is to be measured by how fast a multitape Turing machine can print out the terms of the sequence. This particular abstract model of a computing device is chosen because much of the work in this area is stimulated by the rapidly growing importance of computation through the use of digital computers, and all digital computers in a slightly idealized form belong to the class of multitape Turing machines. More specifically, if Tin) is a computable, monotone increasing function of positive integers into positive integers and if a is a (binary) sequence, then we say that a is in complexity class ST or that a is T-computable if and only if there is a multitape Turing machine 3~ such that 3~ computes the nth term of a. within Tin) operations. Each set ST is recursively enumerable and so no class ST contains all computable sequences. On the other hand, every computable a is contained in some com-plexity class ST. Thus a hierarchy of complexity classes is assured. Furthermore, the classes are independent of time scale or of the speed of the components from which the machines could be built, as there is a "speed-up" theorem which states that ST = SkT f or positive numbers k.As corollaries to the speed-up theorem, there are several limit conditions which establish containment between two complexity classes. This is contrasted later with the theorem which gives a limit condition for noncontainment. One form of this result states that if (with minor restrictions)Received by the editors April 2, 1963 and, in revised form, August 30, 1963.285286J. HARTMANIS AND R. E. STEARNS[May»*«, U(n)then S,; properly contains ST. The intersection of two classes is again a class. The general containment problem, however, is recursively unsolvable.One section is devoted to an investigation as to how a change in the abstract machine model might affect the complexity classes. Some of these are related by a "square law," including the one-tape-multitape relationship: that is if a is T-computable by a multitape Turing machine, then it is T2-computable by a single tape Turing machine. It is gratifying, however, that some of the more obvious variations do not change the classes.The complexity of rational, algebraic, and transcendental numbers is studied in another section. There seems to be a good agreement with our intuitive notions, but there are several questions still to be settled.There is a section in which generalizations to recognition problems and functions are discussed. This section also provides the first explicit "impossibility" proof, by describing a language whose "words" cannot be recognized in real-time [T(n) = n] .The final section is devoted to open questions and problem areas. It is our conviction that numbers and functions have an intrinsic computational nature according to which they can be classified, as shown in this paper, and that there is a good opportunity here for further research.For background information about Turing machines, computability and related topics, the reader should consult [2]. "Real-time" computations (i.e., T(n) = n) were first defined and studied in [3]. Other ways of classifying the complexity of a computation have been studied in [4] and [5], where the complexity is defined in terms of the amount of tape used.II. Time limited computations. In this section, we define our version of a multitape Turing machine, define our complexity classes with respect to this type of machine, and then work out some fundamental properties of these classes.First, we give an English description of our machine (Figure 1) since one must have a firm picture of the device in order to follow our paper. We imagine a computing device that has a finite automaton as a control unit. Attached to this control unit is a fixed number of tapes which are linear, unbounded at both ends, and ruled into an infinite sequence of squares. The control unit has one reading head assigned to each tape, and each head rests on a single square of the assigned tape. There are a finite number of distinct symbols which can appear on the tape squares. Each combination of symbols under the reading heads together with the state of the control unit determines a unique machine operation. A machine operation consists of overprinting a symbol on each tape square under the heads, shifting the tapes independently either one square left, one square1965]ON THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHMS287ti 1111 i n cm U I I i I I I ID mm.Tn T| in i i i i i i i m-m Î2II I I I I I I I I m II I I I I I I IIP TnTAPESFINITE STATECOMPUTEROUTPUT TAPEFigure 1. An «-tape Turing machineright, or no squares, and then changing the state of the control unit. The machine is then ready to perform its next operation as determined by the tapes and control state. The machine operation is our basic unit of time. One tape is signaled out and called the output tape. The motion of this tape is restricted to one way move-ment, it moves either one or no squares right. What is printed on the output tape and moved from under the head is therefore irrevocable, and is divorced from further calculations.As Turing defined his machine, it had one tape and if someone put k successive ones on the tape and started the machine, it would print some f(k) ones on the tape and stop. Our machine is expected to print successively /(l),/(2), ••• on its output tape. Turing showed that such innovations as adding tapes or tape symbols does not increase the set of functions that can be computed by machines. Since the techniques for establishing such equivalences are common knowledge, we take it as obvious that the functions computable by Turing's model are the same as those computable by our version of a Turing machine. The reason we have chosen this particular model is that it closely resembles the operation of a present day computer; and being interested in how fast a machine can compute, the extra tapes make a difference.To clear up any misconceptions about our model, we now give a formal definition.Definition 1. An n-tape Turing machine, &~, is a set of (3n + 4)-tuples, {(q¡; Stl, Sh, — , Sin ; Sjo, Sjl, — , Sh ; m0, mx, —, m… ; qf)},where each component can take on a finite set of values, and such that for every possible combination of the first n + 1 entries, there exists a unique (3zi-t-4)-tupIe in this set. The first entry, q¡, designates the present state; the next n entries, S(l,-",S,B, designate the present symbols scanned on tapes Tx, •■•, T…,respectively; the next n + 1 symbols SJa, ••-, Sjn, designate the new symbols to be printed on288J. HARTMANIS AND R. E. STEARNS[May tapes T0, •■», T…, respectively; the next n entries describe the tape motions (left, right, no move) of the n + 1 tapes with the restriction m0 # left ; and the last entry gives the new internal state. Tape T0 is called the output tape. One tuple with S¡. = blank symbol for 1 = j = n is designated as starting symbol.Note that we are not counting the output tape when we figure n. Thus a zero-tape machine is a finite automaton whose outputs are written on a tape. We assume without loss of generality that our machine starts with blank tapes.For brevity and clarity, our proofs will usually appeal to the English description and will technically be only sketches of proofs. Indeed, we will not even give a formal definition of a machine operation. A formal definition of this concept can be found in [2].For the sake of simplicity, we shall talk about binary sequences, the general-ization being obvious. We use the notation a = axa2 ••• .Definition 2. Let Tin) be a computable function from integers into integers such that Tin) ^ Tin + 1) and, for some integer k, Tin) ^ n/ k for all n. Then we shall say that the sequence a is T-computable if and only if there exists a multitape Turing machine, 3~, which prints the first n digits of the sequence a on its output tape in no more than Tin) operations, n = 1,2, ••», allowing for the possibility of printing a bounded number of digits on one square. The class of all T-computable binary sequences shall be denoted by ST, and we shall refer to T(n) as a time-function. Sr will be called a complexity class.When several symbols are printed on one square, we regard them as components of a single symbol. Since these are bounded, we are dealing with a finite set of output symbols. As long as the output comes pouring out of the machine in a readily understood form, we do not regard it as unnatural that the output not be strictly binary. Furthermore, we shall see in Corollaries 2.5, 2.7, and 2.8 that if we insist that Tin) ^ n and that only (single) binary outputs be used, then the theory would be within an e of the theory we are adopting.The reason for the condition Tin) ^ n/fc is that we do not wish to regard the empty set as a complexity class. For if a is in ST and F is the machine which prints it, there is a bound k on the number of digits per square of output tape and T can print at most fcn0 d igits in n0 operations. By assumption, Tikn0) ^ n0 or (substituting n0 = n/ k) Tin) à n/ k . On the other hand, Tin) ^ n/ k implies that the sequence of all zeros is in ST because we can print k zeros in each operation and thus ST is not void.Next we shall derive some fundamental properties of our classes.Theorem 1. TAe set of all T-computable binary sequences, ST, is recursively enumerable.Proof. By methods similar to the enumeration of all Turing machines [2] one can first enumerate all multitape Turing machines which print binary sequences. This is just a matter of enumerating all the sets satisfying Definition 1 with the1965] ON THE COMPUTATIONAL C OMPLEXITY O F ALGORITHMS 289 added requirement that Sjo is always a finite sequence of binary digits (regarded as one symbol). Let such an enumeration be &~x, 3~2, ••• . Because T(n) is comput-able, it is possible to systematically modify each ^"¡ to a machine &"'t w ith the following properties : As long as y¡ prints its nth digit within T(n) operations (and this can be verified by first computing T(n) and then looking at the first T(n) operations of ^"¡), then the nth digit of &~'t will be the nth output of &~¡. If &~¡ s hould ever fail to print the nth digit after T(n) operations, then ^"¡'will print out a zero for each successive operation. Thus we can derive a new enumeration •^"'u &~2> "•• If' &\ operates within time T(n), then ^", and ^"¡'compute the same T-computable sequence <x¡. O therwise, &~{ c omputes an ultimately constant sequence a¡ and this can be printed, k bits at a time [where T(n) — n / fc] by a zero tape machine. In either case, a¡ is T-computable and we conclude that {«,} = ST.Corollary 1.1. There does not exist a time-function T such that ST is the set of all computable binary sequences.Proof. Since ST is recursively enumerable, we can design a machine !T which, in order to compute its ith output, computes the z'th bit of sequence a, and prints out its complement. Clearly 3~ produces a sequence a different from all <Xj in ST.Corollary 1.2. For any time-function T, there exists a time-function U such that ST is strictly contained in Sv. Therefore, there are infinitely long chainsSTl cr STl cz •••of distinct complexity classes.Proof. Let &" compute a sequence a not in ST (Corollary 1.1). Let V(n) equal the number of operations required by ^"to compute the nth digit of a. Clearly V is computable and a e Sr. Lett/(n) = max [Tin), V(n)] ,then Vin) is a time-function and clearlyOrí ^3 Oj1 *Since a in Sv and a not in ST, we haveCorollary 1.3. The set of all complexity classes is countable.Proof. The set of enumerable sets is countable.Our next theorem asserts that linear changes in a time-function do not change the complexity class. // r is a real number, we write [r] to represent the smallest integer m such that m = r.290J. HARTMANIS AND R. E. STEARNS[MayTheorem 2. If the sequence cc is T-computable and k is a computable, positive real number, then a is [kT~\-computable; that is,ST = S[kTX.Proof. We shall show that the theorem is true for k = 1/2 and it will be true for fc = 1/ 2m b y induction, and hence for all other computable k since, given k, k ^ 1 /2'" for some m. (Note that if k is computable, then \kT~\ is a computable function satisfying Definition 2.)Let ¡F be a machine which computes a in time T. If the control state, the tape symbols read, and the tape symbols adjacent to those read are all known, then the state and tape changes resulting from the next two operations of &~ are determined and can therefore be computed in a single operation. If we can devise a scheme so that this information is always available to a machine 5~', then &' can perform in one operation what ST does in two operations. We shall next show how, by combining pairs of tape symbols into single symbols and adding extra memory to the control, we can make the information available.In Figure 2(a), we show a typical tape of S" with its head on the square marked 0. In Figure 2(b), we show the two ways we store this information in &~'. Each square of the ^"'-tape contains the information in two squares of the ^-tape. Two of the ^"-tape symbols are stored internally in 3r' and 3~' must also remember which piece of information is being read by 9~. In our figures, this is indicated by an arrow pointed to the storage spot. In two operations of &~, t he heads must move to one of the five squares labeled 2, 1,0, — l,or —2. The corresponding next position of our ^"'-tape is indicated in Figures 2(c)-(g). It is easily verified that in each case, &"' can print or store the necessary changes. In the event that the present symbol read by IT is stored on the right in ¡T' as in Figure 2(f), then the analogous changes are made. Thus we know that ST' can do in one operation what 9~ does in two and the theorem is proved.Corollary 2.1. If U and T are time-functions such that«-.«> Vin)then Svçz ST.Proof. Because the limit is greater than zero, Win) ^ Tin) for some k > 0, and thus Sv = SlkVj çz sT.Corollary 2.2. If U and T are time-functions such thatTin)sup-TTT-r- < 00 ,n-»a> O(n)then SV^ST.Proof. This is the reciprocal of Corollary 2.1.1965] ON THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHMSE37291/HO W2|3l4[5l(/ZEEI33OÏÏT2Ï31/L-2_-iJ(c]¿m W\2I3I4I5K/(b)ZBE o2|3|4l5|\r2Vi!¿En on2l3l4l5|/l-T-i](d)¿BE2 34[5|6|7ir\10 l|(f)¿m2 34|5l6l7l /L<Dj(g)Figure 2. (a) Tape of ^" with head on 0. (b) Corresponding configurations of 9"'. (c) 9~' if F moves two left, (d) 9~> i f amoves to -1. (e) 9~' if ^~ moves to 0. (f)^"' if amoves to 1.(g) 9~' if 3~ moves two rightCorollary 2.3. If U and T are time-functions such thatTin)0 < hm ) ; < oo ,H-.« Uin)then Srj = ST .Proof. This follows from Corollaries 2.1 and 2.2.Corollary 2.4. // Tin) is a time-function, then Sn^ST . Therefore, Tin) = n is the most severe time restriction.Proof. Because T is a time-function, Tin) = n/ k for some positive k by Definition 2; hence292j. hartmanis and r. e. stearns[Maymf m à 1 > O…-»o, n kand S… çz s T by Corollary 2.1.Corollary 2.5. For any time-function T, Sr=Sv where t/(n)=max \T(n),n\. Therefore, any complexity class may be defined by a function U(n) ^ n. Proof. Clearly inf (T/ Í7) > min (1,1/ k) and sup (T/ U) < 1 .Corollary 2.6. If T is a time-function satisfyingTin) > n and inf -^ > 1 ,…-co nthen for any a in ST, there is a multitape Turing machined with a binary (i.e., two symbol) output which prints the nth digit of a in Tin) or fewer operations. Proof. The inf condition implies that, for some rational e > 0, and integer N, (1 - e) Tin) > n or Tin) > eTin) + n for all n > N. By the theorem, there is a machine 9' which prints a in time \zT(ri)\. 9' can be modified to a machine 9" which behaves like 9' except that it suspends its calculation while it prints the output one digit per square. Obviously, 9" computes within time \i.T(ri)\ + n (which is less than Tin) for n > N). $~" can be modified to the desired machine9~ by adding enough memory to the control of 9~" to print out the nth digit of a on the nth operation for n ^ N.Corollary 2.7. IfT(n)^nandoieST,thenforanys >0, there exists a binary output multitape Turing machine 9 which prints out the nth digit of a in [(1 + e) T(n)J or fewer operations.Proof. Observe that. [(1 + e) T(n)]inf —--——■— — 1 + enand apply Corollary 2.6.Corollary 2.8. // T(n)^n is a time-function and oteST, then for any real numbers r and e, r > e > 0, /Aere is a binary output multitape Turing machine ¡F which, if run at one operation per r—e seconds, prints out the nth digit of a within rT(n) seconds. Ifcc$ ST, there are no such r and e. Thus, when considering time-functions greater or equal to n, the slightest increase in operation speed wipes out the distinction between binary and nonbinary output machines.Proof. This is a consequence of the theorem and Corollary 2.7.Theorem 3. // Tx and T2 are time-functions, then T(n) = min [T^n), T2(n)~] is a time-function and STí O ST2 = ST.1965] ON THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHMS 293 Proof. T is obviously a time-function. If 9~x is a machine that computes a in time T, and 9~2 computes a in time T2, then it is an easy matter to construct a third device &~ i ncorporating both y, and 3T2 which computes a both ways simul-taneously and prints the nth digit of a as soon as it is computed by either J~x or 9~2. Clearly this machine operates inTin) = min \Txin), T2(n)] .Theorem 4. If sequences a and ß differ in at most a finite number of places, then for any time-function T, cceST if and only if ße ST.Proof. Let ,T print a in time T. Then by adding some finite memory to the control unit of 3", we can obviously build a machine 3~' which computes ß in time T.Theorem 5. Given a time-function T, there is no decision procedure to decide whether a sequence a is in ST.Proof. Let 9~ be any Turing machine in the classical sense and let 3Tx be a multitape Turing machine which prints a sequence ß not in ST. Such a 9~x exists by Theorem 1. Let 9~2 be a multitape Turing machine which prints a zero for each operation $~ makes before stopping. If $~ should stop after k operations, then 3~2 prints the /cth and all subsequent output digits of &x. Let a be the sequence printed by 9"2, Because of Theorem 4, a.eST if and only if 9~ does not stop. Therefore, a decision procedure for oceST would solve the stopping problem which is known to be unsolvable (see [2]).Corollary 5.1. There is no decision procedure to determine if SV=ST or Sv c STfor arbitrary time-functions U and T.Proof. Similar methods to those used in the previous proof link this with the stopping problem.It should be pointed out that these unsolvability aspects are not peculiar to our classification scheme but hold for any nontrivial classification satisfying Theorem 4.III. Other devices. The purpose of this section is to compare the speed of our multitape Turing machine with the speed of other variants of a Turing machine. Most important is the first result because it has an application in a later section.Theorem 6. If the sequence a is T-computable by multitape Turing machine, !T, then a is T2-computable by a one-tape Turing machine 3~x .Proof. Assume that an n-tape Turing machine, 3~, is given. We shall now describe a one-tape Turing machine Px that simulates 9~, and show that if &" is a T-computer, then S~x is at most a T2-computer.294j. hartmanis and r. e. stearns[May The S~ computation is simulated on S'y as follows : On the tape of & y will be stored in n consecutive squares the n symbols read by S on its n tapes. The symbols on the squares to the right of those symbols which are read by S~ on its n tapes are stored in the next section to the right on the S'y tape, etc., as indicated in Figure 3, where the corresponding position places are shown. The1 TAPE T|A 1 TAPE T2I?TAPE Tn(a)J-"lo(b)Figure 3. (a) The n tapes of S. (b) The tape of S~\machine Tx operates as follows: Internally is stored the behavioral description of the machine S", so that after scanning the n squares [J], [o], ■■■, [5]»-^"îdetermines to what new state S~ will go, what new symbols will be printed by it on its n tapes and in which direction each of these tapes will be shifted. First,¡Fy prints the new symbols in the corresponding entries of the 0 block. Then it shifts the tape to the right until the end of printed symbols is reached. (We can print a special symbol indicating the end of printed symbols.) Now the machine shifts the tape back, erases all those entries in each block of n squares which correspond to tapes of S~ which are shifted to the left, and prints them in the corresponding places in the next block. Thus all those entries whose corresponding S~ tapes are shifted left are moved one block to the left. At the other end of the tape, the process is reversed and returning on the tape 9y transfers all those entries whose corresponding S~ tapes are shifted to the right one block to the right on the S'y tape. When the machine S', reaches the rigAz most printed symbol on its tape, it returns to the specially marked (0) block which now contains1965] ON THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHMS 295 the n symbols which are read by &~ o n its next operation, and #", has completed the simulation of one operation of 9~. It can be seen that the number of operations of Tx is proportional to s, the number of symbols printed on the tape of &"¡. This number increases at most by 2(n + 1) squares during each operation of &. Thus, after T(fc) operations of the machine J~, the one-tape machine S"t will perform at most7(*)T,(fc) =C0+ T Cxii = loperations, where C0 and C, are constants. But thenr,(fe) g C2 £ i^C [T(fc)]2 .