Translation Theory before the 20th Century

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翻译研究笔记重要

Chapter 1:Main issues of translation studies:1. Jacobson’s categories of translation:a. Intralingual;b. Interlingual;c. Intersemiotic (verbal- non-verbal).2.History of the discipline:a. From the late 18th to the 1960s – grammar-translation method (replaced by communicative approach in the 1960s and 1970s);b.The USA 1960s –translation workshop concept based on Richards’reading workshops and practical criticism approach that began in 1920s; running parallel to this approach was that of comparative literature;c.The USA 1930s-1960s/70s – contrastive analysis;d.More systematic, and mostly linguistic-oriented, approach 1950s-1960s:i.J.-P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet (French/English);ii. A. Malblanc (French/German);iii.G. Mounin (linguistic issues of translation);iv. E. Nida (based on Chomsky generative grammar).v.James S. Holmes’“The name and nature of translation studies”is considered to be the founding statement of a new discipline.vi.Hermans Manipulation Schoolvii.Vieira Brazilian cannibalist school Postcolonial theoryviii.Venuti cultural-studies-oriented analysisThe Holmes/Toury map of translation studies1:Chapter 2: Translation theory before the 20th century:Traduttore, traditore = the translator is a traitorChapter 3: Equivalence and equivalent effect:In the 1950s and 1960s the place of circular debates around literal and free translation took the new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues, among them those of meaning and equivalence, discussed by R. Jakobson in 1959. Over the following 20 years many further attempts were made to define the nature of equivalence.Jakobson:1.Meaning: the signifier=the signal of the signified (the concept).2.There is no full equivalence between code-units of different languages.3.So, we should substitute not words, but messages.4.Only p oetry is considered ‘untranslatable’ and requires ‘creative transposition’.Nida’s ‘science of translating (subjective):1.Meaning:a.Linguistic;b.Referential (dictionary meaning);c.Emotive (connotative).2.Ways of determining meaning:a.Hierarchical structuring (animal dog, cow etc);ponential analysis (grandmother, mother, cousin etc);c.Semantic structure analysis (spirit can mean demon, angel, god, ghost, ethos, alcohol etc)meaning depending on context.3.3-stage system of translation (Chom sky’s influence: deep/surface structure of a language):SL1 (analysis) X (transfer) Y (restructuring) TL24.Equivalence:a.Formal (form and content);b.Dynamic (equivalent response of: t2 reader on t2 as t1 reader on t1) (closest naturalequivalent).5.Correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style.6.Reader-based orientation.主要理论1：对等和等效（1950s－1960s）1．代表人物（1）罗曼雅各布逊A．描写了翻译的三类型：语内翻译，语际翻译和符际翻译B．提出语际翻译指用一种语言替换另一种语言种的整个信息C．强调对等的差异性（2）尤金奈达A. 提出形式对等和动态对等B. 提出著名的读者反应理论C. 他的理论以乔姆斯基的转换生成语法为基础（3）皮特纽马克A．提出语义对等和交际对等（4）韦内科勒A．区分了对应和对等B．描写了五种对等：外延意义，隐含意义，文本规则，语用及形式对等Newmark’s semantic and communicative translation:1.Replaces Nida’s division with semantic (resembles formal equivalence) and communicative(resembles dynamic equivalence) translation.2.Nida’s division inoperant if the text is out of TL space and time.3.Dynamic equivalence: are readers ‘to be handed everything on a plate’?4.Semantic translation differs from literal in that it ‘respects context’, interp rets and explains(metaphors). Literal translation is to be the best approach in both semantic and communicative translation. If semantic translation would result in an ‘abnormal’ TT or would not secure equivalent effect in the TL, then communicative translation should win out.Tertium comparationis, an invariant against which 2 text segments can be measured to determine variation.Chapter 4: The translation shift approach:1.Vinay and Darbelnet’s taxonomy:a)Direct (=literal) translation:(1).Borrowing(2).Calque(3).literal translation (word-for-word)b).Oblique translation:(4).Transposition(5).modulation6(6)..equivalence(7).adaptationc)The 7 categories operate on 3 levels:1.the lexicon2. 2.syntactic structures3. 3.the message 9context)4. 4.word order and thematic structure5. 5.connectors [cohesive links, discourse markers, deixis (pronouns anddemonstrative pronouns) and punctuation]d)2 possibilities:1.servitude (obligatory 4 and 5)2. 2.option (non-obligatory)2.Catford’s linguis tic approach (shifts)a.Distinction between: formal correspondence (a particular ST-TT pair) and textualequivalence (a pair of lgs).b.When the 2 concepts diverge, a translation shift occurs –a departure from formalcorrespondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL. There are 2 kinds of shift:1. A level shift (sth is expressed by grammar in one lg and by lexis in another)2. A category shift:i.Structural shifts; ii.Class shifts (word category); iii.Unit/rank shifts (sentence, clause,group, word, morpheme);iv.Intra-system shifts (systems are similar, but not always corresponding).3. van Leuven-Zwart’s microlevel/macrolever translation shifts:a.The comparative model (a detailed comparison of ST and TT and classification of allthe microstructural shifts within sentences, clauses and phrases);b.The descriptive model (a macrostructural model, designed for the analysis oftranslated literature)Chapter 5: Functional theories of translation:K. Reiss’s text typesNord adds to 3 types of language function a fourth ‘phatic’ function, covering lg that establishes or maintains contact between parties involved