¡ =iSince C is a constant, using Theorem 2, we conclude that there exists a one tape machine printing its fcth output symbol in less than T(fc)2 tape shifts as was to be shown.Corollary 6.1. The best computation time improvement that can be gained in going from n-tape machines to in + l)-tape machines is the square root of the computation time.Next we investigate what happens if we allow the possibility of having several heads on each tape with some appropriate rule to prevent two heads from occupy-ing the same square and giving conflicting instructions. We call such a device a multihead Turing machine. Our next result states that the use of such a model would not change the complexity classes.Theorem 7. Let a. be computable by a multihead Turing machine 3T which prints the nth digit in Tin) or less operations where T is a time-function; then a is in ST .Proof. We shall show it for a one-tape two-head machine, the other cases following by induction. Our object is to build a multitape machine Jr' which computes a within time 4T which will establish our result by Theorem 2. The one tape of !T will be replaced by three tapes in 9"'. Tape a contains the left-hand information from 9", tape b contains the right-hand information of 9~, and tape c keeps count, two at a time, of the number of tape squares of ST which are stored on both tapes a and b_. A check mark is always on some square of tape a to indicate the rightmost square not stored on tape b_ and tape b has a check to indicate the leftmost square not stored on tape a.When all the information between the heads is on both tapes a and b. then we have a "clean" position as shown in Figure 4(a). As &" operates, then tape296j. hartmanis and r. e. stearns [May7/Fio TTzTTR" 5 "6Ï7M I 4T5T6" 7 8TT77' ^f(a) rT-Tô:TT2l3l4l?l \J ¿Kh.1y(b) J I l?IM2!3|4 5.6T7 /I |?|4,|5|6 7 8TT7(c) f\7~ /\V\/\A7\7M J M/l/yTITTTTTTJ(a) (b)Figure 4. (a) .^"' in clean position, (b) S' in dirty positiona performs like the left head of S~, tape A behaves like the right head, and tape c reduces the count each time a check mark is moved. Head a must carry the check right whenever it moves right from a checked square, since the new symbol it prints will not be stored on tape A; and similarly head A moves its check left.After some m operations of S~' corresponding to m operations of S~, a "dirty"position such as Figure 4(b) is reached where there is no overlapping information.The information (if any) between the heads of S~ must be on only one tape of S~',say tape A as in Figure 4(b). Head A then moves to the check mark, the between head information is copied over onto tape a, and head amoves back into position.A clean position has been achieved and S~' is ready to resume imitating S~. The time lost is 3/ where I is the distance between the heads. But / ^ m since headA has moved / squares from the check mark it left. Therefore 4m is enough time to imitate m operations of S~ and restore a clean position. Thusas was to be shown.This theorem suggests that our model can tolerate some large deviations without changing the complexity classes. The same techniques can be applied to other changes in the model. For example, consider multitape Turing ma-chines which have a fixed number of special tape symbols such that each symbol can appear in at most one square at any given time and such that the reading head can be shifted in one operation to the place where the special symbol is printed, no matter how far it is on the tape. Turing machines with such "jump instructions^ are similarly shown to leave the classes unchanged.Changes in the structure of the tape tend to lead to "square laws." For example,consider the following :Definition 3. A two-dimensional tape is an unbounded plane which is sub-divided into squares by equidistant sets of vertical and horizontal lines as shown in Figure 5. The reading head of the Turing machine with this two-dimensional tape can move either one square up or down, or one square left or right on each operation. This definition extends naturally to higher-dimensional tapes.。
胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表
胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表-(1)(DOC)胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表1.语言的普遍特征: 任意性 arbitrariness多产性 productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许 多不在场的东西 文化传播性 culturaltransmission2o 语言的功能:传达信息功能informative 人济功能：interpersonal 行事功能:Performative 表情功能：Emotive 寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能 metalingual3.语言学linguistics ：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学 Morphology句法学syntax双层结构duality语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4.现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5.语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competenceand performance1.Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a.we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb.we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c.we can u se language to refer to something not presentd.we can produce sentencesthat have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a.i nterpersonalb.phaticc.in formatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn'tit ?"is __a informativeb.phaticc.directived.performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb.hallidayc.chomskyd.the prague school5.Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a.saussureb.chomskyc.hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction 鼻音nasals破裂音plosives咅B分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives 破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6 双元音diphthongs有元音过渡vowel glides1.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb・the perception of soundsc.the combination of soundsd.the production of sounds2.The distinction between vowel s and consonantslies in __a.the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc.the position of the tongued.the shape of the lips3.What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.n asal4.What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a.voicingb.n asalc.approximationd.aspiration6.The phonologicalfeatures of the consonantk are __a.voiced stopb.voiceless stopc.voiced fricatived.voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a.the manner of articulationb.the shape of the lipsc.the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a.aspirationb.n asalityc.obstructiond.voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法
*国家自然科学基金项目（No．61201252，61203173）、中国博士后科学基金项目（No．2013M531528）、安徽省自然科学基金项目（No．1308085MF100）、安徽省高校省级自然科学研究重点项目（No．KJ2011A128）、安徽省科技厅软科学研究计划项目（No．11020503009）资助收稿日期：2013－05－06；修回日期：2013－08－19作者简介张佩云（通讯作者），女，1974年生，博士，副教授，主要研究方向为智能信息处理、服务计算、语义网等．E-mail ：zpyustc@ustc．edu．cn．陈传明，男，1981年生，讲师，博士研究生，主要研究方向为数据挖掘．黄波，男，1980年生，博士，副教授，主要研究方向为计算机网络技术、智能信息处理等．基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法*张佩云1，2陈传明1黄波31（安徽师范大学数学计算机科学学院芜湖214003）2（中国科学技术大学计算机科学与技术学院合肥230027）3（南京理工大学计算机科学与技术学院南京210094）摘要为降低文本向量维度，提高文本间语义相似度度量性能，综合利用统计方法与语义词典的优势，提出一种文本相似度算法．基于文本生成元数据特征向量，减少向量空间维度，设计基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法，借助子树加速对文本相似度的计算，并通过将文本元数据特征向量与子树进行相似度语义匹配，提高文本相似度计算时语义相似度度量的准确性．该算法考虑到对元数据中同义词的语义理解，加强文本之间相似度度量时的语义覆盖能力．实验结果表明文中所提出的方法是可行和有效的．关键词元数据，子树匹配，语义，文本相似度中图法分类号TP 311Texts Similarity Algorithm Based on Subtrees MatchingZHANG Pei-Yun 1，2，CHEN Chuan-Ming 1，HUANG Bo 31（School of Mathematics and Computer Science ，Anhui Normal University ，Wuhu 241003）2（School of Computer Science and Technology ，University of Science and Technology of China ，Hefei 230027）3（School of Computer Science and Technology ，Nanjing University of Science and Technology ，Nanjing 210094）ABSTＲACTTo reduce the dimensionality of text vectors and improve the performance of semantic similarity measurement ，an algorithm for texts similarity computation is proposed ，which combines the advantages of the statistical methods and semantic dictionary．The texts are utilized to generate metadata feature vectors ，so that it reduces the dimensionality of text vectors space．The algorithm for computing texts similarity is designed based on subtrees matching and the speed of computing texts similarity is improved．The accuracy of texts semantic similarity measurement is improved by utilizing the semantic matching of metadata feature vectors and subtrees．The synonyms widely existing in metadata are processed by the proposed method ，and the semantic coverage ability for similarity computation of texts is also enhanced．The experimental results show that the proposed method is feasible and effective．第27卷第3期模式识别与人工智能Vol．27No．32014年3月PＲ＆AI Mar．2014Key Words Metadata，Subtrees Matching，Semantic，Texts Similarity1引言随着互联网信息的迅速增长，如何从海量信息中获取用户所需的信息是当前一项重要的研究工作．在国内外对此所开展的文本挖掘、人工智能、信息检索、知识管理等相关研究中，文本相似度计算得到广泛应用．目前，相似度计算方法主要分为基于大规模文本集统计的传统方法和基于语义计算的方法．基于大规模文本集统计的方法，通常采用向量空间模型（Vector Space Model，VSM）［1－2］和隐性语义索引模型（Latent Semantic Indexing，LSI）［3］等方法．这些方法均基于关键词进行相似度计算，未考虑特征项的语义信息，例如，认为“火车”和“交通工具”没有相关性，相似度为0，而实际上前者相对后者来说是具体概念，后者是前者的抽象类别概念，两词项间有着语义相似关系．由于只考虑词在上下文中的统计特性，而没有考虑词的语义，因此，基于大规模文本集统计方法具有一定的局限性．基于语义文本相似度计算方法主要有基于本体和基于外部语义词典两种．文献［4］和文献［5］提出基于本体的文本特征抽取及文本相似度计算方法．基于本体的方法由于过于注重概念结点在本体树中的结构分布，且本体的构建需要领域专家的参与，是一项复杂工程，导致基于本体的应用受限．基于外部语义词典的文本相似度计算方法主要有基于Hownet（知网）［6－8］和基于WordNet两种．相对于知网研究，WordNet的研究较多，WordNet来源于美国Princeton大学一项知识工程项目，在进行语义相似度计算时，可充分利用WordNet结构及语义信息．基于WordNet的相关研究主要有基于词汇或概念的语义相似度计算［9－14］．文献［10］提出基于内容的新闻推荐，与以往基于VSM方法不同，该方法基于WordNet计算新闻内容中同义词的语义相似度．在概念与词汇相似度计算的基础上，文献［15］研究句子相似度计算，提出基于WordNet和统计方法来计算句子的语义相似度．概念之间的复杂关系增加基于语义的文本相似度计算的难度，由于概念树（森林）相对于概念网络而言结构复杂度较低，因此，有研究者提出基于概念树或森林的文本相似度计算［16－17］，主要将概念网络中概念间的上/下位关系构建到树中，形成概念之间的父子类关系．将外部语义词典WordNet与树型结构相结合的研究包括：基于WordNet的文本相似度计算方法［16］，该方法从文本中构造概念森林（Concept Forests）来表示文本的语义，并通过计算概念森林之间共有部分语义相似度来度量两文本的相似性；文献［17］提出基于Wikipedia和WordNet 对文本的词汇资源建立语义森林（由算法1可知，语义森林与概念森林实质是相同的）．这些研究均是基于文本资源构建概念森林，由于文本资源千变万化，若针对所有文本均构建概念森林（概念森林包括多个概念树），需耗费大量时间，且针对特定文本构造的概念森林往往只使用一次，因此利用率低．为解决该问题，本文采用逆向思维，基于外部语义词典构建概念树，而不是基于每个文本构建概念森林，该树在文本相似度计算时可被多次使用，当语义词典有变动时才需更新概念树，提高算法的效率．本文创新点主要体现在概念树基础上，提出一种子树匹配的文本相似度计算方法，以提高文本相似度计算方法的性能．2文本预处理由于文本中不同结构的词项对相似度计算的作用大小是不同的，如文本中标题、摘要、关键词等关键结构中的元数据词项，这些元数据蕴含着文本的核心内容，对文本相似度度量计算有着重要作用．元数据是“关于数据的结构化数据”，目前互联网上存在大量具有元数据结构的文本资源，如邮件文档、数字图书馆的仓储、电子期刊等资源，研究这些文本间的相似度对于文本检索和数据挖掘等具有积极意义．由于元数据的特点，抽取后的元数据特征向量可表征文本，使得元数据特征向量间的相似性可表征其文本之间的相似性．元数据抽取主要有基于规则和基于统计模型两类方法．已有的元数据提取方法对本文的研究做了基础铺垫，本文采用基于规则的抽取方法，抽取的元数据生成矩阵Matrix．Matrix形式化表示如下：Matrix=（dtik）mˑn，其中，Matrix表示一个mˑn矩阵，元素dt ik表示第i个文本的第k个元数据特征项．以传统的TF-IDF［18］方法为基础，设置元数据的权重为Wk，文本text i形成元数据特征向量为D（t1，W1；t2，W2；…；tk，Wk）．7223期张佩云等：基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法3概念树子树的生成基于概念树进行文本相似度计算时，往往没有利用整棵树，而是概念树中的部分子树，因此，本文基于子树计算文本之间的相似度．子树不仅提供更精确的领域概念上下文信息，使得后期文本相似度度量时，可提高相似度计算结果的精确度，另一方面，子树也提高了文本相似度计算的速度，减少由于多次基于整棵树计算而带来的时间和内存耗费．以图1所示的带有权重及同义词集的概念树为例，分析子树的构建过程．图1中，椭圆内c1 c9表示概念结点，w1 w4表示概念结点的权重，方框内syn ij表示同义词（同义词的权重与其链接概念结点的权重相同），箭头线从子概念指向父概念，表示父子概念的层次关系．图1带有权重及同义词集的概念树示例Fig．1Example of concept tree with weight and synonyms计算树中概念c i与概念c j之间的相似度时，采用文献［14］中提到较经典的概念之间相似度计算公式：similarity（ci ，cj）=2depth（lso（ci，cj）len（ci，lso（ci，cj））+len（cj，lso（ci，cj））+2depth（lso（ci，cj），（1）其中，lso（c i，c j）是概念c i和概念c j的公共最近父结点，depth（lso（c i，c j））是两个不同的概念c i和概念c j 的公共最近父结点在概念树中的深度，len（c i，lso（ci ，cj））是概念ci到公共最近父结点的路径上概念结点的个数．对于两个不同的概念，该公式既考虑到结点在概念树中的深度，也考虑到两概念结点之间的路径长度，长度相同的结点，它们最近的父结点在树中的层次越深，则概念间的相似度越大；而父结点相同的两个结点之间的长度越大，即len（c i，lso（ci ，cj））+len（cj，lso（ci，cj））越大，则两者的相似度越低．基于概念树，生成子树集的过程如算法1所示．算法1getSubTree（ConceptsTree）输入ConceptsTree/*非空概念树*/输出subTreeSet/*子树集*/BEGIN1．int m=ConceptsTree．size（）；2．int i=1；3．WHILE（i＜=m）4．｛FOＲ（EACH Concept［i］in the ConceptsTree）5．｛（c1，w1；c2，w2；c3，w3；…，cn，wn）；←获取Concept［i］的子类概念及其权重；6．subTree［i］←（c1，w1；c2，w2；c3，w3；…，c n ，wn）；7．｝ENDFOＲ8．Add subTree［i］into subTreeSet；9．i++；10．｝ENDWHILE11．返回subTreeSet；END读取非空概念树ConceptsTree，采用纵向优先策略，则将ConceptsTree中每个概念（步骤4）的所有子概念形成一个概念集（步骤5），将该概念子集及其权重保存在子树subTree［i］（步骤6）．当输入具有m 个结点的概念树时，将生成m个子树，每个子树是某概念结点下的所有子概念的集合．令n=ConceptsTree．size（），按深度优先遍历某概念的所有子结点，时间复杂度为O（mn）．4基于子树匹配的文本相似度计算首先给出与基于子树匹配文本相似度计算相关的定义．4．1相关定义在计算基于子树匹配的文本相似度之前，需分析文本与子树之间的匹配关系，如图2所示．图2给出2个文本与1棵子树之间的匹配关系，822模式识别与人工智能27卷文本d i 的元数据特征项与子树概念结点的匹配对为4，文本d j 的元数据特征项与子树概念结点的匹配对为3．针对匹配对的多少，给出如下匹配子树的定义．图2文本与子树之间的匹配关系Fig．2Matching relationship among texts and subtrees定义1匹配子树在所有子树中，当文本d i 与其中的某子树ST k 的匹配对最多时，称子树ST k 为文本d i 的匹配子树．计算文本与匹配子树之间的相似度，定义如下．定义2文本d i 与匹配子树ST k 的相似度，记为sim （d i ，ST k ）．d i ∈Matrix （Matrix 为文本的元数据矩阵），ST k ∈subTreeSet （subTreeSet 为概念树的子树集），ST k 是文本d i 的匹配子树，文本d i 的元数据特征向量为（t 1，W 1；t 2，W 2；…；t i ，W i ），子树ST k 的向量为（c 1，w 1；c 2，w 2；…；c K ，w K ），则文本d i 与子树ST k 的匹配相似度计算公式如下：sim （d i ，ST k ）=∑Lm =1match （t m ，c m ）·W m ·w m I +K，（2）其中，L 表示文本d i 的元数据特征向量与子树ST k 实现最多匹配概念对的数目，I 和K 分别表示文本d i 的元数据特征项的个数及子树ST k 中概念结点个数，L ＜=I 且L ＜=K．元数据特征项与子树中概念结点相匹配时（图2中虚线相连的特征项与树概念结点），match （t m ，c m ）=1．t m 为文本向量d i 中第m 个配对的元数据特征项，W m 是t m 的权重；c m 为子树ST k 中的第m 个配对的概念结点（包括该概念结点的同义词），w m 是c m 的权重．子树与子树之间的相似度关系如图3所示．图3子树之间的相似度关系Fig．3Similarity relationship between subtrees定义3子树之间的相似度，记为treeSim （ST k ，ST l ）对于两棵不同的子树ST k 和ST l ， ST k ∈subTreeSet ， ST l ∈subTreeSet ，子树ST k 的向量为（c 1，w 1；c 2，w 2；…；c K ，w K ），子树ST l 的向量为（C 1，w'1；C 2，w'2；…；C L ，w'L ），子树ST k 与子树ST l 的相似度计算公式如下：treeSim （ST k ，ST l ）=∑Nn =1max （similarity （c n ，C n ））·w n ·w n'K +L，（3）其中，N 表示子树ST k 与子树ST l 最大匹配的概念对个数，N 取K 和L 中的最小值．max （similarity （c n ，C n ））表示子树ST k 与子树ST l 中具有最大相似度值的概念结点对．c n 为子树ST k 中的第n 个配对的概念结点，C n 为子树ST l 中的第n 个配对的概念结点，w n 及w n '分别是c n 和C n 的权重．K 和L 分别表示子树ST k 与子树ST l 中概念结点的总个数．基于所构建的概念树，生成的子树个数是确定的，因此，可长期保存计算得到的子树之间的相似度值，在概念树保持不变的情况下，该相似度值可被多次使用，以加快基于子树匹配的文本相似度计算效率．当子树ST k 与子树ST l 是同一棵子树时，treeSim （ST k ，ST l ）=1．对于n 个子树而言，计算子树间的相似度的次数为n （n －1）/2．4．2基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法设计由于每个文本的匹配子树往往是不相同的，因此设计文本相似度算法时，需要考虑到文本d i 和文本d j 可能具有同一棵匹配子树，也可能具有各自不同的匹配子树的情况，两种情况需要分别讨论．1）当文本d i 和文本d j 具有相同的匹配子树．理想情况下，文本d i 和文本d j 具有相同的匹配9223期张佩云等：基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法子树ST k时，由匹配子树作为中介，两文本元数据特征向量的语义重叠程度最高，由于文本元数据特征向量可表征文本，因此两文本的相似度高．基于相同匹配子树文本之间的相似度关系如图4所示．图4基于相同匹配子树的文本之间的相似度关系Fig．4Text similarity relationship based on the samematching subtree图4中，匹配子树在两文本相似度计算时起着中介桥梁作用，相似度1和相似度2分别表示文本d i 和文本d j与匹配子树的相似度（利用定义2中式（2）计算该相似度）．相似度3是以匹配子树为中介，计算得到的文本d i和文本d j之间的相似度．相似度3的计算公式如下：textsSimkl （di，dj）=sim（di，STk）+sim（dj，STl）2，（4）其中，文本d i与文本d j之间的相似度textsSim kl（d i，dj）等于文本与匹配子树相似度的平均值．在判断两个文本是否相似时，还要判断文本与匹配子树相似度差值（用Δsim ij［k］［l］表示）对文本相似度的影响，若差值的绝对值较大，文本相似度会降低．Δsim ij［k］［l］计算如下：Δsim ij［k］［l］=sim（d i，ST k）-sim（d j，ST l），（5）其中，Δsim ij［k］［l］的值越大，表示文本之间相似度越低．2）当文本di和文本d j具有不同的匹配子树．两文本具有同一棵匹配子树往往是特例，更多时候是两文本d i和d j具有不同的匹配子树，文本d i 和文本d j之间的相似度关系如图5所示．图5基于不同匹配子树的文本之间相似度关系Fig．5Text similarity relationship based on different matching subtrees图5中，子树ST k是文本d i的匹配子树，子树ST l 是文本d j的匹配子树，匹配子树ST k和ST l在两文本的相似度计算时起着中介桥梁作用．相似度1表示文本d i与子树1的相似度sim（d i，ST k），相似度2表示子树1与子树2的相似度treeSim（ST k，ST l）），相似度3表示文本d j与子树2的相似度sim（d j，ST l）．在该3个相似度均已知的情况下，计算文本d i与文本d j的相似度textsSim kl（d i，d j）：textsSimkl（di，dj）=sim（di，STk）+sim（dj，STl）+treeSim（STk，STl）3．（6）与第一种情况类似，此处也需要判断3个相似度之间的差值（用Δsim ij［k］［l］表示），对文本d i、d j 相似度的影响，如下所示：Δsim ij［k］［l］=（sim（d i，ST k）-sim（d j，ST l）+sim（dj，STl）-treeSim（STk，STl）+sim（di，STk）-treeSim（STk，STl））/3．当文本d i和文本d j具有不同的匹配子树时，文本d i与文本d j的相似度计算过程主要有3个步骤．step1按式（2）分别计算文本di、文本dj与各自的匹配子树ST k、ST l的相似度：sim（d i，ST k）、sim（dj，STl）；step2按式（3）计算匹配子树STk与匹配子树ST l之间的相似度treeSim（ST k，ST l）；step3以匹配子树STk、STl为中介，按式（6）计算两文本之间的相似度textsSim kl（d i，d j）．上述主要思想体现在基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法中，如算法2所示．算法2TSM（Matrix，subTreeSet，THＲESHOLD）输入Matrix，subTreeSet，THＲESHOLD/*分别表示元数据矩阵、子树集、阈值*/输出simiVector/*文本及其相似度值*/ BEGIN1．int M=Matrix．size（）；2．int N=subTreeSet．size（）；3．FOＲ（i=1to M＆＆Matrix中的每个di）4．FOＲ（j=1to N＆＆each STjin subTreeSet）5．Hash←sim（di，STj）；/*计算文本与匹配子树相似度*/6．ENDFOＲ7．ENDFOＲ8．FOＲ（i=1to M＆＆Matrix中的每个di）9．寻找文本di的匹配子树ST k；10．ENDFOＲ11．FOＲ（di＆＆djin Matrix）/*基于匹配子树，计算文本之间的相似度以及差值*/12．｛计算textsSimkl（di，dj）的值；13．计算Δsimij［k］［l］的值；032模式识别与人工智能27卷14．｝ENDFOＲ15．FOＲ（di ＆＆djin Matrix）/*下面判断文本是否相似*/16．｛IF（di ＆＆dj有相同的匹配子树）THEN17．｛IF（textsSimkl （di，dj）是最大值＆＆Δsim ij［k］［l］＜THＲESHOLD）/*调用式（6）与式（7）*/18．THEN文本di和文本d j相似；19．simiVector←（di ，dj，textsSimkl（di，dj），Δsim ij［k］［l］）；20．｝ENDIF21．ELSE/*表示两文本具有不同的子树*/22．｛IF（textsSimkl （di，dj）是最大值＆＆Δsim ij［k］［l］＜THＲESHOLD）/*调用式（8）与式（9）*/23．THEN文本di和文本d j相似；24．simiVector←（di ，dj，textsSimkl（di，dj），Δsim ij［k］［l］）；25．｝ENDIF26．ENDIF27．｝ENDFOＲ28．ＲETUＲN simiVector；END算法2中在判断文本是否相似时，处理的优先级是：若文本d i和文本d j的匹配子树是同一棵子树（见语句16），则优先处理，否则若两文本的匹配子树不同（见语句21），则其次处理．无论处理哪种情况，均需判断文本d i和文本d j是否满足相似度的条件，即textsSim kl（d i，d j）值最大且Δsim ij［k］［l］值满足阈值THＲESHOLD要求（见算法2步骤17和步骤22），当满足该条件时，表示文本di和文本d j相似．为加快运算速度，算法2采用Hash表来加速数据处理，令子树的个数为m，元数据特征向量的平均个数为n，元数据特征向量的平均大小为l，算法2的时间复杂度为O（nml）．5实例与实验结果分析5．1实例分析以图1所示的概念树为例，基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法的实例分析如下．1）生成元数据特征向量．对文本d1和d2进行预处理，为便于演示，令文本d1生成的元数据特征向量为（t1，W1；t2，W2；t3，W3），共有3个元数据特征项；文本d2生成的元数据特征向量为（t4，W4；t5，W5；t6，W6；t7，W7），共有4个元数据特征项．令权重W1W7的取值分别为0．5、0．6、0．5、0．7、0．8、0．9、0．1．2）基于概念树生成子树．基于图1及算法1，生成的子树共有9个，分别如下：subTree［1］=（c1，w1；c2，w2；c3，w3；c4，w4；c5，w5；c6，w6；c7，w7；c8，w8；c9，w9），该子树以概念c1为根结点，即第一个概念结点为根结点；subTree［2］=（c2，w2；c4，w4；c5，w5；c6，w6；c8，w8；c9，w9），该子树以概念c2为根结点；subTree［3］=（c4，w4），该子树以概念c4为根结点；subTree［4］=（c5，w5；c8，w8；c9，w9），该子树以概念c5为根结点；subTree［5］=（c8，w8），该子树以概念c8为根结点；subTree［6］=（c9，w9），该子树以概念c9为根结点；subTree［7］=（c6，w6），该子树以概念c6为根结点；subTree［8］=（c3，w3；c7，w7），以概念c3为根结点；subTree［9］=（c7，w7），该子树以概念c7为根结点．从图1可知，概念结点c3，c4，c5，c6，c7，c8均有各自的同义词信息，因此，在生成子树时，通过链接的形式关联各自的同义词信息．按层次分别计算子树中各概念结点的权重，可得权重w1 w9的取值分别为1/9，2/9，2/9，3/9，3/9，3/9，3/9，4/9，4/9．3）计算元数据特征向量与子树的相似度．首先，基于式（1），计算子树subTree［1］ subTree［9］中的概念c i（i取值范围为［1，9］）与文本元数据特征项t k（k取值范围为［1，7］）之间的相似度，计算得到的similarity（c i，t k）值如表1所示．基于式（2），分别计算文本d1、d2与其各子树的相似度sim（d1，ST k）、sim（d2，ST k）（k取值范围为［1，9］）．文本与子树之间的相似度计算结果如表2所示．由表2第一行可知，文本d1与子树ST4的相似度sim（d1，ST4）最大，从第二行可知，文本d2与子树ST4的相似度sim（d2，ST4）最大，可见，子树ST4恰好是文本d1、d2的同一棵匹配子树，符合采用式（4）计算textsSim kl（d1，d2）、式（5）计算Δsim12［k］［l］（k 取值范围为［1，9］，l取值范围为［1，9］），可得81个1323期张佩云等：基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法textsSimkl （d1，d2）值．通过运行算法2，这些textsSimkl （d1，d2）值中，textsSim44（d1，d2）=sim（d1，ST4）+sim（d2，ST4）=0．011353，该值是其中最大的，且Δsim12［4］［4］=0．009007，基于匹配子树ST4，文本d1和文本d2的相似度最高．由算法2可知，当算法2的THＲESHOLD为0．01时，文本d1和文本d2相似度满足要求．表1文本概念与子树概念之间的similarity（ci，tk）值Table1The similarity（ci，tk）values between text concepts and subtree conceptsc1c2c3c4c5c6c7c8c9 t10．40．300．400．300．500．600．800．850．95t20．50．600．800．700．650．750．820．930．80t30．40．800．200．530．910．500．100．200．30t40．60．550．700．720．920．700．630．830．20t50．50．400．200．100．600．700．800．960．84t60．10．700．300．600．750．500．950．150．10t70．20．300．250．100．700．930．820．900．65表2文本与子树之间的相似度Table2Similarity between texts and subtrees子树文本ST1ST2ST3ST4ST5ST6ST7ST8ST9d15e－047e－044e－041e－026e－045e－044e－046e－044e－04d27e－048e－043e－041e－037e－046e－046e－045e－046e－045．2实验与结果分析实验中，采用WordNet3．0等作为外部语义词典，生成概念树及子树集．实验1基于数据集1与其他算法的性能比较分析实验目的：主要将本文方法与传统的基于（概率）统计的方法进行比较．1）WordBased方法．基于经典的TF-IDF［2］计算词项的权重，其中词频（Term Frequency，TF）用于统计一篇文本中特征项出现的频率，利用逆文本频率（Inverse Document Frequency，IDF）来衡量特征项权重的指数，WordBased方法根据文本向量夹角余弦值的大小来表征文本之间相似程度．2）N-gram方法．基于概率统计的N元语法［11］，N的大小体现词间的独立性强弱．3）LSA方法．潜在语义分析（Latent Semantic Analysis，LSA）［19］．为与已有相关研究比较，采用Michael D．Lee 的50标准文档相似度测试数据集［20］，该数据集集合来自澳大利亚广播公司新闻邮件服务文档，共2500对文档，去掉自身配对文档后还有1225对不同的文档．该数据集中文档的长度范围为51 126字，文本内容覆盖的话题广泛，每对文档有8 12个标准观察者提供针对文档对的相似度值．该数据集的停用词包括：“are，as，at，about，all，also，although，am，an，and，another，any，anybody，anyhow，anyone，anything，anywhere”等．为验证LSA等方法，还提供具有49298对文档的备用数据集语料库．在实验中，为判断不同方法的优劣，需要判断实验结果与标准观察者提供针对文档对的相似度值的相关性．实验采用常用的皮尔逊线性相关系数（记为r）来衡量相关性，r取值范围为［－1，1］，r＞0，说明实验结果与标准观察者提供对文档对的相似度值是正相关的．实验得到的皮尔森线性相关系数最好结果记录如表3所示．表3实验1结果Table3Ｒesults of Experiment1方法名称皮尔森线性相关系数WordBased方法取值范围（0．4，0．5）LSA方法取值范围（0．5，0．6］N-gram方法约为0．5本文方法约为0．6由表3可知，前两种方法主要是基于VSM模型的统计方法，其中，LSA（也称为LSI）方法的实验结果较好，最优值能接近0．6．N-gram方法的整数N的取值范围为［1，10］，当N≥6时结果较好（相对于N＜6时），但相对其他方法而言，实验效果一般．本文方法在概念树的基础上，计算文本对的相似度，与数据集的已有计算结果相比，本文方法取得较好的皮尔森线性相关系数值，约为0．6，结果相对较好．实验2基于数据集2与其他算法的性能比较分析实验目的：主要将本文方法与基于语义计算的232模式识别与人工智能27卷文本相似度方法相比较．1）ConceptForest 方法［16］．该方法基于文档构建语义森林，并基于WordNet 计算概念之间的语义相似度．其文本相似度计算公式如下：Sim （d i ，d j ）=T i ∩T jT i ∪T j，其中，d i 、d j 表示文本，T i 和T j 分别是来自文本d i 、d j 的概念森林．2）SemanticForest 方法［17］．该方法基于文本构建语义森林，并基于WordNet 和Wikipedia 计算文本语义相似度．3）TSemSim ［18］方法．该方法基于词项语义信息计算文本相似度，主要思想是基于VSM ，设v i ，v j 是两篇不同文本的关键词项向量，其中v i =（w i 1，w i 2，w i 3，…，w im ），v j =（w j 1，w j 2，w j 3，…，w jm ），该方法定义文本相似度为textSim （v i ，v j ）=wf *VectSim （v i ，v j ），其中，wf 表示关键词向量v i ，v j 之间相似度的加权因子，VectSim （v i ，v j ）表示关键词向量v i 和v j 之间的相似度．由于文本相似度计算的语料库相对较少，因此，采用与文献［18］类似的方法，将文本相似度计算方法与聚类算法相结合来验证算法的有效性．采用公认的标准数据集Ｒeuters-21578（http ：//kdd．ics．uci．edu /databases /reuters21578/reuters21578．html ），该数据集在文本的大小、分布上都存在显著差异性，已被广泛采用［16，18］．取Ｒeuters-21578数据集中6个文本子集（简称Ｒeuters ）：Ｒe1、Ｒe2、Ｒe3、Ｒe4，Ｒe5，Ｒe6，该6个文本子集的大小分别为110、203、318、412、321、423．将4种方法与二分K 均值聚类算法［18］相结合来验证算法的有效性．1）基于Ｒeuters 数据集的准确率分析．实验测试4种方法计算文本相似度的准确率，如图6所示．图6基于Ｒeuters 数据集的相似度准确率分析Fig．6Analysis of similarity precision rate based on Ｒeuters dataset由图6可知，TSemSim 方法、SemanticForest 方法与ConceptForest 的方法是基于WordNet 或Wikipedia 计算词汇语义相似度，再聚集运算后得到文本之间的相似度，准确率相对较低，而本文方法综合基于统计和基于语义方法的优点来计算文本相似度，因此，本文方法计算得到的相似度准确率是4种方法中最高的，而ConceptForest 方法准确率最低．2）基于Ｒeuters 数据集的时间耗费分析．基于Ｒeuters 数据集，4种方法的时间耗费如图7所示．图7基于Ｒeuters 数据集的算法时间耗费分析Fig．7Time consumption analysis based on Ｒeuters dataset由图7可知，基于Ｒeuters 数据集，TSemSim 方法的时间耗费最少，其次是本文方法，耗费时间较多的是SemanticForest 方法和ConceptForest 方法，其中，ConceptForest 方法时间耗费是最多的，相较而言，本文方法的时间性能是可接受的．通过基于Michael D．Lee 数据集和Ｒeuters 数据集对算法进行测试及比较分析可知，本文方法综合统计方法和语义计算的优势进行文本相似度计算，实验结果相对于仅基于统计方法或仅基于语义计算的方法要好．6结束语元数据作为文本中的重要词项，为文本间的语义相似度（接近度）计算提供了一个合适的表征向量，本文研究一种文本相似计算方法，从降低文本表示时文本向量的维度出发，通过对文本收集元数据及对元数据进行预处理，生成具有少量特征项的元数据特征向量，在不影响文本特征提取的前提下减少文本特征向量的维度．通过生成概念树，设置分层权重并设置对同义词的处理，以子树为中介计算文本向量之间的相似度．本文概念树的构建是一项基3323期张佩云等：基于子树匹配的文本相似度算法。
研究NLP100篇必读的论文---已整理可直接下载
研究NLP100篇必读的论⽂---已整理可直接下载100篇必读的NLP论⽂⾃⼰汇总的论⽂集，已更新链接：提取码：x7tnThis is a list of 100 important natural language processing (NLP) papers that serious students and researchers working in the field should probably know about and read.这是100篇重要的⾃然语⾔处理(NLP)论⽂的列表，认真的学⽣和研究⼈员在这个领域应该知道和阅读。
This list is compiled by .本榜单由编制。
I welcome any feedback on this list. 我欢迎对这个列表的任何反馈。
This list is originally based on the answers for a Quora question I posted years ago: .这个列表最初是基于我多年前在Quora上发布的⼀个问题的答案:[所有NLP学⽣都应该阅读的最重要的研究论⽂是什么?]( -are-the-most-important-research-paper -which-all-NLP-students-should- definitread)。
I thank all the people who contributed to the original post. 我感谢所有为原创⽂章做出贡献的⼈。
This list is far from complete or objective, and is evolving, as important papers are being published year after year.由于重要的论⽂年复⼀年地发表，这份清单还远远不够完整和客观，⽽且还在不断发展。
语言学重点讲解
三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
英语语言学备考题
1.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.2. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language:Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.(1)Arbitrariness is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness is a matter of degree.(2)Duelity of structure refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning.At the first level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningfulunits(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second , lower level, it is seen as sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.(3)Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an difinitely large number of sentences in one's language, including those that one has never heard before.(4)Displacement refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present.(5)Cultural transmission shows that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but have to be learned and taught.(6)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. The orgin of language(1)The bow-bow theory: in primitive times people imitated the sounds of animal calls in the wild enironment they lived and speech developed from that. Onomatopoetic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory.(2)The pooh-pooch theory: in the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger, and joy.(3)The "yo-he-yo" theory: as primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.4. Functions of language(1)The informative function is regarded as the most important function of language(2)The interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.(3)The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies. the language used is quite formal and even ritualized.(4)The emotive function changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is similar to expressive function but the latter can be totally without any implication of communication to others.(5)the phatic communion enables people to maintain a comfortable relationship without involving any factual content.(6)the recreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.(7)The metlingual function means that we can use language to talk about language.5. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the study scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language , but is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The four principles that make linguistics a science are exhausiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.6. Some basic distinctions in linguistics(1)Speech and WritingOne general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech doesnot have(2)Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyzes facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavour.(3)Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时)The description of a language at some point of in time is a sychronic study and the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.(4)Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is the distinction made by the Swiss linguistist F. De Saussure early last century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or the realization of langue.(5) Competence(能力) and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).(6)linguistic potential/linguistic behavior7. The scope of linguistics(1) General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.(2) Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.(3) Phonology is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.(4) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.(5) Syntax is the branch of linhguistics which studies the rules of governing the combination of words into sentences.(6) Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.(7) Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.(8) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.(9) Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.(10)Historical linguistics is the study of language changes.(11)Anthropological linguistics uses the thoeries and mathods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of mman.(12)Neurolinguistics studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.(13)Mathematical linguistics studies the mathematicaol features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.(14)Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts areapplied, often with the aid of a computer.8. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?Traditional semantics studied meaning, butte meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of mean­ ing. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics9. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance de­ pends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utter­ ances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.10. speech organsSpeech organs are the human body involved in the production of speech, including the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth.When the vocal folds are apart , the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be VOICELESS. When they are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be VOICED.When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them. THe result of this gesture is the glottal stop[?].11. Morpheme and Morphology(1) Morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into futher smaller units without detroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.(2) Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including inflection and word formation.12. Major branches of phoneticsPhonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics is the study of all speech sounds used in human languages whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute a language and express meanings. There are three branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics.13. Allophone : the different members of a phoneme, sounds that are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are allophone. For example, the phoneme /l/ in english can be realized as dark〖l〗,clear〖l〗, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.Phone: a phonetic unit or segment which occurs in the language is called a phone.Compare: Morpheme-morph-allomorph and phoneme-phone-allophoneThe relationship between a morpheme and its morphs and allomorphs is parallel to the relationship betweena phoneme and its phones and allophones.A morpheme is manifested as one or more morphs (surface forms) in different environments. These morphsare called allomorphs.A phoneme is manifested as one or more phones (phonetic sounds) in different environments. These phonesare called allophones.14.what is miminal pair and what is minimal set? Why is it important to identify them in a language?Minimal pairs are two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segments that occurs in the same position in the string. So in english ,Pill and Bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, till and kill, kill and dill. Accordingly, we can conclude that /p/ ,/b/,/t/,/d/ are phonemes in english. Then all these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set; they are identical in form except for the initial consonant. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a linguists can identify its phonemes.15. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?Phonetics and phonology both study the same aspect of language---- speech sounds, there is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects. Without the knowledge of speech sounds provided by phonetic studies, any study of the sound system of a particular language would have been almost impossible.However, the two subjects approach speech sounds from different points of view.A) Phonetics provides methods for the description, transcription of sounds for all languages; phonology studies the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, phonetics is general, descriptive, and classificatory; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, etc. phonological study is particular and functional. It is particular to one language and the conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. Phonology deals with how human being use speech sounds to express meaning.B) The basis unit of phonetic study is phone, while that of phonological study is phoneme.C) A phonetic study is a static one, since it tells us how a sound of a language is made, transmitted and received, whereas a phonological study is a dynamic one, telling how sounds are used to convey meaning.16. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?Phone refers to the speech sound we use when speaking a language. Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that can distinguish meaning. However, phoneme is an abstract unit, i.e. it is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actually speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.A phoneme can be realized by one or more than one phone. The different phones which represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Allophones are actualizations of a phoneme in a particular language that never affect the meaning.17. What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language? Minimal pair refers to two expressions (words or morphemes) of a language with different meanings that are distinguished by only one phoneme, e.g. {pig: big}; {tip: dip}; {ship, sheep}.Minimal set refers to more than two expressions of a language with different meanings that are distinguished by only one phoneme, such as {said: says: set: sell}; {pat: bat: mat}.Contrasting minimal pairs is a basic procedure in establishing the phonemic inventory of a language.18. What is the main task for a linguist? State the importance of linguistics.The main task of a linguist is to discover the nature of the underlying language system, such as how each language is conducted, how it is used by its speakers, and how it is related to other languages, etc.。
专业术语翻译
Meta–rules as a Basis for Processing Ill–Formed Output 作为对不合格输出进行处理的基础的元规则 Weischedel,Ralph M. and Sondheimer,Norman K. 1983/3–4
Computer Generation of Multiparagraph English Text 多段落英文文本的计算机生成 Mann,William C. and Moore,James A. 1981/1
Determinging Verb Phrase Referents in Dialogs 对话中动词短语指向的确定 Robinson,Ann E. 1981/1
Sublanguages,from Proceedings of the Workshop on Applied Computational Linguistics in Perspective 子语言，选自《应用计算语言学展望》研讨会论文集 Kittredge,Richard(Chair) 1982/2
Parse Fitting and Prose Fixing: Getting a Hold on Ill–Formedness 分析和整理：处理不合格形式 Jensen,Karen; Heidorn,George E.;etc. 1983/3–4
Preference Semantics,Ill–Formedness,and Metaphor 优选语义学、不合格形式及隐喻 Fass,Dan and Wilks,Yorick 1983/3–4
词汇丰富性测量方法及计算机程序开发：回顾与展望
词汇丰富性测量方法及计算机程序开发：回顾与展望陆芸【摘要】Lexical diversity and lexical sophistication are the two most frequently used indices. Research on measures of lexical richness has been conducted mainly in two dimensions ： research on measures of lexical diver- sity and research on measures of lexical sophistication. The paper reviews research on the measures of lexical di- versity and lexical sophistication as well as their computer programs. Problems with these measures are discussed and suggestions are made to improve these measures.%词汇丰富性最常用的测量指标是词汇多样性和词汇复杂度,对词汇丰富性测量方法的研究主要沿这两个方向进行。
通过对词汇多样性测量方法和词汇丰富性测量方法及其计算机程序开发进行回顾,分析以往测量方法的不足之处,并对未来研究提出展望。
【期刊名称】《南京工业大学学报（社会科学版）》【年(卷),期】2012(011)002【总页数】5页(P104-108)【关键词】词汇丰富性;词汇多样性;词汇复杂度;计算机程序【作者】陆芸【作者单位】南京工业大学外国语学院,江苏南京211816【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TP39词汇评估是二语习得研究的一个重要方面。
Read提出了词汇评估的三个维度:一是分离式还是嵌入式，关注词汇知识是作为独立概念进行测量还是作为某一更大概念之下的一个部分进行测量;二是选择型还是综合型，传统的选择型测量方法是由测试者选择一套目标词汇来测量学习者对这套词汇的掌握程度，而综合型词汇测量方法则考虑口语和书面文本中词汇使用的整体情况;三是脱离语境还是依赖语境，脱离语境是指测量词汇时不提供语境，依赖语境是将词汇置于语境中进行测量。
complexity,accuracy and fluency in sla
Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in Second Language Acquisition1ALEX HOUSEN AND 2FOLKERT KUIKEN1Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 2Universiteit van AmsterdamINTRODUCTIONThis special issue addresses a general question that is at the heart of much research in applied linguistics and second language acquisition (SLA): What makes a second or foreign language (L2) user, or a native speaker for that matter, a more or less proficient language user?Many researchers and language practicioners believe that the constructs of L2 performance and L2 proficiency are multi-componential in nature , and that their principal dimensions can be adequately, and comprehensively, captured by the notions of complexity, accuracy and fluency (e.g. Skehan 1998; Ellis 2003, 2008; Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005). As such, complexity, accuracy and fluency (henceforth CAF) have figured as major research variables in applied linguistic research. CAF have been used both as performance descriptors for the oral and written assessment of language learners as well as indicators of learners’ proficiency underlying their performance; they have also been used for measuring progress in language learning.A review of the literature suggests that the origins of this triad lie in research on L2 pedagogy where in the 1980s a distinction was made between fluent versus accurate L2 usage to investigate the development of oral L2 proficiency in classroom contexts. One of the first to use this dichotomy was Brumfit (1984), who distinguished between fluency-oriented activities, which foster spontaneous oral L2 production, and accuracy-oriented activities, which focus on linguistic form and on the controlled production of grammatically correct linguistic structures in the L2 (cf. also Hammerly 1991).The third component of the triad, complexity, was added in the 1990s, following Skehan(1989) who proposed an L2 model which for the first time included CAF as the three principal proficiency dimensions. In the 1990s the three dimensions were also given their traditional working definitions, which are still used today. Complexity has thus been commonly characterized as ‘[t]he extent to which the language produced in performing a task is elaborate and varied’ (Ellis 2003: 340), accuracy as the ability to produce error-free speech, and fluency as the ability to process the L2 with ‘native-like rapidity’ (Lennon 1990: 390) or ‘the extent to which the language produced in performing a task manifests pausing, hesitation, or reformulation’ (Ellis 2003: 342).CAF in SLA researchSince the 1990s these three concepts have appeared predominantly, and prominently, as dependent variables in SLA research. Examples include studies of the effects on L2 acquisition of age, instruction, individuality features, task type, as well as studies on the effects of learning context (e.g. Bygate 1999; Collentine 2004; Derwing and Rossiter 2003; Skehan and Foster 1999; Freed 1995; Freed, Segalowitz and Dewey 2004; Kuiken and Vedder 2007; Muñoz 2006; Spada and Tomita 2007; Yuan and Ellis 2003). From this diverse body of research, CAF emerge as distinct components of L2 performance and L2 proficiency which can be separately measured and which may be variably manifested under varying conditions of L2 use, and which may be differentially developed by different types of learners under different learning conditions.From the mid-1990s onwards, inspired by advances in cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics (cf. Anderson 1993; Levelt 1989), CAF have also increasingly figured as the primary foci or even as the independent variables of investigation in SLA (e.g. Guillot 1999; Hilton, 2008; Housen, Pierrard and Van Daele 2005; Larsen-Freeman 2006; Lennon 2000; Riggenbach 2000; Robinson 2001; Segalowitz 2007; Skehan 1998; Skehan and Foster 2007; Tonkyn 2007; Towell 2007; Towell and Dewaele 2005; Tavakoli and Skehan 2005; Van Daele,Housen and Pierrard 2007). Here CAF emerge as principal epiphenomena of the psycholinguistic mechanisms and processes underlying the acquisition, representation and processing of L2 knowledge. There is some evidence to suggest that complexity and accuracy are primarily linked to the current state of the learner’s (partly declarative, explicit and partly procedural, implicit) interlanguage knowledge (L2 rules and lexico-formulaic knowledge) whereby complexity is viewed as ‘the scope of expanding or restructured second language knowledge’ and accuracy as ‘the conformity of second language knowledge to target language norms’ (Wolfe-Quintero et al. 1998: 4). Thus, complexity and accuracy are seen as relating primarily to L2 knowledge representation and to the level of analysis of internalized linguistic information. In contrast, fluency is primarily related to learners’ control over their linguistic L2 knowledge, as reflected in the speed and ease with which they access relevant L2 information to communicate meanings in real time, with ‘control improv[ing] as the learner automatizes the process of gaining access’ (Wolfe-Quintero et al. 1998: 4).Defining CAFIn spite of the long research interest in CAF, none of these three constructs is uncontroversial and many questions remain, including such fundamental questions as how complexity, accuracy and fluency should be defined as constructs. Despite the belief that we share a common definition of CAF as researchers and language teachers, there is evidence that agreement cannot be taken for granted and that various definitions and interpretations coexist. Accuracy (or correctness) is probably the oldest, most transparent and most consistent construct of the triad, referring to the degree of deviancy from a particular norm (Hammerly 1991; Wolfe-Quintero et al. 1998). Deviations from the norm are usually characterized as errors. Straightforward though this characterization may seem, it raises the thorny issue of criteria for evaluating accuracy and identifying errors, including whether these criteria should be tuned to prescriptive standard norms(as embodied by an ideal native speaker of the target language) or to non-standard and even non-native usages acceptable in some social contexts or in some communities (Ellis 2008; James 1998; Polio 1997).There is not the same amount of (relative) denotative congruence in the applied linguistics community with regard to fluency and complexity as there is with regard to accuracy. Historically, and in lay usage, fluency typically refers to a person's general language proficiency, particularly as characterized by perceptions of ease, eloquence and ‘smoothness’ of speech or writing (Chambers 1997; Freed 2000; Guillot 1999; Hilton 2008; Lennon 1990; Koponen and Riggenbach 2000). Language researchers for their part have mainly analyzed oral production data to determine exactly which quantifiable linguistic phenomena contribute to fluency in L2 speech (e.g. Lennon 1990; Kormos and Dénes 2004; Cucchiarini, Strik and Boves 2002; Towell, Hawkins and Bazergui 1996). This research suggests that speech fluency is a multi-componential construct in which different sub-dimensions can be distinguished, such as speed fluency (rate and density of delivery), breakdown fluency (number, length and distribution of pauses in speech) and repair fluency (number of false starts and repetitions) (Tavakoli and Skehan 2005).As befits the term, complexity is the most complex, ambiguous and least understood dimension of the CAF triad. For a start, the term is used in the SLA literature to refer both to properties of language task (task complexity) and to properties of L2 performance and proficiency (L2 complexity) (e.g., Robinson 2001; Skehan 2001). L2 complexity in turn has been interpreted in at least two different ways: as cognitive complexity and as linguistic complexity (DeKeyser 2008; Housen, Pierrard and Van Daele 2005; Williams and Evans 1998). Both types of complexity in essence refer to properties of language features (items, patterns, structures, rules) or (sub)systems (phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical) thereof. However, whereas cognitive complexity is defined from the perspective of the L2 learner-user, linguistic complexity is defined from the perspective of the L2 system or the L2 features. Cognitive complexity (ordifficulty) refers to the relative difficulty with which language features are processed in L2 performance and acquisition. The cognitive complexity of an L2 feature is a variable property which is determined both by subjective, learner-dependent factors (e.g. aptitude, memory span, motivation, L1 background) as well as by more objective factors, such as its input saliency or its inherent linguistic complexity. Thus, cognitive complexity is a broader notion than linguistic complexity, which is one of the (many) factors that may (but need not) contribute to learning or processing difficulty.Linguistic complexity, in turn, has been thought of in at least two different ways: as a dynamic property of the learner’s interlanguage system at large and as a more stable property of the individual linguistic elements that make up the interlanguage system. Accordingly, when considered at the level of the learner’s interlanguage system, linguistic complexity has been commonly interpreted as the size, elaborateness, richness and diversity of the learner’s linguistic L2 system. When considered at the level of the individual features themselves, one could speak of structural complexity, which itself can be further broken down into the formal and the functional complexity of an L2 feature (DeKeyser 1998; Williams and Evans 1988; Housen, Pierrard and Van Daele 2005).Operationalizing and measuring CAFClearly, then, accuracy and particularly fluency and complexity are multifaceted and multidimensional concepts. Related to the problems of constructed validity discussed above (i.e. the fact that CAF lack appropriate definitions supported by theories of linguistics and language learning), there are also problems concerning their operationalization, that is, how CAF can be validly, reliably and efficiently measured. CAF have been evaluated across various language domains by means of a wide variety of tools, ranging from holistic and subjective ratings by lay or expert judges, to quantifiable measures (frequencies, ratios, formulas) of general or specificlinguistic properties of L2 production so as to obtain more precise and objective accounts of an L2 learner’s level within each (sub-)dimension of proficiency (e.g. range of word types and proportion of subordinate clauses for lexical and syntactic complexity, number and type of errors for accuracy, number of syllables and pauses for fluency; for inventories of CAF measures, see Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005; Iwashita, Brown, McNamara and O'Hagan 2008; Polio 2001; Wolfe-Quintero et al. 1998). However, critical surveys of the available tools and metrics for gauging CAF have revealed various problems, both in terms of the analytic challenges which they present and in terms of their reliability, validity and sensitivity (Norris and Ortega 2003; Ortega 2003; Polio 1997, 2001; Wolfe-Quintero et al. 1998). Also the (cor)relation between holistic and objective measures of CAF, and between general and more specific, developmentally-motivated measures, does not appear to be straightforward (e.g. Halleck 1995; Skehan 2003; Robinson and N. Ellis 2008).Interaction of CAF componentsAnother point of discussion concerns the question to what extent these three dimensions arein(ter)dependent in L2 performance and L2 development (Ellis 1994, 2008; Skehan 1998; Robinson 2001; Towell 2007). For instance, according to Ellis, increase in fluency in L2 acquisition may occur at the expense of development of accuracy and complexity due to the differential development of knowledge analysis and knowledge automatization in L2 acquisition and the ways in which different forms of implicit and explicit knowledge influence the acquisition process. The differential evolution of fluency, accuracy and complexity would furthermore be caused by the fact that ‘the psycholinguistic processes involved in using L2 knowledge are distinct from acquiring new knowledge. To acquire the learner must attend consciously to the input and, perhaps also, make efforts to monitor output, but doing so may interfere with fluent reception and production’ (Ellis 1994: 107). Researchers who subscribe tothe view that the human attention mechanism and processing capacity are limited (e.g. Bygate 1999; Skehan 1998; Skehan and Foster 1999) also see fluency as an aspect of L2 production which competes for attentional resources with accuracy, while accuracy in turn competes with complexity. Learners may focus (consciously or subconsciously) on one of the three dimensions to the detriment of the other two. A different view is proposed by Robinson (2001, 2003) who claims that learners can simultaneously access multiple and non-competitional attentional pools; as a result manipulating task complexity by increasing the cognitive demands of a task can lead to simultaneous improvement of complexity and accuracy.OVERVIEW OF THE VOLUMEAs the above discussion demonstrates, many challenges remain in attempting to understand the nature and role of CAF in L2 use, L2 acquisition and in L2 research. But despite these challenges, complexity, accuracy and fluency are concepts that are still widely used to evaluate L2 learners, both in SLA research as in L2 education contexts. We therefore thought it timely to take stock of what L2 research on CAF has brought us so far and in which directions future research could or should develop. With this broad goal in mind, four central articles were invited (by Rod Ellis; Peter Skehan; John Norris and Lourdes Ortega; Peter Robinson, Teresa Cadierno and Yasuhiro Shirai), and two commentary articles were commissioned (by Diane Larsen-Freeman and Gabriele Pallotti).Controversial issuesThe following issues were offered to the contributors as guidelines for reflection and discussion: 1.The constructs of CAF: definition, theoretical base and scopeExactly what is meant by complexity, accuracy and fluency, i.e. how can they be defined as constructs? To what extent do CAF adequately and exhaustively capture all relevant aspects anddimensions of L2 performance and L2 proficiency? To what extent are the three constructs themselves multi-componential? How do they manifest themselves in the various domains of language (e.g. phonology and prosody, lexis, morphology, syntax)? How do they relate to theoretical models of L2 competence, L2 proficiency and L2 processing? And how do CAF relate to L2 development (i.e. are CAF valid indicators of language development)?2.Operationalization and measurement of CAFHow can the three constructs best be operationalized as components of L2 performance and L2 proficiency in a straightforward, objective and non-intuitive way in empirical research designs? How can they be most adequately (i.e. validly, reliably and practically) measured?3.Interdependency of the CAF component sTo what extent are the three CAF components independent of one another in either L2 performance, L2 proficiency and L2 development? To what extent can they be measured separately?4.Underlying correlates of CAFWhat are the underlying linguistic, cognitive and psycholinguistic correlates of CAF? How do the three constructs relate to a learner’s knowledge bases (e.g. implicit-explicit, declarative-procedural), memory stores (working, short-term or long-term), and processing mechanisms and learning processes (e.g. attention, automatization, proceduralization)?5.External factors that influence CAFWhich external factors can influence the manifestation and development of CAF in L2 learning and use, such as, for example characteristics of language tasks (e.g. type and amount of planning), personality and socio-psychological features of the L2 learner (e.g. degree of extraversion, language anxiety, motivation, language aptitude), and features of pedagogic intervention (e.g. what types of instruction are effective for developing each of these dimensions within a classroom context?)The contributions to this special issue all explicitly focus on either one, two or all three of the CAF constructs in relation to one or several of the five issues listed above, which in some cases are illustrated with new empirical research. We will now present a short overview of the topics and questions that are raised by the authors in the four central articles and in the two commentaries.EllisThe first article by Rod Ellis addresses the role and effects of one type of external factor, planning, on CAF in L2 performance and L2 acquisition. Ellis first presents a state-of-art/comprehensive survey of the research on planning. Three types of planning seem to be relevant with respect to CAF: rehearsal, strategic planning and within-task planning. Ellis concludes that all three types of planning have a beneficial effect on fluency, but the results for complexity and accuracy are more mixed, reflecting both the type of planning and also the mediating role of various other external factors, including task design, implementation variables and individual difference factors.Ellis then provides a theoretical account for the role of planning in L2 performance in terms of Levelt’s (1989) model of speech production and the distinction between implicit and explicit L2 knowledge. Rehearsal provides an opportunity for learners to attend to all three components in Levelt’s model – conceptualization, formulation and articulation – and thus benefits all three dimensions of L2 production. According to the author, strategic planning assists conceptualization in particular and thus contributes to greater message complexity and also to enhanced fluency. Unpressured within-task planning eases formulation and also affords time for monitoring, that is, for using explicit L2 knowledge; in this way accuracy increases.SkehanThe second article, by Peter Shehan, addresses the issue of operationalization and measurement of CAF. Skehan claims that fluency needs to be rethought if it is to be measured effectively. In addition he argues that CAF measures need to be supplemented by measures of lexical use. Not only because empirical evidence suggests that the latter is a separate aspect of overall performance, but also because lexical access and retrieval figure prominently in all models of speech production. Skehan also points to the lack of native speaker data in CAF research. Such data are of crucial importance, as they constitute a baseline along which L2 learners can be compared. Skehan presents a number of empirical studies in which, for identical tasks and similar task conditions, both native and non-native participants are involved, and for which measures of complexity, accuracy (for non-native speakers only), fluency, and lexis were obtained. Results suggest that the difference between native and non-native performance on tasks is related more to aspects of fluency and lexis than to the grammatical complexity of the language produced. Regarding fluency, the major difference between the two groups is the pattern of pause locations, in that native speakers use end-of-clause points for more effective, listener-friendly pausing, pausing there slightly more often albeit for shorter periods, while non-natives pause more mid-clause. Lexical performance is noticeably different between the two groups, both in terms of lexical density and of lexical variety (i.e. the use of less frequent words). Especially interesting is the difference in disruptiveness for fluency of the use of less frequent words, as non-natives are derailed in speech planning when they are pushed to use such words more because of task demands.Skehan also considers the issue of interdependency between CAF measures; in particular between accuracy and complexity, since