in the communication (e.g. greetings).Holz-Manttari’s translational action model for non-literary translations with1.its roles and players:a The initiator;b b.The commissioner (contacts the translator);c.The ST producer;d.The TTproducer;e.The TT user;f.The TT receiver.2.Content:a Factual information; b.Overall communicative strategy.3.Form: a.Terminology; b.Cohesive elements.J. Vermeer’s skopos theory: knowing the purpose and the function of translation is crucial (adequacy over equivalence).Ch. Nord’s translation-oriented text analysis:1.2 kinds of translation: a.Documentary translation(a)reader knows that he’s reading a translation;(b)Instrumental translation (a reader doesn’t know that).2.3 aspects of functionalist approaches particularly useful in translator training:a)The importance of the translation commission;b)The role of ST analysis;c)The functional hierarchy of translation problemsChapter 6: Discourse and register approaches:Halliday’s model of language and discourse b ased on systemic functional grammar (lg=communication):Influence:House’s model of translation qu ality assessment:1.Scheme for analyzing and comparing original and translation texts:Translation: a.Overt;b.Covert.Baker’s text and pragmatic level analysis:1.Textual function2.Cohesion3.Pragmatics:a.Coherence (depends on receiver’s expectations and experience of theworld);b.Presupposition (what the speaker supposes a listener shouldknow);c.Implicature (what the speaker implies).Hatim and Mason’s semiotic level of context and discourse:Text elements:1.Stable (translated fairly literally);2.Dynamic (not).Chapter 7: Systems theories:脚注：1.What is being written about.2.Who is communicating and to whom.3.The form of communication e.g. writtenEven-Zohar’s polysystem theory: a literary work as apart of a literary system in the social, cultural, literary and historical framework. It’s important [for choosing the translation strategy] if translated literature has a primary or secondary position in given literature.Toury and descriptive translation studies (DTS):1.Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance oracceptability;2. pare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between ‘coupled pairs’of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the underlying concept of translation;3. 3.Draw implications for decision-making in future translating.Norms of translation behaviour can be reconstructed from:1.The examinations of texts;2. 2.The explicit statement made about norms by translators, publishers, reviewers and otherparticipants in the translation actNorms:1.Initial norm (general translator’s choice):a.Subjection to source culture norms adequate translation;b.Subjection to target culture norms acceptable translation.2.Preliminary norms:a.Translation policy (text selection);b.Directness of translation (ST TT; ST t2 TT).3.Operational norms (the presentation and linguistic matters of the TT):a.Matricial norms (completeness of TT);b.Textual-linguistic norms (TT linguistic material).‘Laws’ of translation:1.Of growing standardization (tending to TT common options);2.Of interference (ST options transferred to TT, negatively or positively).Chesterman’s translation norms:1.Product or expectancy norms;2. 2.Process or professional norms:a.The accountability norm (an ethical norm);b.The communication norm (a social norm);c.The‘relation’ norm (a linguistic norm).Other DTS models:1.Manipulation School (‘a continual interplay between theoretical models and practical casestudies’);mbert and van Gorp – the scheme for the comparison of the ST and TT literary systems andfor the description of relations within them:a.Preliminary data;b.Macro-level;c.Micro-level;d.Systemic context (data compared andnorms identified)Chapter 8 "Varieties of cultural studies" examines Lefevere (1992), who treats translation as "rewriting" and identifies ideological pressures on translated texts. This chapter also looks at the writing of Simon (1996) on gender in translation, and at postcolonial translation theories which stress the part that translation has played in the colonization process and the image of the colonized (cf. Bassnett and Trivedi 1999).Lefevere (1992) treats translation as "rewriting" and identifies ideological and poetological pressures on translated texts. Translation functions are controlled by the following factors:1.Professionals within the literary system;2.Patronage outside the literary system:a.The ideological component;b.The economic component;c.The status component.d.If a-c come from the same source – patronage is undifferentiated; if not – differentiated.3.The dominant poetics:a.Literary devices;b.The concept of the role of literature.Simon compares the status of translation throughout the centuries to that of women’s and presents pro-feminist methods in translation.Postcolonial translation theories:1.Spivak: ‘translationese’ eliminates the identity of politically less powerful individuals andcultures.2. 2.Spivak: compares the status of translation throughout the centuries to that of colonies.3.Power relations : trans lation as the colonizer’s device used against the colonized.4.S. Bassnett and H. Trivedi’s translational linked to transnatio nal (translation=battleground).Brazilian cannibalism: the colonizers and their lg are devoured, their life force invigorating the devourers, who transform it according to their needs.The Irish context: postcolonialism in Europe.Chapter 9: Translating the foreign:the (in)visibility of translation: A. Berman’s ‘negative analytic’ of translation that prevents the foreign coming thr ough. ‘Deforming tendencies’:1.Rationalization;2.Clarification;3.Expansion;4.Ennoblement;5.Qualitative impoverishment;6.Quantitative impoverishment;7.The destruction of rhythms;8.The destruction of underlying networks of signification;9.The destruction of linguistic patternings;10.The destruction of vernacular1 networks or their exoticization;11.The destruction of expressions and idioms;12.The effacement of the superimposition of languages.