positive correlations between these two aspects have been less common in the literature. In order to account for these correlations. Skehan explores rival claims from his own Trade-off Hypothesis and Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis. Skehan argues that such joint raised performance in accuracy and complexity is not a function of taskdifficulty (as Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis would predict) but, rather, that it reflects the joint operation of separate task and task condition factors. Like Ellis, Skehan tries to link the research findings to Levelt’s (1989) model of speaking.Robinson, Cadierno and ShiraiThe article by Peter Robinson, Teresa Cadierno and Yasuhiro Shirai exemplifies a particularly prolific strand of empirical research on CAF, namely research on the impact of task properties on learners’ L2 performance. The authors present results of two studies that measure the effects of increasing the complexity of task demands in two conceptual domains (time and motion) using specific rather than general measures of the accuracy and complexity of L2 speech production. The studies are carried out within the theoretical framework of Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis. This hypothesis claims that pedagogic tasks should be sequenced for learners in an order of increasing cognitive complexity, and that along resource-directing dimensions of task demands increasing effort at conceptualization promotes more complex and more grammaticized L2 speech production.The specific measures used are motivated by research into the development of tense-aspect morphology for reference time, and by typological, cross-linguistic research into the use of lexicalization patterns for reference to motion. Results show that there is more complex, developmentally advanced use of tense-aspect morphology on conceptually demanding tasks compared to less demanding tasks, and a trend to more accurate, target-like use of lexicalization patterns for referring to motion on complex tasks. By using specific measures of complexity and accuracy (alongside general measures), these authors address the issue of measurement of CAF in their contribution. They contrast the effectiveness of these conceptually specific metrics with the general metrics for assessing task-based language production used in previous studies, and argue for the use of both. In addition, Robinson, Cadierno and Shirai also argue for a higher sensitivityof the specific measures which are used in order to gauge cognitive processing effects on L2 speech production along selected dimensions of task complexity.Norris and OrtegaThe article by John Norris and Lourdes Ortega addresses the crucial issue of the operationalization and measurement of CAF. They critically examine current practices in the measurement of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in L2 production to illustrate the need for what they call more organic and sustainable measurement practices. Building from the case of syntactic complexity, they point to impoverished operationalizations of multi-dimensional CAF constructs and the lack of attention to CAF as a dynamic and inter-related set of constantly changing sub-systems. They observe a disjuncture among the theoretical claims researchers make, the definition of the constructs that they attempt to measure, and the grain size and focus of the operationalizations via which measurement happens. Furthermore they question current reasoning, under which a linear or co-linear trajectory of greater accuracy, fluency, and complexity is expected. Instead they want to consider measurement demands that stem from a dynamic, variable, and non-linear view of L2 development. They therefore call for a closer relation between theory and measurement and argue for a more central role for multi-dimensionality, dynamicity, variability, and non-linearity in future CAF research.This overview of the four central articles in this volume shows that the authors approach CAF from various perspectives, focus on different issues and investigate distinct research topics. What they share is their desire to build further on the results to date. This is where the commentaries by Diane Larsen-Freeman and Gabriele Pallotti come in.Larsen-FreemanLarsen-Freeman starts by reminding us of the fact that, historically, CAF research has come out of the search for an L2 developmental index. The big challenge has always been how to operationalize CAF. According to Larsen-Freeman the measures we have been using to date may be too blunt and not suitable because we may not have been looking at the right things in the right places. She therefore seconds Robinson, Cadierno and Shirai’s suggestion not to stick to general measures, but to use more specific measures and to look at more detailed aspects of performance. She further points out that the operationalization and measurement issue is complicated by the interdependency of the CAF components. As mentioned by some of the authors in this volume, there is an increasing amount of evidence, that complexity, accuracy and fluency do not operate in complete independence form each other, and that findings obtained by CAF measures depend on the participants involved and on the context in which the data have been collected. For those reasons Larsen-Freeman does not expect much from studying the CAF components one by one to see what effect they have on learner performance in a linear causal way. In her view such a reductionist approach does little to advance our understanding, as we risk ignoring their mutual interaction. Instead, we should try to capture the development of multiple sub-systems over time, and in relation to each other. With reference to Wolfe-Quintero et al. (1998) who have demonstrated that many, if not all, aspects of language development are non-linear, Larsen-Freeman calls for a broader conceptual framework and for more longitudinal and non-linear research, in which difference and variation occupy a central role. She considers a dynamic or complex systems theory, in which more socially-oriented measures of development are employed as the best candidates for such a framework.PallottiPallotti starts by signaling some definitional and operationalizational problems of CAF constructs. As an example of an unresolved question in this area he opposes Skehan – whodoubts whether lexical and syntactic complexity are ‘different aspects of the same performance area’ or two separate areas – to Norris and Ortega, who consider syntactic complexity to be a multi-dimensional construct with several sub-constructs. Pallotti considers CAF to be a good starting point for describing linguistic performance, but they do not constitute a theory or a research program in themselves. He emphasizes that a clear distinction should be made between on the one hand CAF, referring to the properties of language performance as a product, and linguistic development on the other, referring to a process, with its sub-dimensions such as route and rate.In line with Larsen-Freeman, and with specific reference to the contributions by Norris and Ortega and Robinson et al., Pallotti welcomes the use of specific measures in addition to the more general ones, as one cannot expect that ‘all sorts of task complexification lead to higher complexity of any linguistic feature.’ He questions, however, what the use of specific measures may contribute to theorizing about CAF. Although by using specific measures the relationship between task difficulty and linguistic complexity may become more reliable, ‘discovering such relationships looks more like validating the tasks as elicitation procedures for specific linguistic features than like confirmations of general theories about speech production.’Pallotti agrees with Larsen-Freeman’s call for a more central role of non-linearity in L2 acquisition. He illustrates this by referring to Norris and Ortega’s example that syntactic complexity as measured by means of a subordination ratio may not always increase linearly, but that syntactic complexity may grow in other ways, for example by phrasal and clausal complexification. And also for accuracy it is not always the case that ‘more is better’. He does not, however, embrace Larsen-Freeman’s idea that variation should move to the front of CAF research. This is what he calls ‘the necessary variation fallacy’: research should not only be concerned with variations and differences, but also with constants and similarities. Instead he argues that adequacy be included as a separate dimension of L2 production and proficiency,。
基于寻找小重量码字算法的LDPC码开集识别
2017年6月Journal on Communications June 2017 第38卷第6期通信学报 V ol.38No.6基于寻找小重量码字算法的LDPC码开集识别于沛东，彭华，巩克现，陈泽亮（解放军信息工程大学信息系统工程学院，河南郑州 450001）摘 要：LDPC码的开集识别是信道编码识别领域的一个难点。
首先，对实现开集识别所需接收码向量的数量进行了分析，给出了其理论下界。
然后，根据这一下界，基于寻找小重量码字的算法，提出了一种新的LDPC码开集识别方法。
该方法在接收码向量空间的对偶空间中逐个寻找小重量向量，即待识别的稀疏校验向量，从而重建稀疏校验矩阵。
利用指数分布对迭代次数进行建模，给出了该方法的迭代停止准则及运算量分析。
在无误码条件下，新方法克服了已有方法在适用范围和所需数据量的局限。
在有误码条件下，与已有方法相比，在提高抗误码能力的同时保持较低的运算复杂度，更能满足实际应用的需求。
对于QC-LDPC码，利用其稀疏校验矩阵的准循环特性，可以显著提高识别性能。
关键词：信道编码识别；LDPC码；准循环LDPC码；指数分布中图分类号：TN911.7 文献标识码：ALDPC code reconstruction based on algorithmof finding low weight code-wordsYU Pei-dong, PENG Hua, GONG Ke-xian, CHEN Ze-liang(School of Information Systems Engineering, PLA Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China) Abstract: LDPC code reconstruction without a candidate set is one of the tough problems in channel code reconstruction.First, theoretical analysis was provided for the number of received code-vectors needed for the reconstruction, and a low-er bound was derived. Then, according to the lower bound, and based on an algorithm for finding low weight code-words,a new reconstruction method was proposed. It looked for low weight vectors one by one from the dual space of the re-ceived code-vector space and used them to reconstruct the sparse parity-check matrices. Numb er of iterations and the computational complexity of the method were analyzed based on exponential distribution theory. Under noise-free condi-tions, drawbacks of the existing method, including limited applicable range and large quantity of required data, have been overcame. Under noisy conditions, the proposed method has higher robustness against noise and relatively low complex-ity, compared to existing methods. For QC-LDPC codes, the reconstruction performance can be further improved using the quasi-cyclic property of their sparse parity-check matrices.Key words: channel code reconstruction, LDPC code, quasi-cyclic LDPC code, exponential distribution1引言近年来，信道编码识别问题成为一个研究热点。
自然语言处理中英文术语对照
abbreviation 缩写 [省略语]ablative 夺格(的)abrupt 突发音accent 口音/{Phonetics}重音accusative 受格（的）acoustic phonetics 声学语音学acquisition 习得action verb 动作动词active 主动语态active chart parser 活动图句法剖析程序active knowledge 主动知识active verb 主动动词actor-action-goal 施事(者)-动作-目标actualization 实现(化)acute 锐音address 地址{信息科学}/称呼（语）{语言学} adequacy 妥善性adjacency pair 邻对adjective 形容词adjunct 附加语 [附加修饰语]adjunction 加接adverb 副词adverbial idiom 副词词组affective 影响的affirmative 肯定（的；式）affix 词缀affixation 加缀affricate 塞擦音agent 施事agentive-action verb 施事动作动词agglutinative 胶着（性）agreement 对谐AI (artificial intelligence) 人工智能 [人工智能] AI language 人工智能语言 [人工智能语言]Algebraic Linguistics 代数语言学algorithm 算法 [算法]alienable 可分割的alignment 对照 [多国语言文章词；词组；句子翻译的] allo- 同位-allomorph 同位语素allophone 同位音位alpha notation alpha 标记alphabetic writing 拼音文字alternation 交替alveolar 齿龈音ambiguity 歧义ambiguity resolution 歧义消解ambiguous 歧义American structuralism 美国结构主义analogy 类推analyzable 可分析的anaphor 照应语 [前方照应词]animate 有生的A-not-A question 正反问句antecedent 先行词anterior 舌前音anticipation 预期 (音变)antonym 反义词antonymy 反义A-over-A A-上-A 原则apposition 同位语appositive construction 同位结构appropriate 恰当的approximant 无擦通音approximate match 近似匹配arbitrariness 任意性archiphoneme 大音位argument 论元 [变元]argument structure 论元结构 [变元结构] arrangement 配列array 数组articulatory configuration 发音结构articulatory phonetics 发音语音学artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能 [人工智能] artificial language 人工语言ASCII 美国标准信息交换码aspect 态 [体]aspirant 气音aspiration 送气assign 指派assimilation 同化association 关联associative phrase 联想词组asterisk 标星号ATN (augmented transition network) 扩充转移网络attested 经证实的attribute 属性attributive 属性auditory phonetics 听觉语音学augmented transition network 扩充转移网络automatic document classification 自动文件分类automatic indexing 自动索引automatic segmentation 自动切分automatic training 自动训练automatic word segmentation 自动分词automaton 自动机autonomous 自主的auxiliary 助动词axiom 公理baby-talk 儿语back-formation 逆生构词(法)backtrack 回溯Backus-Naur Form 巴科斯诺尔形式 [巴科斯诺尔范式] backward deletion 逆向删略ba-construction 把─字句balanced corpus 平衡语料库base 词基Bayesian learning 贝式学习Bayesian statistics 贝式统计behaviorism 行为主义belief system 信念系统benefactive 受益（格；的）best first parser 最佳优先句法剖析器bidirectional linked list 双向串行bigram 双连词bilabial 双唇音bilateral 双边的bilingual concordancer 双语关键词前后文排序程序binary feature 双向特征[二分征性]binding 约束bit 位 [二进制制;比特]biuniqueness 双向唯一性blade 舌叶blend 省并词block 封阻[封杀]Bloomfieldian 布隆菲尔德(学派)的body language 肢体语言Boolean lattice 布尔网格 [布尔网格]borrow 借移Bottom-up 由下而上bottom-up parsing 由下而上剖析bound 附着（的）bound morpheme 附着语素 [黏着语素]boundary marker 界线标记boundary symbol 界线符号bracketing 方括号法branching 分枝法breadth-first search 广度优先搜寻 [宽度优先搜索]breath group 换气单位breathy 气息音的buffer 缓冲区byte 字节CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) 计算机辅助教学CALL (computer assisted language learning) 计算机辅助语言学习canonical 典范的capacity 能力cardinal 基数的cardinal vowels 基本元音case 格位case frame 格位框架Case Grammar 格位语法case marking 格位标志CAT (computer assisted translation) 计算机辅助翻译cataphora 下指Categorial Grammar 范畴语法Categorial Unification Grammar 范畴连并语法 [范畴合一语法] causative 使动causative verb 使役动词causativity 使役性centralization 央元音化chain 炼chart parsing 表式剖析 [图表句法分析]checked 受阻的checking 验证Chinese character code 中文编码 [汉字代码]Chinese character code for information interchange 中文信息交换码[汉字交换码]Chinese character coding input method 中文输入法 [汉字编码输入] choice 选择Chomsky hierarchy 杭士基阶层 [Chomsky 层次结构]citation form 基本形式CKY algorithm (Cocke-Kasami-Younger) CKY 算法classifier 类别词cleft sentence 分裂句click 啧音clitic 附着词closed world assumption 封闭世界假说cluster 音群Cocke-Kasami-Younger algorithm CKY 算法coda 音节尾code conversion 代码变换cognate 同源（的；词）Cognitive Linguistics 认知语言学coherence 一致性cohesion 凝结性 [黏着性;结合力]collapse 合并collective 集合的collocation 连用语 [同现;搭配]combinatorial construction 合并结构combinatorial insertion 合并中插combinatorial word 合并词Combinatory Categorial Grammar 组合范畴语法comment 评论commissive 许诺[语行]common sense semantics 常识语意学Communication Theory 通讯理论 [通讯论;信息论]Comparative Linguistics 比较语言学comparison 比较competence 语言知能compiler 编译器complement 补语complementary 互补complementary distribution 互补分布complementizer 补语标记complex predicate 复杂谓语complex stative construction 复杂状态结构complex symbol 复杂符号complexity 复杂度component 成分compositionality 语意合成性 [合成性]compound word 复合词Computational Lexical Semantics 计算词汇语意学Computational Lexicography 计算词典编纂学Computational Linguistics 计算语言学Computational Phonetics 计算语音学Computational Phonology 计算声韵学Computational Pragmatics 计算语用学Computational Semantics 计算语意学Computational Syntax 计算句法学computer language 计算器语言computer-aided translation 计算机辅助翻译 [计算器辅助翻译]computer-assisted instruction (CAI) 计算机辅助教学computer-assisted language learning 计算机辅助语言学习[计算器辅助语言学习] concatenation 串联concept classification 概念分类concept dependency 概念依存conceptual hierarchy 概念阶层concord 谐和concordance 关键词 (前后文) 排序concordancer 关键词 (前后文) 排序的程序concurrent parsing 并行句法剖析conditional decision 条件决定 [条件决策]conjoin 连接conjunction 连接词 (合取;逻辑积;"与";连词)conjunctive 连接的connected speech 连续语言Connectionist model 类神经网络模型Connectionist model for natural language 自然语言类神经网络模型[自然语言连接模型]connotation 隐涵意义consonant 子音 [辅音]constituent 成分constituent structure tree 词组结构树constraint 限制constraint propagation 限制条件的传递 [限定因素增殖]constraint-based grammar formalism 限制为本的语法形式Construct Grammar 句构语法content word 实词context 语境context-free language 语境自由语言 [上下文无关语言]context-sensitive language 语境限定语言 [上下文有关语言;上下文敏感语言] continuant 连续音continuous speech recognition 连续语音识别contraction 缩约control agreement principle 控制一致原理control structure 控制结构control theory 控制论convention 约定俗成[规约]convergence 收敛[趋同现象]conversational implicature 会话含义converse 相反（词;的）cooccurrence relation 共现关系 [同现关系]co-operative principle 合作原则coordination 对称连接词 [同等;并列连接]copula 系词co-reference 同指涉 [互指]co-referential 同指涉coronal 前舌音corpora 语料库corpus 语料库Corpus Linguistics 语料库语言学corpus-based learning 语料库为本的学习correlation 相关性counter-intuitive 违反语感的courseware 课程软件 [课件]coverb 动介词C-structure 成分结构data compression 数据压缩 [数据压缩]data driven analysis 资料驱动型分析 [数据驱动型分析]data structure 数据结构 [数据结构]database 数据库 [数据库]database knowledge representation 数据库知识表示 [数据库知识表示]data-driven 资料驱动 [数据驱动]dative 与格declarative knowledge 陈述性知识decomposition 分解deductive database 演译数据库 [演译数据库]default 默认值 [默认;缺省]definite 定指Definite Clause Grammar 确定子句语法definite state automaton 有限状态自动机Definite State Grammar 有限状态语法definiteness 定指degree adverb 程度副词degree of freedom 自由度deixis 指示delimiter 定界符号 [定界符]denotation 外延denotic logic 符号逻辑dependency 依存关系Dependency Grammar 依存关系语法dependency relation 依存关系depth-first search 深度优先搜寻derivation 派生derivational bound morpheme 派生性附着语素Descriptive Grammar 描述型语法 [描写语法]Descriptive Linguistics 描述语言学 [描写语言学] desiderative 意愿的determiner 限定词deterministic algorithm 决定型算法 [确定性算法] deterministic finite state automaton 决定型有限状态机deterministic parser 决定型语法剖析器 [确定性句法剖析程序] developmental psychology 发展心理学Diachronic Linguistics 历时语言学diacritic 附加符号dialectology 方言学dictionary database 辞典数据库 [词点数据库]dictionary entry 辞典条目digital processing 数字处理 [数值处理]diglossia 双言digraph 二合字母diminutive 指小词diphone 双连音directed acyclic graph 有向非循环图disambiguation 消除歧义 [歧义消除]discourse 篇章discourse analysis 篇章分析 [言谈分析]discourse planning 篇章规划Discourse Representation Theory 篇章表征理论 [言谈表示理论] discourse strategy 言谈策略discourse structure 言谈结构discrete 离散的disjunction 选言dissimilation 异化distributed 分布式的distributed cooperative reasoning 分布协调型推理distributed text parsing 分布式文本剖析disyllabic 双音节的ditransitive verb 双宾动词 [双宾语动词;双及物动词] divergence 扩散[分化]D-M (Determiner-Measure) construction 定量结构D-N (determiner-noun) construction 定名结构document retrieval system 文件检索系统 [文献检索系统] domain dependency 领域依存性 [领域依存关系]double insertion 交互中插double-base 双基downgrading 降级dummy 虚位duration 音长{语音学}/时段{语法学/语意学}dynamic programming 动态规划Earley algorithm Earley 算法echo 回声句egressive 呼气音ejective 紧喉音electronic dictionary 电子词典elementary string 基本字符串 [基本单词串]ellipsis 省略EM algorithm EM算法embedding 崁入emic 功能关系的empiricism 经验论Empty Category Principle 虚范畴原则 [空范畴原理]empty word 虚词enclitics 后接成份end user 终端用户 [最终用户]endocentric 同心的endophora 语境照应entailment 蕴涵entity 实体entropy 熵entry 条目episodic memory 情节性记忆epistemological network 认识论网络ergative verb 作格动词ergativity 作格性Esperando 世界语etic 无功能关系etymology 词源学event 事件event driven control 事件驱动型控制example-based machine translation 以例句为本的机器翻译exclamation 感叹exclusive disjunction 排它性逻辑 “或”experiencer case 经验者格expert system 专家系统extension 外延external argument 域外论元extraposition 移外变形 [外置转换]facility value 易度值feature 特征feature bundle 特征束feature co-occurrence restriction 特征同现限制 [特性同现限制] feature instantiation 特征体现feature structure 特征结构 [特性结构]feature unification 特征连并 [特性合一]feedback 回馈felicity condition 妥适条件file structure 档案结构finite automaton 有限状态机 [有限自动机]finite state 有限状态Finite State Morphology 有限状态构词法 [有限状态词法]finite-state automata 有限状态自动机finite-state language 有限状态语言finite-state machine 有限状态机finite-state transducer 有限状态置换器flap 闪音flat 降音foreground information 前景讯息 [前景信息]Formal Language Theory 形式语言理论Formal Linguistics 形式语言学Formal Semantics 形式语意学forward inference 前向推理 [向前推理]forward-backward algorithm 前前后后算法frame 框架frame based knowledge representation 框架型知识表示Frame Theory 框架理论free morpheme 自由语素Fregean principle Fregean 原则fricative 擦音F-structure 功能结构full text searching 全文检索function word 功能词Functional Grammar 功能语法functional programming 函数型程序设计 [函数型程序设计]functional sentence perspective 功能句子观functional structure 功能结构functional unification 功能连并 [功能合一]functor 功能符fundamental frequency 基频garden path sentence 花园路径句GB (Government and Binding) 管辖约束geminate 重叠音gender 性Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar 概化词组结构语法 [广义短语结构语法] Generative Grammar 衍生语法Generative Linguistics 衍生语言学 [生成语言学]generic 泛指genetic epistemology 发生认识论genetive marker 属格标记genitive 属格gerund 动名词Government and Binding Theory 管辖约束理论GPSG (Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar) 概化词组结构语法[广义短语结构语法]gradability 可分级性grammar checker 文法检查器grammatical affix 语法词缀grammatical category 语法范畴grammatical function 语法功能grammatical inference 文法推论grammatical relation 语法关系grapheme 字素haplology 类音删略head 中心语head driven phrase structure 中心语驱动词组结构 [中心词驱动词组结构] head feature convention 中心语特征继承原理 [中心词特性继承原理] Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar 中心语驱动词组结构律heteronym 同形heuristic parsing 经验式句法剖析Heuristics 经验知识hidden Markov model 隐式马可夫模型hierarchical structure 阶层结构 [层次结构]holophrase 单词句homograph 同形异义词homonym 同音异义词homophone 同音词homophony 同音异义homorganic 同部位音的Horn clause Horn 子句HPSG (Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar) 中心语驱动词组结构语法human-machine interface 人机界面hypernym 上位词hypertext 超文件 [超文本]hyponym 下位词hypotactic 主从结构的IC (immediate constituent) 直接成份ICG (Information-based Case Grammar) 讯息为本的格位语法idiom 成语 [熟语]idiosyncrasy 特异性illocutionary 施为性immediate constituent 直接成份imperative 祈使句implicative predicate 蕴含谓词implicature 含意indexical 标引的indirect object 间接宾语indirect speech act 间接言谈行动 [间接言语行为]Indo-European language 印欧语言inductional inference 归纳推理inference machine 推理机器infinitive 不定词 [to 不定式]infix 中缀inflection/inflexion 屈折变化inflectional affix 屈折词缀information extraction 信息撷取information processing 信息处理 [信息处理]information retrieval 信息检索Information Science 信息科学 [信息科学; 情报科学] Information Theory 信息论 [信息论]inherent feature 固有特征inherit 继承inheritance 继承inheritance hierarchy 继承阶层 [继承层次]inheritance of attribute 属性继承innateness position 语法天生假说insertion 中插inside-outside algorithm 里里外外算法instantiation 体现instrumental (case) 工具格integrated parser 集成句法剖析程序integrated theory of discourse analysis 篇章分析综合理论[言谈分析综合理论]intelligence intensive production 知识密集型生产intensifier 加强成分intensional logic 内含逻辑Intensional Semantics 内涵语意学intensional type 内含类型interjection/exclamation 感叹词inter-level 中间成分interlingua 中介语言interlingual 中介语(的）interlocutor 对话者internalise 内化International Phonetic Association (IPA) 国际语音学会internet 网际网络Interpretive Semantics 诠释性语意学intonation 语调intonation unit (IU) 语调单位IPA (International Phonetic Association) 国际语音学会IR (information retrieval) 信息检索IS-A relation IS-A 关系isomorphism 同形现象IU (intonation unit) 语调单位junction 连接keyword in context 上下文中关键词[上下文内关键词] kinesics 体势学knowledge acquisition 知识习得knowledge base 知识库knowledge based machine translation 知识为本之机器翻译knowledge extraction 知识撷取 [知识题取]knowledge representation 知识表示KWIC (keyword in context) 关键词前后文 [上下文内关键词] label 卷标labial 唇音labio-dental 唇齿音labio-velar 软颚唇音LAD (language acquisition device) 语言习得装置lag 发声延迟language acquisition 语言习得language acquisition device 语言习得装置language engineering 语言工程language generation 语言生成language intuition 语感language model 语言模型language technology 语言科技left-corner parsing 左角落剖析 [左角句法剖析]lemma 词元lenis 弱辅音letter-to-phone 字转音lexeme 词汇单位lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义lexical category 词类lexical conceptual structure 词汇概念结构lexical entry 词项lexical entry selection standard 选词标准lexical integrity 词语完整性Lexical Semantics 词汇语意学Lexical-Functional Grammar 词汇功能语法Lexicography 词典学Lexicology 词汇学lexicon 词汇库 [词典;词库]lexis 词汇层LF (logical form) 逻辑形式LFG (Lexical-Functional Grammar) 词汇功能语法liaison 连音linear bounded automaton 线性有限自主机linear precedence 线性次序lingua franca 共通语linguistic decoding 语言译码linguistic unit 语言单位linked list 串行loan 外来语local 局部的localism 方位主义localizer 方位词locus model 轨迹模型locution 惯用语logic 逻辑logic array network 逻辑数组网络logic programming 逻辑程序设计 [逻辑程序设计] logical form 逻辑形式logical operator 逻辑算子 [逻辑算符]Logic-Based Grammar 逻辑为本语法 [基于逻辑的语法] long term memory 长期记忆longest match principle 最长匹配原则 [最长一致法] LR (left-right) parsing LR 剖析machine dictionary 机器词典machine language 机器语言machine learning 机器学习machine translation 机器翻译machine-readable dictionary (MRD) 机读辞典Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Markov chart 马可夫图Mathematical Linguistics 数理语言学maximum entropy 最大熵M-D (modifier-head) construction 偏正结构mean length of utterance (MLU) 语句平均长度measure of information 讯习测度 [信息测度] memory based 根据记忆的mental lexicon 心理词汇库mental model 心理模型mental process 心理过程 [智力过程;智力处理] metalanguage 超语言metaphor 隐喻metaphorical extension 隐喻扩展metarule 律上律 [元规则]metathesis 语音易位Microlinguistics 微观语言学middle structure 中间式结构minimal pair 最小对Minimalist Program 微言主义MLU (mean length of utterance) 语句平均长度modal 情态词modal auxiliary 情态助动词modal logic 情态逻辑modifier 修饰语Modular Logic Grammar 模块化逻辑语法modular parsing system 模块化句法剖析系统modularity 模块性(理论)module 模块monophthong 单元音monotonic 单调monotonicity 单调性Montague Grammar 蒙泰究语法 [蒙塔格语法]mood 语气morpheme 词素morphological affix 构词词缀morphological decomposition 语素分解morphological pattern 词型morphological processing 词素处理morphological rule 构词律 [词法规则] morphological segmentation 语素切分Morphology 构词学Morphophonemics 词音学 [形态音位学;语素音位学] morphophonological rule 形态音位规则Morphosyntax 词句法Motor Theory 肌动理论movement 移位MRD (machine-readable dictionary) 机读辞典MT (machine translation) 机器翻译multilingual processing system 多语讯息处理系统multilingual translation 多语翻译multimedia 多媒体multi-media communication 多媒体通讯multiple inheritance 多重继承multistate logic 多态逻辑mutation 语音转换mutual exclusion 互斥mutual information 相互讯息nativist position 语法天生假说natural language 自然语言natural language processing (NLP) 自然语言处理natural language understanding 自然语言理解negation 否定negative sentence 否定句neologism 新词语nested structure 套结构network 网络neural network 类神经网络Neurolinguistics 神经语言学neutralization 中立化n-gram n-连词n-gram modeling n-连词模型NLP (natural language processing) 自然语言处理node 节点nominalization 名物化nonce 暂用的non-finite 非限定non-finite clause 非限定式子句non-monotonic reasoning 非单调推理normal distribution 常态分布noun 名词noun phrase 名词组NP (noun phrase) completeness 名词组完全性object 宾语{语言学}/对象{信息科学}object oriented programming 对象导向程序设计 [面向对向的程序设计] official language 官方语言one-place predicate 一元述语on-line dictionary 线上查询词典 [联机词点]onomatopoeia 拟声词onset 节首音ontogeny 个体发生Ontology 本体论open set 开放集operand 操作数 [操作对象]optimization 最佳化 [最优化]overgeneralization 过度概化overgeneration 过度衍生paradigmatic relation 聚合关系paralanguage 附语言parallel construction 并列结构Parallel Corpus 平行语料库parallel distributed processing (PDP) 平行分布处理paraphrase 转述 [释意;意译;同意互训]parole 言语parser 剖析器 [句法剖析程序]parsing 剖析part of speech (POS) 词类particle 语助词PART-OF relation PART-OF 关系part-of-speech tagging 词类标注pattern recognition 型样识别P-C (predicate-complement) insertion 述补中插PDP (parallel distributed processing) 平行分布处理perception 知觉perceptron 感觉器 [感知器]perceptual strategy 感知策略performative 行为句periphrasis 用独立词表达perlocutionary 语效性的permutation 移位Petri Net Grammar Petri 网语法philology 语文学phone 语音phoneme 音素phonemic analysis 因素分析phonemic stratum 音素层Phonetics 语音学phonogram 音标Phonology 声韵学 [音位学;广义语音学]Phonotactics 音位排列理论phrasal verb 词组动词 [短语动词]phrase 词组 [短语]phrase marker 词组标记 [短语标记]pitch 音调pitch contour 调形变化Pivot Grammar 枢轴语法pivotal construction 承轴结构plausibility function 可能性函数PM (phrase marker) 词组标记 [短语标记]polysemy 多义性POS-tagging 词类标记postposition 方位词PP (preposition phrase) attachment 介词依附Pragmatics 语用学Precedence Grammar 优先级语法precision 精确度predicate 述词predicate calculus 述词计算predicate logic 述词逻辑 [谓词逻辑]predicate-argument structure 述词论元结构prefix 前缀premodification 前置修饰preposition 介词Prescriptive Linguistics 规定语言学 [规范语言学]presentative sentence 引介句presupposition 前提Principle of Compositionality 语意合成性原理privative 二元对立的probabilistic parser 概率句法剖析程序problem solving 解决问题program 程序programming language 程序设计语言 [程序设计语言]proofreading system 校对系统proper name 专有名词prosody 节律prototype 原型pseudo-cleft sentence 准分裂句Psycholinguistics 心理语言学punctuation 标点符号pushdown automata 下推自动机pushdown transducer 下推转换器qualification 后置修饰quantification 量化quantifier 范域词Quantitative Linguistics 计量语言学question answering system 问答系统queue 队列radical 字根 [词干;词根;部首;偏旁]radix of tuple 元组数基random access 随机存取rationalism 理性论rationalist (position) 理性论立场 [唯理论观点]reading laboratory 阅读实验室real time 实时real time control 实时控制 [实时控制]recursive transition network 递归转移网络reduplication 重叠词 [重复]reference 指涉referent 指称对象referential indices 指针referring expression 指涉词 [指示短语]register 缓存器 [寄存器]{信息科学}/调高{语音学}/语言的场合层级{社会语言学} regular language 正规语言 [正则语言]relational database 关系型数据库 [关系数据库]relative clause 关系子句relaxation method 松弛法relevance 相关性Restricted Logic Grammar 受限逻辑语法resumptive pronouns 复指代词retroactive inhibition 逆抑制rewriting rule 重写规则rheme 述位rhetorical structure 修辞结构rhetorics 修辞学robust 强健性robust processing 强健性处理robustness 强健性schema 基朴school grammar 教学语法scope 范域 [作用域;范围]script 脚本search mechanism 检索机制search space 检索空间searching route 检索路径 [搜索路径]second order predicate 二阶述词segmentation 分词segmentation marker 分段标志selectional restriction 选择限制semantic field 语意场semantic frame 语意架构semantic network 语意网络semantic representation 语意表征 [语义表示]semantic representation language 语意表征语言semantic restriction 语意限制semantic structure 语意结构Semantics 语意学sememe 意素Semiotics 符号学sender 发送者sensorimotor stage 感觉运动期sensory information 感官讯息 [感觉信息]sentence 句子sentence generator 句子产生器 [句子生成程序]sentence pattern 句型separation of homonyms 同音词区分sequence 序列serial order learning 顺序学习serial verb construction 连动结构set oriented semantic network 集合导向型语意网络 [面向集合型语意网络] SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) 结构化通用标记语言shift-reduce parsing 替换简化式剖析short term memory 短程记忆sign 信号signal processing technology 信号处理技术simple word 单纯词situation 情境Situation Semantics 情境语意学situational type 情境类型social context 社会环境sociolinguistics 社会语言学software engineering 软件工程 [软件工程]sort 排序speaker-independent speech recognition 非特定语者语音识别spectrum 频谱speech 口语speech act assignment 言语行为指定speech continuum 言语连续体speech disorder 语言失序 [言语缺失]speech recognition 语音辨识speech retrieval 语音检索speech situation 言谈情境 [言语情境]speech synthesis 语音合成speech translation system 语音翻译系统speech understanding system 语音理解系统spreading activation model 扩散激发模型standard deviation 标准差Standard Generalized Markup Language 标准通用标示语言start-bound complement 接头词state of affairs algebra 事态代数state transition diagram 状态转移图statement kernel 句核static attribute list 静态属性表statistical analysis 统计分析Statistical Linguistics 统计语言学statistical significance 统计意义stem 词干stimulus-response theory 刺激反应理论stochastic approach to parsing 概率式句法剖析 [句法剖析的随机方法] stop 爆破音Stratificational Grammar 阶层语法 [层级语法]string 字符串[串；字符串]string manipulation language 字符串操作语言string matching 字符串匹配 [字符串]structural ambiguity 结构歧义Structural Linguistics 结构语言学structural relation 结构关系structural transfer 结构转换structuralism 结构主义structure 结构structure sharing representation 结构共享表征subcategorization 次类划分 [下位范畴化]subjunctive 假设的sublanguage 子语言subordinate 从属关系subordinate clause 从属子句 [从句;子句]subordination 从属substitution rule 代换规则 [置换规则]substrate 底层语言suffix 后缀superordinate 上位的superstratum 上层语言suppletion 异型[不规则词型变化] suprasegmental 超音段的syllabification 音节划分syllable 音节syllable structure constraint 音节结构限制symbolization and verbalization 符号化与字句化synchronic 同步的synonym 同义词syntactic category 句法类别syntactic constituent 句法成分syntactic rule 语法规律 [句法规则]Syntactic Semantics 句法语意学syntagm 句段syntagmatic 组合关系 [结构段的;组合的]Syntax 句法Systemic Grammar 系统语法tag 标记target language 目标语言 [目标语言]task sharing 课题分享 [任务共享]tautology 套套逻辑 [恒真式;重言式;同义反复] taxonomical hierarchy 分类阶层 [分类层次] telescopic compound 套装合并template 模板temporal inference 循序推理 [时序推理] temporal logic 时间逻辑 [时序逻辑]temporal marker 时貌标记tense 时态terminology 术语text 文本text analyzing 文本分析text coherence 文本一致性text generation 文本生成 [篇章生成]Text Linguistics 文本语言学text planning 文本规划text proofreading 文本校对text retrieval 文本检索text structure 文本结构 [篇章结构]text summarization 文本自动摘要 [篇章摘要]text understanding 文本理解text-to-speech 文本转语音thematic role 题旨角色thematic structure 题旨结构theorem 定理thesaurus 同义词辞典theta role 题旨角色theta-grid 题旨网格token 实类 [标记项]tone 音调tone language 音调语言tone sandhi 连调变换top-down 由上而下 [自顶向下]topic 主题topicalization 主题化 [话题化]trace 痕迹Trace Theory 痕迹理论training 训练transaction 异动 [处理单位]transcription 转写 [抄写;速记翻译]transducer 转换器transfer 转移transfer approach 转换方法transfer framework 转换框架transformation 变形 [转换]Transformational Grammar 变形语法 [转换语法]transitional state term set 转移状态项集合transitivity 及物性translation 翻译translation equivalence 翻译等值性translation memory 翻译记忆transparency 透明性tree 树状结构 [树]Tree Adjoining Grammar 树形加接语法 [树连接语法]treebank 树图数据库[语法关系树库]trigram 三连词t-score t-数turing machine 杜林机 [图灵机]turing test 杜林测试 [图灵试验]type 类型type/token node 标记类型/实类节点type-feature structure 类型特征结构typology 类型学ultimate constituent 终端成分unbounded dependency 无界限依存underlying form 基底型式underlying structure 基底结构unification 连并 [合一]Unification-based Grammar 连并为本的语法 [基于合一的语法] Universal Grammar 普遍性语法universal instantiation 普遍例式universal quantifier 全称范域词unknown word 未知词 [未定义词]unrestricted grammar 非限制型语法usage flag 使用旗标user interface 使用者界面 [用户界面]Valence Grammar 结合价语法Valence Theory 结合价理论valency 结合价variance 变异数 [方差]verb 动词verb phrase 动词组 [动词短语]verb resultative compound 动补复合词verbal association 词语联想verbal phrase 动词组verbal production 言语生成vernacular 本地话V-O construction (verb-object) 动宾结构vocabulary 字汇vocabulary entry 词条vocal track 声道vocative 呼格voice recognition 声音辨识 [语音识别]vowel 元音vowel harmony 元音和谐 [元音和谐]waveform 波形weak verb 弱化动词Whorfian hypothesis Whorfian 假说word 词word frequency 词频word frequency distribution 词频分布word order 词序word segmentation 分词word segmentation standard for Chinese 中文分词规范word segmentation unit 分词单位 [切词单位]word set 词集working memory 工作记忆 [工作存储区]world knowledge 世界知识writing system 书写系统X-Bar Theory X标杠理论 ["x"阶理论]Zipf's Law 利夫规律 [齐普夫定律]阅读。
课程名英文翻译
课程名称翻译大全学校课程名称翻译大全大学英语--------------College English高等数学--------------Advanced Mathematics体育------------------Physical Education军事理论--------------Military Theory机械制图--------------Mechanical Graphing算法语言--------------Algorithmic Language大学物理--------------College Physics物理实验--------------Experiment of College Physics线性代数--------------Linear Algebra法律基础--------------Fundamentals of Law普通物理--------------General Physics普通物理实验----------Lab of General Physics复变函数与积分变换----Functions of Complex Variables&Integral Transformations 电路理论--------------Theory of Circuitry电路测试技术----------Circuit Measurement Technology概率论与随机过程------Probability Theory&Stochastic Process信号与线性系统--------Signal&Linear System电子线路--------------Circuitry脉冲与数字电路--------Pulse&Numerical Circuitry金工实习--------------Metalworking Practice电工实习--------------Electrical Engineering PracticeCET-4-----------------College English Test(Band4)电子线路实验----------Experiment in Electronic Circuitry微机原理--------------Principle of Microcomputer电磁场与电磁波--------Electromagnetic Fields&Magnetic Waves电机电器与供电--------Motor Elements and Power Supply计算方法--------------Computational Method软件技术基础----------Basis of Software Technique微波技术--------------Microwave Technique通讯原理--------------Principle of Communication数字信号处理----------Digital Signal Processing微机实验--------------Experiment of Microcomputer计算机接口技术--------Computer Interface Technologyc语言----------------C languageCET-6-----------------College English Test(Band6)工业企业管理----------Industrial Enterprise Management移动通讯--------------Moving Communication光纤通讯系统----------Fiber Optical Communication System可靠性技术导论--------Introduction to Reliability Technology卫星通信--------------Satellite Communications电视原理--------------Television Operation数字图象处理----------Digital Image Processing专业英语--------------Specialty English情报检索--------------Information Searches毕业设计--------------Graduation Thesis自动控制理论----------Automatic Control Theory模拟电子电路----------Analogical Electronics数字电子电路----------Digital Electronics资本主义经济----------Economy of Capitalism马克思主义原理--------Principle of Marxism机械原理--------------Principle of Mechanic机械设计--------------Mechanic Design最优控制--------------Optimum Control微机控制技术----------Microcomputer Control Technology过程控制--------------Procedure Control自动控制系统----------Automatic Control System半导体变流技术--------Semiconductor converting Technique运筹学----------------Operational Research自动检测技术----------Auto-Measurement Technique传感器原理------------Principle of Sensing Device单片机原理------------Principle of Single-Chip computer生物物理学Biophysics真空冷冻干燥技术Vacuum Freezing&Drying Technology16位微机16Digit MicrocomputerALGOL语言ALGOL LanguageBASIC语言BASIC LanguageBASIC语言及应用BASIC Language&ApplicationC语言C LanguageCAD概论Introduction to CADCAD/CAM CAD/CAMCOBOL语言COBOL LanguageCOBOL语言程序设计COBOL Language Program DesigningC与UNIX环境C Language&Unix EnvironmentC语言与生物医学信息处理C Language&Biomedical Information Processing dBASEⅢ课程设计C ourse Exercise in dBASEⅢFORTRAN语言FORTRAN LanguageIBM-PC/XT Fundamentals of Microcomputer IBM-PC/XTIBM-PC微机原理Fundamentals of Microcomputer IBM-PCLSI设计基础Basic of LSI DesigningPASCAL大型作业PASCAL Wide Range WorkingPASCAL课程设计Course Exercise in PASCALX射线与电镜X-ray&Electric MicroscopeZ-80汇编语言程序设计Z-80Pragramming in Assembly Languages板壳理论Plate Theory板壳力学Plate Mechanics半波实验Semiwave Experiment半导体变流技术Semiconductor Converting Technology半导体材料Semiconductor Materials半导体测量Measurement of Semiconductors半导体瓷敏元件Semiconductor Porcelain-Sensitive Elements半导体光电子学Semiconductor Optic Electronics半导体化学Semiconductor Chemistry半导体激光器Semiconductor Laser Unit半导体集成电路Semiconductor Integrated Circuitry半导体理论Semiconductive Theory半导体器件Semiconductor Devices半导体器件工艺原理Technological Fundamentals of Semiconductor Device半导体物理Semiconductor Physics半导体专业Semiconduction Specialty半导体专业实验Specialty Experiment of Semiconductor薄膜光学Film Optics报告文学专题Special Subject On Reportage报刊编辑学Newspaper&Magazine Editing报纸编辑学Newspaper Editing泵与风机Pumps and Fans泵与水机Pumps&Water Turbines毕业设计Graduation Thesis编译方法Methods of Compiling编译技术Technique of Compiling编译原理Fundamentals of Compiling变电站的微机检测与控制Computer Testing&Control in Transformer Substation变分法与张量Calculus of Variations&Tensor变分学Calculus of Variations变质量系统热力学与新型回转压Variable Quality System Thermal Mechanics&Neo-Ro表面活性物质Surface Reactive Materials并行算法Parallel Algorithmic波谱学Wave Spectrum材料的力学性能测试Measurement of Material Mechanical Performance材料力学Mechanics of Materials财务成本管理Financial Cost Management财政学Public Finance财政与金融Finance&Banking财政与信贷Finance&Credit操作系统Disk Operating System操作系统课程设计Course Design in Disk Operating System操作系统原理Fundamentals of Disk Operating System策波测量技术Technique of Whip Wave Measurement测量原理与仪器设计Measurement Fundamentals&Meter Design测试技术Testing Technology测试与信号变换处理Testing&Signal Transformation