‘Positive analytic’ = literal translation.Venuti:1.The invisibility of the translator in contemporary Anglo-American culture.2. 2.Domestication (dominant in connection with the translator’s invisibility) –‘the authortowards the reader’.3. 3.Foreignization –‘the reader towards the writer’ – resistancy – minoritizing (desirable).4. 4.‘Call for action’ –‘visibility’ + ‘foreignization’.Chapter 10: Philosophical theories of translation:Steiner’s hermeneutic1 approach to translation as ‘the act of elicitation and appropriate transfer of meaning’. The parts of the hermeneutic moti on:1.Initiative trust;2. 2.Aggression (penetration);3. 3.Incorporation (embodiment);4. pensation (restitution)Ezra Pound’s energy of language: translation as a tool in the cultural struggle, and the revitalization of the past.W. Benjamin’s task of the translator: translation gives the original ‘continued life’; pure language = coexistence of SL and TL; literal rendering of the syntax.J. Derrida’s deconstruction: capturing the meaning? No stability in the signified-signifier (meaning-sign) relationship; the opposition between SL and TL.1.Letter=Judaism=justice;2.Spirit=Christianity=mercy.Chapter 11: Translation studies as an interdiscipline:M. Snell-Hornby’s integrated approach.Harvey’s combination of linguistic analysis and critical theory.。

Reading Report On Contemporary Translation Theories

Reading Report On Contemporary Translation TheoriesI am so happy that I have finished reading a wonderful and useful book—Contemporary Translation Theories (Edwin Gentzler). The following is my reading report.Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has made great progress. Gentzler digs what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's complex theories, and describes in detail several major schools of translation –The North American Translation Workshop, the “science”of Translation, Early Translation Studies, polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. These theories originated in the mid 60s of the 20th century until today have had a broad impact. The author discusses the book's strengths and weaknesses of various schools to study all the internal relations among different schools of thought, described the translation of theory on the importance of today's cultural studies, and Translation of today's major assumptions made questioned. The second edition of this book updated the view of each school, added to the latest findings. In the conclusion part, the author predicted the future direction of translation studies.The translation theories examined thus far all depend upon some notion of equivalence: the same aesthetic experience (Chapter 2), linguistic structural/dynamic equivalence (Chapter 3), corresponding literary function (Chapter 4), or similar formal correlation governed by social acceptability in the target culture (Chapter 5). Despite differing approaches, each theory is unified by a conceptual framework that assumes original presence and a representation of it in the receiving society. Even-Zohar and Touty tried to escape the epistemological strait-jacket that the power of the original text retains over the translation by reviewing the problem of translation in terms of the actual product rather than the ideal of a “faithful”version, but in the end they found it difficult to escape limitations imposed by their Formalist roots, scientific approach, and dualistic epistemological assumptions. The question remains whether it is possible to think about translational phenomena in other than traditionalterms. To date, all translation theories have made rigid distinctions between original texts and their translations, distinctions that determine subsequent claims about the nature of translation.Deconstruction challenges limits of language, writing, and reading by pointing out how the definitions of the very terms used to discuss concepts set boundaries for the specific theories they describe. While not offering a specific “translation theory”of its own, deconstruction, however does “use”translation often both to raise questions regarding the nature of language and “being-in-language”as well as to suggest that in the process of translating texts, one can come as close as is possible to that elusive notion or experience of difference, which “underlies”their approach. Such thinking about the nature of translation and the nature of language, thus, becomes important to translation theorists, not because it necessarily defines another approach, but because it deepens and broadens the conceptual framework by which we define the very field itself.In “What is an Author?”Foucault quotes Samuel Beckett as posing the Nietzschean question “What matter who’s speaking?”man as well as God has disappeared into the evolution of language writing itself. The fundamental question of the Modern Age, according to Foucault, is no longer how one accumulates knowledge to become an authority and pass judgment on the world, but