Processing产业经济学Industrial Economy产业组织学Industrial Organization Technoooligy场论Field Theory常微分方程Ordinary Differentical Equations超导磁体及应用Superconductive Magnet&Application超导及应用Superconductive&Application超精微细加工Super-Precision&Minuteness Processing城市规划原理Fundamentals of City Planning城市社会学Urban Sociology成组技术Grouping Technique齿轮啮合原理Principles of Gear Connection冲击测量及误差Punching Measurement&Error冲压工艺Sheet Metal Forming Technology抽象代数Abstract Algebra传动概论Introduction to Transmission传感器与检测技术Sensors&Testing Technology传感器原理Fundamentals of Sensors传感器原理及应用Fundamentals of Sensors&Application传热学Heat Transfer传坳概论Introduction to Pass Col船舶操纵Ship Controling船舶电力系统Ship Electrical Power System船舶电力系统课程设计Course Exercise in Ship Electrical Power System 船舶电气传动自动化Ship Electrified Transmission Automation船舶电站Ship Power Station船舶动力装置Ship Power Equipment船舶概论Introduction to Ships船舶焊接与材料Welding&Materials on Ship船舶机械控制技术Mechanic Control Technology for Ships船舶机械拖动Ship Mechamic Towage船舶建筑美学Artistic Designing of Ships船舶结构力学Structual Mechamics for Ships船舶结构与制图Ship Structure&Graphing船舶静力学Ship Statics船舶强度与结构设计Designing Ship Intensity&Structure船舶设计原理Principles of Ship Designing船舶推进Ship Propeling船舶摇摆Ship Swaying船舶阻力Ship Resistance船体建造工艺Ship-Building Technology船体结构Ship Structure船体结构图Ship Structure Graphing船体振动学Ship Vibration创造心理学Creativity Psychology磁测量技术Magnetic Measurement Technology磁传感器Magnetic Sensor磁存储设备设计原理Fundamental Design of Magnetic Memory Equipment磁记录技术Magnetographic Technology磁记录物理Magnetographic Physics磁路设计与场计算Magnetic Path Designing&Magnetic Field Calculati磁盘控制器Magnetic Disk Controler磁性材料Magnetic Materials磁性测量Magnetic Measurement磁性物理Magnetophysics磁原理及应用Principles of Catalyzation&Application大电流测量Super-Current Measurement大电源测量Super-Power Measurement大机组协调控制Coordination&Control of Generator Networks大跨度房屋结构Large-Span House structure大型锅炉概况Introduction to Large-Volume Boilers大型火电机组控制Control of Large Thermal Power Generator Networks大学德语College German大学俄语College Russian大学法语College French大学日语College Japanese大学英语College English大学语文College Chinese大众传播学Mass Media代用运放电路Simulated Transmittal Circuit单片机原理Fundamentals of Mono-Chip Computers单片机原理及应用Fundamentals of Mono-Chip Computers&Applications弹性力学Theory of Elastic Mechanics当代国际关系Contemporary International Relationship当代国外社会思维评价Evaluation of Contemporary Foreign Social Thought当代文学Contemporary Literature当代文学专题Topics on Contemporary Literature当代西方哲学Contemporary Western Philosophy当代戏剧与电影Contemporary Drama&Films党史History of the Party导波光学Wave Guiding Optics等离子体工程Plasma Engineering低频电子线路Low Frequency Electric Circuit低温传热学Cryo Conduction低温固体物理Cryo Solid Physics低温技术原理与装置Fundamentals of Cryo Technology&Equipment低温技术中的微机原理Priciples of Microcomputer in Cryo Technology低温绝热Cryo Heat Insulation低温气体制冷机Cryo Gas Refrigerator低温热管Cryo Heat Tube低温设备Cryo Equipment低温生物冻干技术Biological Cryo Freezing Drying Technology低温实验技术Cryo Experimentation Technology低温物理导论Cryo Physic Concepts低温物理概论Cryo Physic Concepts低温物理概念Cryo Physic Concepts低温仪表及测试Cryo Meters&Measurement低温原理Cryo Fundamentals低温中的微机应用Application of Microcomputer in Cryo Technology低温装置Cryo Equipment低噪声电子电路Low-Noise Electric Circuit低噪声电子设计Low-Noise Electronic Designing低噪声放大与弱检Low-Noise Increasing&Decreasing低噪声与弱信号检测Detection of Low Noise&Weak Signals地理Geography第二次世界大战史History of World War II电测量技术Electric Measurement Technology电厂计算机控制系统Computer Control System in Power Plants电磁测量实验技术Electromagnetic Measurement Experiment&Technology 电磁场计算机Electromagnetic Field Computers电磁场理论Theory of Electromagnetic Fields电磁场数值计算Numerical Calculation of Electromagnetic Fields电磁场与电磁波Electromagnetic Fields&Magnetic Waves电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Fields&Micro-Wave Technology电磁场中的数值方法Numerical Methods in Electromagnetic Fields电磁场中的数值计算Numerical Calculation in Electromagnetic Fields电磁学Electromagnetics电动力学Electrodynamics电镀Plating电分析化学Electro-Analytical Chemistry电工测试技术基础Testing Technology of Electrical Engineering电工产品学Electrotechnical Products电工电子技术基础Electrical Technology&Electrical Engineering电工电子学Electronics in Electrical Engineering电工基础Fundamental Theory of Electrical Engineering电工基础理论Fundamental Theory of Electrical Engineering电工基础实验Basic Experiment in Electrical Engineering电工技术Electrotechnics电工技术基础Fundamentals of Electrotechnics电工实习Electrical Engineering Practice电工实验技术基础Experiment Technology of Electrical Engineering电工学Electrical Engineering电工与电机控制Electrical Engineering&Motor Control电弧电接触Electrical Arc Contact电弧焊及电渣焊Electric Arc Welding&Electroslag Welding电化学测试技术Electrochemical Measurement Technology电化学工程Electrochemical Engineering电化学工艺学Electrochemical Technology电机测试技术Motor Measuring Technology电机电磁场的分析与计算Analysis&Calculation of Electrical Motor&Electromagnetic Fields电机电器与供电Motor Elements and Power Supply电机课程设计Course Exercise in Electric Engine电机绕组理论Theory of Motor Winding电机绕组理论及应用Theory&Application of Motor Winding电机设计Design of Electrical Motor电机瞬变过程Electrical Motor Change Processes电机学Electrical Motor电机学及控制电机Electrical Machinery Control&Technology电机与拖动Electrical Machinery&Towage电机原理Principle of Electric Engine电机原理与拖动Principles of Electrical Machinery&Towage电机专题Lectures on Electric Engine电接触与电弧Electrical Contact&Electrical Arc电介质物理Dielectric Physics电镜Electronic Speculum电力电子电路Power Electronic Circuit电力电子电器Power Electronic Equipment电力电子器件Power Electronic Devices电力电子学Power Electronics电力工程Electrical Power Engineering电力生产技术Technology of Electrical Power Generation电力生产优化管理Optimal Management of Electrical Power Generation电力拖动基础Fundamentals for Electrical Towage电力拖动控制系统Electrical Towage Control Systems电力系统Power Systems电力系统电源最优化规划Optimal Planning of Power Source in a Power System 电力系统短路Power System Shortcuts电力系统分析Power System Analysis电力系统规划Power System Planning电力系统过电压Hyper-Voltage of Power Systems电力系统继电保护原理Power System Relay Protection电力系统经济分析Economical Analysis of Power Systems电力系统经济运行Economical Operation of Power Systems电力系统可靠性Power System Reliability电力系统可靠性分析Power System Reliability Analysis电力系统无功补偿及应用Non-Work Compensation in Power Systems&Applicati 电力系统谐波Harmonious Waves in Power Systems电力系统优化技术Optimal Technology of Power Systems电力系统优化设计Optimal Designing of Power Systems电力系统远动Operation of Electric Systems电力系统远动技术Operation Technique of Electric Systems电力系统运行Operation of Electric Systems电力系统自动化Automation of Electric Systems电力系统自动装置Power System Automation Equipment电路测试技术Circuit Measurement Technology电路测试技术基础Fundamentals of Circuit Measurement Technology电路测试技术及实验Circuit Measurement Technology&Experiments电路分析基础Basis of Circuit Analysis电路分析基础实验Basic Experiment on Circuit Analysis电路分析实验Experiment on Circuit Analysis电路和电子技术Circuit and Electronic Technique电路理论Theory of Circuit电路理论基础Fundamental Theory of Circuit电路理论实验Experiments in Theory of Circuct电路设计与测试技术Circuit Designing&Measurement Technology电器学Electrical Appliances电器与控制Electrical Appliances&Control电气控制技术Electrical Control Technology电视接收技术Television Reception Technology电视节目Television Porgrams电视节目制作Television Porgram Designing电视新技术New Television Technology电视原理Principles of Television电网调度自动化Automation of Electric Network Management电影艺术Art of Film Making电站微机检测控制Computerized Measurement&Control of Power Statio电子材料与元件测试技术Measuring Technology of Electronic Material and Element电子材料元件Electronic Material and Element电子材料元件测量Electronic Material and Element Measurement电子测量与实验技术Technology of Electronic Measurement&Experiment电子测试Electronic Testing电子测试技术Electronic Testing Technology电子测试技术与实验Electronic Testing Technology&Experiment电子机械运动控制技术Technology of Electronic Mechanic Movement Control电子技术Technology of Electronics电子技术腐蚀测试中的应用Application of Electronic Technology in Erosion Measurement 电子技术基础Basic Electronic Technology电子技术基础与实验Basic Electronic Technology&Experiment电子技术课程设计Course Exercise in Electronic Technology电子技术实验Experiment in Electronic Technology电子理论实验Experiment in Electronic Theory电子显微分析Electronic Micro-Analysis电子显微镜Electronic Microscope电子线路Electronic Circuit电子线路设计与测试技术Electronic Circuit Design&Measurement Technology电子线路实验Experiment in Electronic Circuit电子照相技术Electronic Photographing Technology雕塑艺术欣赏Appreciation of Sculptural Art调节装置Regulation Equipment动态规划Dynamic Programming动态无损检测Dynamic Non-Destruction Measurement动态信号分析与仪器Dynamic Signal Analysis&Apparatus锻压工艺Forging Technology锻压机械液压传动Hydraulic Transmission in Forging Machinery锻压加热设备Forging Heating Equipment锻压设备专题Lectures on Forging Press Equipments锻压系统动力学Dynamics of Forging System锻造工艺Forging Technology断裂力学Fracture Mechanics对外贸易概论Introduction to International Trade多层网络方法Multi-Layer Network Technology多目标优化方法Multipurpose Optimal Method多项距阵Multi-Nominal Matrix多元统计分析Multi-Variate Statistical Analysis发电厂Power Plant发电厂电气部分Electric Elements of Power Plants法律基础Fundamentals of Law法学概论An Introduction to Science of Law法学基础Fundamentals of Science of Law翻译Translation翻译理论与技巧Theory&Skills of Translation泛函分析Functional Analysis房屋建筑学Architectural Design&Construction非电量测量Non-Electricity Measurement非金属材料Non-Metal Materials非线性采样系统Non-Linear Sampling System非线性光学Non-Linear Optics非线性规划Non-Linear Programming非线性振荡Non-Linear Ocsillation非线性振动Non-Linear Vibration沸腾燃烧Boiling Combustion分析化学Analytical Chemistry分析化学实验Analytical Chemistry Experiment分析力学Analytical Mechanics风机调节Fan Regulation风机调节.使用.运转Regulation,Application&Operation of Fans风机三元流动理论与设计Tri-Variate Movement Theory&Design of Fans风能利用Wind Power Utilization腐蚀电化学实验Experiment in Erosive Electrochemistry复变函数Complex Variables Functions复变函数与积分变换Functions of Complex Variables&Integral Transformation复合材料力学Compound Material Mechanics傅里叶光学Fourier Optics概率论Probability Theory概率论与数理统计Probability Theory&Mathematical Statistics概率论与随机过程Probability Theory&Stochastic Process钢笔画Pen Drawing钢的热处理Heat-Treatment of Steel钢结构Steel Structure钢筋混凝土Reinforced Concrete钢筋混凝土及砖石结构Reinforced Concrete&Brick Structure钢砼结构Reinforced Concrete Structure高层建筑基础设计Designing bases of High Rising Buildings高层建筑结构设计Designing Structures of High Rising Buildings高等材料力学Advanced Material Mechanics高等代数Advanced Algebra高等教育管理Higher Education Management高等教育史History of Higher Education高等教育学Higher Education高等数学Advanced Mathematics高电压技术High-Voltage Technology高电压测试技术High-Voltage Test Technology高分子材料High Polymer Material高分子材料及加工High Polymer Material&Porcessing高分子化学High Polymer Chemistry高分子化学实验High Polymer Chemistry Experiment高分子物理High Polymer Physics高分子物理实验High Polymer Physics Experiment高级英语听说Advanced English Listening&Speaking高能密束焊High Energy-Dense Beam Welding高频电路High-Frenquency Circuit高频电子技术High-Frenquency Electronic Technology高频电子线路High-Frenquency Electronic Circuit高压测量技术High-Voltage Measurement Technology高压测试技术High-Voltage Testing Technology高压电场的数值计算Numerical Calculation in High-Voltage Electronic Field高压电器High-Voltage Electrical Appliances高压绝缘High-Voltage Insulation高压实验High-Voltage Experimentation高压试验技术High-Voltage Experimentation Technology工程材料的力学性能测试Mechanic Testing of Engineering Materials工程材料及热处理Engineering Material and Heat Treatment工程材料学Engineering Materials工程测量Engineering Surveying工程测试技术Engineering Testing Technique工程测试实验Experiment on Engineering Testing工程测试信息Information of Engineering Testing工程动力学Engineering Dynamics工程概论Introduction to Engineering工程概预算Project Budget工程经济学Engineering Economics工程静力学Engineering Statics工程力学Engineering Mechanics工程热力学Engineering Thermodynamics工程项目评估Engineering Project Evaluation工程优化方法Engineering Optimizational Method工程运动学Engineering Kinematics工程造价管理Engineering Cost Management工程制图Graphing of Engineering工业分析Industrial Analysis工业锅炉Industrial Boiler工业会计学Industrial Accounting工业机器人Industrial Robot工业技术基础Basic Industrial Technology工业建筑设计原理Principles of Industrial Building Design工业经济理论Industrial Economic Theory工业经济学Industrial Economics工业企业财务管理Industrial Enterprise Financial Management工业企业财务会计Accounting in Industrial Enterprises工业企业管理Industrial Enterprise Management工业企业经营管理Industrial Enterprise Adminstrative Management 工业社会学Industrial Sociology工业心理学Industrial Psychology工业窑炉Industrial Stoves工艺过程自动化Technics Process Automation公差Common Difference公差技术测量Technical Measurement with Common Difference公差与配合Common Difference&Cooperation公共关系学Public Relations公文写作Document Writing古代汉语Ancient Chinese古典文学作品选读Selected Readings in Classical Literature固体激光Solid State Laser固体激光器件Solid Laser Elements固体激光与电源Solid State Laser&Power Unit固体物理Solid State Physics管理概论Introduction to Management管理经济学Management Economics管理数学Management Mathematics管理系统模拟Management System Simulation管理心理学Management Psychology管理信息系统Management Information Systems光波导理论Light Wave Guide Theory光电技术Photoelectric Technology光电信号处理Photoelectric Signal Processing光电信号与系统分析Photoelectric Signal&Systematic Analysis光辐射探测技术Ray Radiation Detection Technology光谱Spectrum光谱分析Spectral Analysis光谱学Spectroscopy光纤传感Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器基础Fundamentals of Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器及应用Fibre Optical Sensors&Applications光纤光学课程设计Course Design of Fibre Optical光纤技术实验Experiments in Fibre Optical Technology光纤通信基础Basis of Fibre Optical Communication光学Optics光学测量Optical Measurement光学分析法Optical Analysis Method光学计量仪器设计Optical Instrument Gauge Designing光学检测Optical Detection光学设计Optical Design光学信息导论Introduction of Optical Infomation光学仪器设计Optical Instrument Designing光学仪器与计量仪器设计Optical Instrument&Gauge Instrument Designing 光学仪器装配与校正Optical Instrument Installation&Adjustment广播编辑学Broadcast Editing广播新闻Broadcast Journalism广播新闻采写Broadcast Journalism Collection&Composition广告学Advertisement锅炉燃烧理论Theory of Boiler Combustion锅炉热交换传热强化Boiler Heat Exchange,Condction&Intensification锅炉原理Principles of Boiler国际金融International Finance国际经济法International Economic Law国际贸易International Trade国际贸易地理International Trade Geography国际贸易实务International Trade Affairs国际市场学International Marketing国际市场营销International Marketing国民经济计划National Economical Planning国外社会学理论Overseas Theories of Sociology过程(控制)调节装置Process(Control)Adjustment Device过程调节系统Process Adjustment System过程控制Process Control过程控制系统Process Control System海洋测量Ocean Surveying海洋工程概论Introduction to Ocean Engineering函数分析Functional Analysis焊接方法Welding Method焊接方法及设备Welding Method&Equipment焊接检验Welding Testing焊接结构Welding Structure焊接金相Welding Fractography焊接金相分析Welding Fractography Analysis焊接冶金Welding Metallurgy焊接原理Fundamentals of Welding焊接原理及工艺Fundamentals of Welding&Technology焊接自动化Automation of Welding汉语Chinese汉语与写作Chinese&Composition汉语语法研究Research on Chinese Grammar汉字信息处理技术Technology of Chinese Information Processing毫微秒脉冲技术Millimicrosecond Pusle Technique核动力技术Nuclear Power Technology合唱与指挥Chorus&Conduction合金钢Alloy Steel宏观经济学Macro-Economics宏微观经济学Macro Micro Economics红外CCD Infrared CCD红外电荷耦合器Infrared Electric Charge Coupler红外探测器Infrared Detectors红外物理Infrared Physics红外物理与技术Infrared Physics&Technology红外系统Infrared System红外系统电信号处理Processing Electric Signals from Infrared Systems厚薄膜集成电路Thick&Thin Film Integrated Circuit弧焊电源Arc Welding Power弧焊原理Arc Welding Principles互换性技术测量基础Basic Technology of Exchangeability Measurement互换性技术测量Technology of Exchangeability Measurement互换性与技术测量Elementary Technology of Exchangeability Measurement互换性与技术测量实验Experiment of Exchangeability Measurement Technology 画法几何及机械制图Descriptive Geometry&Mechanical Graphing画法几何与阴影透视Descriptive Geometry,Shadow and Perspective化工基础Elementary Chemical Industry化工仪表与自动化Chemical Meters&Automation化工原理Principles of Chemical Industry化学Chemistry化学反应工程Chemical Reaction Engineering化学分离Chemical Decomposition化学工程基础Elementary Chemical Engineering化学计量学Chemical Measurement化学文献Chemical Literature化学文献及查阅方法Chemical Literature&Consulting Method化学粘结剂Chemical Felter环境保护理论基础Basic Theory of Environmental Protection环境化学Environomental Chemistry环境行为概论Introduction to Environmental Behavior换热器Thermal Transducer回旧分析与试验设计Tempering Analysis and Experiment Design回转式压缩机Rotary Compressor回转压缩机数学模型Mathematical Modeling of Rotary Compressors会计学Accountancy会计与财务分析Accountancy&Financial Analysis会计与设备分析Accountancy&Equipment Analysis会计原理及外贸会计Principles of Accountancy&Foreign Trade Accountancy会计原理与工业会计Principles of Accountancy&Industrial Accountancy活力学Energy Theory活塞膨胀机Piston Expander活塞式制冷压缩机Piston Refrigerant Compreessor活塞式压缩机Piston Compressor活塞式压缩机基础设计Basic Design of Piston Compressor活塞压缩机结构强度Structural Intensity of Piston Compressor活赛压机气流脉动Gas Pulsation of Piston Pressor货币银行学Currency Banking基本电路理论Basis Theory of Circuit基础写作Fundamental Course of Composition机床电路Machine Tool Circuit机床电器Machine Tool Electric Appliance机床电气控制Electrical Control of Machinery Tools机床动力学Machine Tool Dynamics机床设计Machine Tool design机床数字控制Digital Control of Machine Tool机床液压传动Machinery Tool Hydraulic Transmission机电传动Mechanical&Electrical Transmission机电传动控制Mechanical&electrical Transmission Control机电耦合系统Mechanical&Electrical Combination System机电系统计算机仿真Computer Simulation of Mechanic/Electrical Systems机电一体化Mechanical&Electrical Integration机构学Structuring机器人Robot机器人控制技术Robot Control Technology机械产品学Mechanic Products机械产品造型设计Shape Design of Mechanical Products机械工程控制基础Basic Mechanic Engineering Control机械加工自动化Automation in Mechanical Working机械可靠性Mechanical Reliability机械零件Mechanical Elements机械零件设计Course Exercise in Machinery Elements Design机械零件设计基础Basis of Machinery Elements Design机械设计Mechanical Designing机械设计基础Basis of Mechanical Designing机械设计课程设计Course Exercise in Mechanical Design机械设计原理Principle of Mechanical Designing机械式信息传输机构Mechanical Information Transmission Device机械原理Principle of Mechanics机械原理和机械零件Mechanism&Machinery机械原理及机械设计Mechanical Designing机械原理及应用Mechanical Principle&Mechanical Applications机械原理课程设计Course Exercise of Mechanical Principle机械原理与机械零件Mechanical Principle and Mechanical Elements机械原理与机械设计Mechanical Principle and Mechanical Design机械噪声控制Control of Mechanical Noise机械制造概论Introduction to Mechanical Manufacture机械制造工艺学Technology of Mechanical Manufacture机械制造基础Fundamental of Mechanical Manufacture机械制造基础(金属工艺学)Fundamental Course of Mechanic Manufacturing(Meta 机械制造系统自动化Automation of Mechanical Manufacture System机械制造中计算机控制Computer Control in Mechanical Manufacture机制工艺及夹具Mechanical Technology and Clamps积分变换Integral Transformation积分变换及数理方程Integral Transformation&Mathematical Equations积分变换控制工程Integral Transformation Control Engineering积分变换与动力工程Integral Transforms&Dynamic Engineering激光电源Laser Power Devices激光焊Laser Welding激光基础Basis of Laser激光技术Laser Technology激光加工Laser Processing激光器件Laser Devices激光器件与电源Laser Devices&Power Source激光原理Principles of Laser激光原理与技术Laser Principles&Technology极限分析Limit Analysis集合论与代数结构Set Theory&Algebraical Structure技术管理Technological Management技术经济Technological Economy技术经济学Technological Economics技术市场学Technological Marketing计量经济学Measure Economics计算方法Computational Method计算机导论Introduction to Computers计算机导论与实践Introduction to Computers&Practice计算机辅助设计CAD计算机辅助设计与仿真Computer Aided Design&Imitation计算机辅助语言教学Computer-Aided Language Teaching计算机辅助制造Computer-Aided Manufacturing计算机概论Introduction to Computers计算机绘图Computer Graphics计算机基础Basis of Computer Engineering计算机接口技术Computer Interface Technology计算机接口与通讯Computer Interface&Communication计算机局域网Regional Network of Computers计算机控制Computer Controling计算机设计自动化Automation of Computer Design计算机实践Computer Practice计算机数据库Computer Database计算机算法基础Basis of Computer Algorithm计算机图形显示Computer Graphic Demonstration计算机图形学Computer Graphics计算机网络Computer Networks计算机系统结构Computer Architecture计算机语言处理Computer Language Processing计算机原理Principle of Computer Engineering计算机在化学中的应用Application of Computer in Chemistry计算机组成原理Principles of Computer Composition计算力学Computational Mechanics计算力学基础Basis of Computational Mechanics计算流体Fluid Computation继电保护新技术New Technology of Relay Protection继电保护原理Principles of Relay Protection继电保护运行Relay-Protected Operation检测技术Measurement Technique检测系统动力学Detection System Dynamics检测与控制Detection&Controling简明社会学Concise Sociology简明世界史Brief World History减振设计Vibration Absorption Designing渐近方法Asymptotical Method建筑材料Building Materials建筑初步Elementary Architecture建筑防火Building Fire Protection建筑概论Introduction to Architecture建筑构造Architectural Construction建筑结构Architectural Structure建筑结构抗震设计Anti-quake Architectural Structure Design建筑经济与企业管理Architectural Economy&Enterprise Management建筑力学Architectural Mechanics建筑名作欣赏Appreciation of Architectural Works建筑入门Elementary Architecture建筑摄影Architectural Photographing建筑设备Architectural Equipment建筑设计Architectural Design建筑施工Construction Technology建筑绘画Architectural Drawing建筑物理Architecural Physics建筑制图Architectural Graphing胶体化学Colloid Chemistry交流调速系统Alternating Current Governor System教育心理学Pedagogic Psychology接口与控制器Interface and Controler接口与通讯Interface and Communication结构程序设计Structural Program Designing结构动力学Structural Dynamics结构化学Structural Chemistry结构检验Structural Testing结构力学Structural Mechanics结构素描Structure Sketching结构塑性分析Structural Plasticity Analysis结构稳定Stability Analysis of Structures结构先进技术Advanced Structuring Technology结构优化理论Optimal Structure Theory结构优化设计Optimal Structure Designing解析几何Analytic Geometry介质波导Medium Wave Guide介质测量Medium Measurement介质光学Medium Optics金属X射线学Metal X-Ray Analysis金属材料焊接Metal Material Welding金属材料学Metal Material Science金属材料与热处理Metal Material&Heat Treatment金属腐蚀与保护Metal Erosion&Protection金属腐蚀原理Principles of Metal Erosion金属工艺学Metal Technics金属焊接性基础Elementary Metal Weldability金属焊接原理Principles of Metal Welding金属机械性能Mechanical Property of Metal金属力学性能Metal Mechanic Property金属切削机床Metal Cutting Machine Tool金属切削原理及刀具Principles of Metal Cutting&Cutters 金属熔焊原理Principles of Metal Molten Welding。