one of how we can think that which we cannot think. Although Foucault makes no predictions as to what the answers to his own questions are, he does point us in a direction: toward a reflection on that which is silent, an illumination of that which is dark, and a restoration to language of that which has been mute. This “Other”has not been, nor can it be, illuminated in the sense of a positive knowledge, but rather as a blind spot or dark region which accompanies conscious thought. He conceives of the “Other”as man’s double because it has, “like a shadow,”accompanied man “mutely and uninterruptedly”since the nineteenth century (Foucault, 1973: 326-7). Deconstruction thus shifts the nature of the questions being asked about a literary work and its meaning from the audible to the mute. The author’s creative role is reduced and new questions are raised about where the discourse of any particular text comes from, ifnot the author. Most importantly, the “meaning”of a text is reconsidered, and silent elements are returned to the language of a text, visible in contradictions, gaps, and omissions. In addition (im)possible meanings are returned to words, meanings that always accompanied them, but were covered up by the nature of the evolution of the discourse in Western culture in general, and the eighteenth century in particular. Thus, in practice, deconstructionists tend to exhibit a great indifference to authors and explicit meanings and instead tune into the language speaking itself, listening for the unheard, the ungraspable-that which is there and yet is not there, lost in that space between and the signifier.Heidegger’s translation theory is not all unlike early translation studies. He does assume that translations are conditioned by the conceptual categories governing any given epoch, despite attempts to circumvent them. He also believes that with study and historical recontextualizing, one can come to some sort of conclusion as to what the author’s intent was and thus uncover layers of obfuscation in order to arrive at some sort of originary intent or presence before its distortion. He then chooses words that defamiliarize, which function differently in today’s society, to try to achieve the same effect or response that the original version evoked, in the process breaking down the conceptual categories of his reader.Derrida’s main theoretical point seems to be that there is no pure meaning, no thing to be presented behind language, nothing to be represented. Therein lies the radicality of the deconstructionist project. Similar to the formalist position, what does exist, according to deconstructionists, is a continuous chain of signification comprised of languages in a constant state of interplay, mutually supplementing each other. Yet in addition to such a continuous chain, the Formalists tend to posit unified works of art as a goal within the system, a very fragile assumption, according to Derrida.Andrew Benjamin does not agree with Derrida, nor with de Man, and instead finds a way out of the labyrinth via Donald Davidson. In a very discussion of Davidson’s paper “On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme”(1984), which studies translation as a way of focusing on criteria of identity for conceptual schemes,Andrew Benjamin argues that mutual understanding is “almost inescapable.”A complex series of interconnected preconditions precedes the process of expressing equivalent “things”in another language. Davidson’s approach thus mediates between the untouchable original and a movement of language that is intelligible, or at least indicates those “objects”that stand in relation to the source and target text and make communication possible. At this point, Andrew Benjamin discusses Walter Benjamin’s “The Task of the Translator.”he agrees with de Man’s reading that the fragment of a broken vessel do not presuppose an initial vessel, i.e., that original language is always already displaced language, and that therefore no original language exists. He then asks, however, how are we to understand the futural vessel and what are the conditions that implicitly causes us to think in terms of the “belonging together”of the fragments and thereby the “belonging together”of languages. Andrew Benjamin and other post-Enlightenment philosophers think not about the abyss, not about the pre-ontological conditions, but about the theoretical conditions that allow for interpretation and mutual understanding, which Andrew Benjamin calls ontological-temporal conditions. They seek to identify and describe the elements that allow for affirmative thinking about semantic and interpretive potential that are inherent in words; and they argue that one can think about translation without an origin to be or not to be retrieved. Meanings and interpretations emerge out of real conditions-they are actual as well as conflictual –and can be positively and empirically described. Andrew Benjamin argues,“Emergent meaning is the actualization of the potential for meaning and not the emergence out of non-meaning”（A. Benjamin, 1989:180）. In contrast to de Man and Derrida, he argues that there is never pure difference, but that difference always has a specificity. Walter Benjamin, argues Andrew Benjamin, located “after –life,” sur-vival, by locating the potential for afterlife with the text itself. Words incorporate a site of conflict, a site of unending afterlife, which defers an end or a definitive interpretation. Interpreting Walter Benjamin’s text