计算机国外著名教材列表
作者：Satish Kumar
Object-Oriented Programming in C++, 2E
C++面向对象程序设计（第2版）
作者：Richard Johnsonbaugh, Martin Kalin
The C++ Standard Library : A Tutorial and Reference
C++网络编程,卷1:运用ACE和模式消除复杂性
ISBN：7-302-07644-8
作者：Douglas C. Schmidt
Stephen D. Huston
定价：29.00元
C++ Network Programming, Volume 2: Systematic Reuse with ACE and Frameworks
Java面向对象程序设计（第2版）
作者：David Arnow, Scott Dexter, Gerald Weiss
ISBN：7-302-09766-6
定价：68.00元
Cryptography and Network Security
密码学与网络安全
作者：Atul Kahate
ISBN作者：Alan B. Marcovitz
ISBN 7-302-05717-6
定价：50.00元
Embedded Systems: Architecture, Programming and Design
嵌入式系统体系结构、编程与设计
作者：Raj Kamal
ISBN 7-302-10297-X
作者：Roger S. Pressman
语言学专业术语
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
coh-metrix英文介绍
coh-metrix英文介绍Coh-Metrix: A Comprehensive Analytical Tool for Evaluating Text CoherenceCoh-Metrix is a powerful software tool that has revolutionized the way we analyze and assess the coherence of written texts. Developed by a team of researchers at the University of Memphis, Coh-Metrix provides a comprehensive and in-depth evaluation of the linguistic and cognitive properties of text, enabling researchers, educators, and writers to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that contribute to effective communication.At its core, Coh-Metrix is a computational linguistics-based system that measures various aspects of text cohesion and coherence. It analyzes a wide range of linguistic features, including lexical diversity, syntactic complexity, semantic relationships, and discourse-level organization. By leveraging sophisticated algorithms and natural language processing techniques, Coh-Metrix generates a detailed report that sheds light on the overall coherence of a given text, as well as the specific areas where coherence may be lacking or could be improved.One of the key advantages of Coh-Metrix is its ability to provide a multifaceted analysis of a text. Unlike traditional readability formulas that focus solely on surface-level features such as word length and sentence complexity, Coh-Metrix delves deeper into the cognitive and linguistic processes that underlie text comprehension. It examines the relationships between words, the flow of ideas, the use of referential and causal connections, and the overall cohesion of the text.The Coh-Metrix system is particularly useful in a variety of applications, including educational assessment, content analysis, and text generation. In the educational domain, teachers and researchers can use Coh-Metrix to evaluate the coherence of student writing, identify areas for improvement, and provide targeted feedback to help students develop stronger writing skills. Additionally, Coh-Metrix can be employed in the assessment of textbooks, instructional materials, and other educational resources to ensure that the content is well-structured and accessible to students.In the realm of content analysis, Coh-Metrix has proven invaluable for researchers and professionals who need to analyze large volumes of text data. By automating the process of evaluating text coherence, Coh-Metrix enables researchers to quickly and consistently assess the quality and effectiveness of written materials, such as news articles, marketing content, or policy documents. This, in turn, allowsfor more informed decision-making and the development of more effective communication strategies.Furthermore, Coh-Metrix has applications in the field of text generation, where it can be used to assess the coherence of automatically generated texts. This is particularly relevant in the development of intelligent writing assistants, chatbots, and other natural language generation systems, where ensuring the coherence and readability of the output is crucial for effective communication.One of the key strengths of Coh-Metrix is its ability to adapt to different genres and writing styles. Whether analyzing academic essays, scientific reports, or creative fiction, the tool provides a comprehensive and nuanced evaluation of the text's coherence. This flexibility is crucial in a world where written communication takes on many forms and serves diverse purposes.In addition to its analytical capabilities, Coh-Metrix also offers valuable insights into the cognitive processes involved in text comprehension. By examining the linguistic and discourse-level features of a text, the tool helps researchers and educators better understand how readers interact with and make sense of written information. This knowledge can then be used to inform the development of more effective instructional strategies, writing interventions, and reading support tools.As the field of natural language processing and computational linguistics continues to advance, the importance of tools like Coh-Metrix is only likely to grow. With its ability to provide detailed and objective assessments of text coherence, Coh-Metrix has become an indispensable resource for researchers, educators, and writers who are committed to improving the quality and effectiveness of written communication.In conclusion, Coh-Metrix is a groundbreaking tool that has transformed the way we analyze and understand the coherence of written texts. By leveraging sophisticated computational techniques, Coh-Metrix offers a comprehensive and multifaceted evaluation of the linguistic and cognitive factors that contribute to effective communication. As we continue to navigate the ever-evolving landscape of written expression, tools like Coh-Metrix will undoubtedly play a crucial role in shaping the future of text analysis and enhancing the quality of our written communication.。
计算语言学讲义(02)词典
新华社词语数据库·人名
中国科学院研究生院课程讲义（2003.2～2003.6）
计算语言学
知网（Hownet）1
• 作者：董振东 董强 • 网站： • 概念描述举例
NO.=017144 W_C=打 G_C=V E_C=~网球，~牌，~秋千，~太极，球~得很棒 W_E=play G_E=V E_E= DEF=exercise|锻练,sport|体育
中国科学院研究生院课程讲义（2003.2～2003.6） 计算语言学
机读词典与人读词典
• 人读词典（Human Readable Dictionary）
– 格式不规范 – 数据完整性和一致性不好 – 非结构化
• 机读词典（Machine Readable Dictionary）
– 格式规范 – 数据完整性和一致性较好 – 结构化
中国科学院研究生院课程讲义（2003.2～2003.6） 计算语言学
机读词典的分类
• 按信息类型分类
– – – – – – – – 语法词典 语义词典（包括同义词典） 双语词典 …… 通用词典 专业词典（术语词典） 专名词典 ……
计算语言学
• 按领域分类
中国科学院研究生院课程讲义（2003.2～2003.6）
中国科学院研究生院课程讲义（2003.2～2003.6）
计算语言学
新华社词语数据库
全库分为中文和外文两个大类，主要 包括中文新闻库、经济信息库、证券库、 人物库、组织机构库、专题资料库等中文 数据库，还包括Xinhua News Bulletin 、 Who’s Who in China等英文数据库。共有28 个库100多个子库，数据量达80多亿汉字， 并以日均150万汉字的速度增长。
基于似然比的英文笔记检验方法
基于似然比的英文笔记检验方法The assessment of English writing proficiency has long been a critical aspect of language education and evaluation. Traditional methods, such as holistic scoring or rubric-based assessments, have their limitations in providing comprehensive and objective feedback to learners. In recent years, the development of computational linguistics and natural language processing has paved the way for more advanced techniques in writing evaluation. One such approach is the likelihood ratio-based English writing evaluation method, which offers a robust and data-driven way to assess the quality of written texts.The likelihood ratio-based method relies on the fundamental principles of statistical inference and hypothesis testing. The underlying premise is that well-written English texts exhibit certain linguistic patterns and characteristics that can be quantified and compared to a reference corpus of high-quality writing. By calculating the likelihood ratio between the target text and the reference corpus, we can determine the degree to which the target text conforms to the expected norms of proficient English writing.The likelihood ratio-based method involves several key steps. First, the target text is preprocessed to extract a set of linguistic features, such as lexical diversity, sentence complexity, and grammatical accuracy. These features are carefully selected to capture the nuances of effective written communication in English. Next, a reference corpus of high-quality English writing, typically comprising texts from professional publications or academic sources, is established. This corpus serves as the benchmark against which the target text will be evaluated.The likelihood ratio is then calculated by comparing the distribution of the linguistic features in the target text to the distribution of the same features in the reference corpus. The likelihood ratio is a statistical measure that quantifies the relative likelihood of the target text belonging to the reference corpus versus belonging to a hypothetical corpus of poorly written English. A likelihood ratio greater than 1 indicates that the target text is more likely to be from the reference corpus, suggesting a higher level of writing proficiency, while a likelihood ratio less than 1 suggests that the target text is more likely to be from a corpus of poor writing.One of the key advantages of the likelihood ratio-based method is its ability to provide detailed and actionable feedback to learners. By analyzing the specific linguistic features that contribute to thelikelihood ratio, instructors can identify the strengths and weaknesses of a student's writing and provide targeted feedback for improvement. For example, if the likelihood ratio reveals that the target text has a lower-than-expected lexical diversity, the instructor can suggest strategies for expanding the writer's vocabulary and using more varied word choices.Moreover, the likelihood ratio-based method is highly scalable and can be applied to a large volume of written texts, making it particularly useful in educational settings with large class sizes or high-stakes writing assessments. The automated nature of the analysis also ensures consistency and objectivity, reducing the potential for subjective biases that can arise in manual scoring.However, it is important to note that the likelihood ratio-based method should not be seen as a replacement for more holistic assessments of writing quality. While it provides valuable quantitative insights, it does not fully capture the nuances of effective communication, such as the coherence of ideas, the persuasiveness of arguments, or the creativity of expression. Therefore, the likelihood ratio-based method is best used in conjunction with other assessment techniques, such as rubric-based scoring or peer review, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of a writer's abilities.In conclusion, the likelihood ratio-based English writing evaluation method offers a promising approach to assessing the quality of written texts. By leveraging the power of statistical inference and computational linguistics, this method can provide detailed and objective feedback to learners, enabling them to identify and address their writing weaknesses more effectively. As the field of language assessment continues to evolve, the likelihood ratio-based method is likely to play an increasingly important role in supporting the development of English writing proficiency.。
Algorithm Analysis (Big O)
1
Complexity
In examining algorithm efficiency we must understand the idea of complexity
▪ Space complexity ▪ Time Complexity
F.C. n+1 n2+n n2 n2 ____ 3n2+2n+1
Big O = O(n2)
clearing coefficients : n2+n
picking the most significant term: n2
10
What is Big O
Big O
▪ rate at which algorithm performance degrades as a function of the amount of data it is asked to handle
f(n)=O(g(n)), iff there exist constants c and n0
such that:
f(n) <= c g(n) for all n>=n0
Thus, g(n) is an upper bound on f(n)
Note: f(n) = O(g(n)) is NOT the same as O(g(n)) = f(n)
n+1
1
{ cout << i;
n
2
p = p + i;
n
3
}
____
3n+1
totaling the counts produces the F.C. (frequency count)
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13(1-2): 47-63 13(I-2): 11-24 8(2): 55-84 1I(2-3): 137-154 14(2): 29-43 12(4): 257-272 12(3): 175-204 11(1): 28-36 14(4): 35-85 6(1): 1-12 14(1): 1-19 6(3-4): 150-166 10(3-4): 187-188 14(1): 20-30 13(3-4): 241-250 8(3-4): 97-109 13(3-4): 290-307 14(2): 44-60 7(1): 17-29 6(3-4): 135-149 8(2): 70-73 8(3-4): 139-149 12(1): 13-36
Computational Linguistics, Volume 15, Number 1, 6-14
Denotational Semantics for "Natural" Language Question-Answering Programs Main, Michael G. and Benson, David B. Determining Verb Phrase Referents in Dialogs Robinson, Ann E. Disambiguating Prepositional Phrase Attachments by Using On-Line Dictionary Definitions Jensen, Karen and Binot, Jean-Louis Discourse-Oriented Anaphora Resolution: A Review Hirst, Graeme Discovery Procedures for Sublanguage Selectional Patterns: Initial Experiments Grishman, Ralph; Hirschman, Lynette; and Nhan, Ngo Thanh Efficient Augmented-Context-Free Parsing Algorithm, An Tomita, Masaru Efficient Easily Adaptable System for Interpreting Natural Language Queries, An Warren, David H.D. and Pereira, Fernando C.N. English and the Class of Context-Free Languages Postal, Paul M. and Langendoen, D. Terence EUROTRA: A Multilingual System under Development Johnson, Rod; King, Maghi; and des Tombe, Louis Extraposition Grammars Pereira, Fernando Flexible Parsing Hayes, Philip J. and Mouradian, George V. Focusing for Interpretation of Pronouns Sidner, Candace L. Formal Basis for Performance Evaluation of Natural Language Understanding Systems, A Guida, Giovanni and Mauri, Giancarlo Formal Lexicon in the Meaning-Text Theory (Or How to Do Lexica with Words), A Mel~uk, Ig0r and Polgu~re, Alain From English to Logic: Context-Fi'ee Computation of 'Conventional' Logical Translation Schubert, Lenhart and Pelletier, Francis J. Generalized Augmented Transition Network Grammars for Generation'from Semantic Networks Shapiro, Stuart C. Grammatical Category Disambiguation by Statistical Optimization DeRose, Steven J. Implementing Systemic Classification by Unification Mellish, C.S. Integrated Processing Produces Robust Understanding Selfridge, Mallory Integrated Understander, An Schank, Roger C.; Lebowitz, Michael; and Birnbaum, Lawrence Japanese Government Project for Machine Translation, The Nagao, Makoto; Tsujii, Jun-ichi; and Nakamura, Jun-ichi Knowledge Representation Approach to Understanding Metaphors, A. Weiner, E. Judith Large Lexicons for Natural Language Processing: Utilising the Grammar Coding System of LDOCE Boguraev, Bran and Briscoe, Ted LFP: A Logic for Linguistic Descriptions and an Analysis of its Complexity Rounds, William C. LRC Machine Translation System, The Bennett, Winfield S. and Sl0cum, Jonathan Machine Translation, from Proceedings of the Workshop on Applied Computational Linguistics in Perspective Kay, Martin (Chai~) Meaning of OF and H A V E in the USL System, The Zoeppritz, Magdalena Computational Linguistics, Volume 15, Number 1, March 1989
TITLE INDEX
VOLUMES~I4 Algorithm for Generating Quantifier Scopings, An Hobbs, Jerry R. and Shieber, Stuart M. Analyzing the Structure of Argumentative Discourse Cohen, Robin Applied Computational Linguistics in Perspective: Proceedings of the Workshop Johnson, Carroll and Bachenko, .roan ASCOFDA Modular Multilevel System for French-German Translation Biewer, Axel; Feneyrol, Christian; Ritzke, Johannes; and Stegentritt, Erwin Aspect, Aspectual Class, and the Temporal Structure of Narrative Nakhimovsky, Alexander Associative Model of Morphological Analysis: An Empirical Inquiry J~ippinen, Harri and Ylilammi, Matti Attention, Intentions, and the Structure of Discourse Grosz, Barbara J. and Sidner, Candace L. Automated Translation at Grenoble University Vauquois, Bernard and Boitet, Christian Berkeley UNIX Consultant Project, The Wilensky, Robert; Chin, David N.; Luria, Marc; Martin, James; Mayfield, James; and Wu, Dekai Cascaded ATN Grammars Woods, William A. Category Structures Gazdar, Gerald; Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Carpenter, Robert; Klein, Ewan; Hukari, Thomas E.; and Levine, Robert D. Characterizing Indirect Speech Acts Brown, Gretchen P. Comments on Puilum's Criticisms Langendoen, D. Terence and Postal, Paul M. Common Parsing Scheme for Left- and Right-Branching Languages, A Sato, Paul T. Commonsense Metaphysics and Lexical Semantics Hobbs, Jerry R.; Croft, William; Davies, Todd; Edwards, Douglas; and Laws, Kenneth Computational Complexity and Lexical.Functional Grammar Berwick, Robert C. Computational Framework for Lexical Description, A Ritchie, Graeme D.; Pulman, Stephen G.; Black, Alan W.; and Russell, Graham, J. Computational Model of the Semantics of Tense and Aspect, A Passonneau, Rebecca J. Computer Generation of Multiparagraph English Text Mann, William C. and Moore, James A. Computing Story Trees Correira, Alfred Concept Extraction, from Proceedings of the Workshop on Applied Computational Linguistics in Perspective Montgomery, Christine (Chair) Coping with Syntactic Ambiguity or How to Put the Block in the Box on the Table Church, Kenneth and Patil, Ramesh Correction of Ill-Formed Input Using History-Based Expectation with Applications to Speech Understanding, The Fink, Pamela E. and Biermann, Alan W. 70