against the grain of fashionable deconstruction readings, Andrew Benjamin argues that in Walter Benjamin, “the possibility of a different understanding of translation and philosophy is beginning to take place” (A. Benjamin,1989:108).The aim of this book has been to break down misconceptions about competing viewpoints and to open further the door for new, alternative approaches for translation. He feels as if the first edition of this book helped provide openings for some of the work that has emerged in the field in the last decade. The deconstruction of the authorities governing translation, literary criticism, and culture in general, was merely a first step. Much work still needs to be done. Although contemporary translation theory has evolved a long way since its beginnings, it now stands on the threshold of a very exciting new phase, one which can begin to unpack the relations in which meaning is constituted, and thus better inform our postmodern conception of language, literary discourse, and identity.My understanding to the theory of deconstruction is the following. "Survival of the original through translation," "equality of translation and the original" are the points of view of deconstruction, which fundamentally improve the status of translators and translation. Deconstruction denied Western Europe and America-centrism centrism or point of view, to promote the parallel relationship between national culture and language.But the deconstruction about the uncertainty of the meaning and translation and the original relations without the similarity lead to the other extreme, which may have a negative impact on the practice of translation. The denial of the original authority and creativity is also an extreme point of view. They pronounced the death of the author and original, is the denial of their own, denied all the literature. Because human cultural heritage is the accumulation of ancient literature, including some of intertextuality, more creative part of it; but also asked some really creative, but creativity is a text-based, ignoring the translation and the difference between the original and translation, indeed, deny the translation itself.。

HW

ContentsAbstract----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 摘要--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Chapter One Literature Review-------------------------------------------------------- 61.1 Studies of TCM Translation at Home-----------------------------------------1.2 Studies of TCM Translation Abroad-----------------------------Chapter two Theoretical Basis: Intercultural Communication---------------2.1 The Meanings of Intercultural Communication---------------------------------2.2 Intercultural Communication and TCM Translation---------------------------- Chapter Three Development of English Translation of TCM Terms---------3.1 analysis of English Translation of TCM Terms------------2.2 Difficulties in English Translation of TCM Terms------------------------------2.3 Translation Principles and Techniques for TCM Terms------------------------ Chapter Four Domestication and Foreignization in TCM Translation--------4.1 Domestication and Foreignization-------------------------------------------------4.2Application of Foreignization and Domestication in TCM Translation------ Conclusion-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bibliography-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------22 Acknowledgement---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23AbstractChina has two thousand years of history. It has incomparable theoretical system and treatment, and side effects are also very small.Thus, the development of the English translation of traditional Chinese medicine will be put into the world of traditional Chinese medicine. Due to language barriers and huge differences between Chinese and Western medicine theory and concept, medical translation work has so many difficulties, especially the translation of Chinese medicine terminologies. They come from common vocabulary but are given medicine meanings. If we do not understand the real meaning of translation, they cannot be performed. Many scholars and translators are devoted to the translation of Chinese medicine terminology, but due to the different cultural background, the spread of Chinese medicine into the world is affected. In recent years, more and more scholars have realized the importance of translation theories and TCM translation practice of traditional Chinese medicine, but due to various reasons, translation of traditional Chinese medicine is still in lack of effective and reasonable translation theory and translation criteria.TCM terms are special vocabulary of Chinese culture, and are affected by Confucianism, Taoism and the Buddhist thought, so the domestication and foreignization theory for how to deal with the culture of Chinese medicine terminology composition plays an important role.Key words:intercultural communication, Domestication, foreignization, TCM translation摘要中医拥有两千多年的发展历史，有着无可比拟的理论体系和治疗方法，副作用也非常小，因此中医英译的发展将会把中医推向全世界。

2 translation theory before the twentieth century

The history of translation
The first written translation in China is A Song of Yue People (《越人歌》) appeared in 528 BC. Its ST and TT were recorded in Garden of Anecdotes (《说苑》) in 17 BC., which was written by Liu Xiang (刘向) (77 BC—6 BC). Up to now, the foreign-Chinese translation history can fall into four climaxes or three phases (categories).
___Cicero ( 106-43 BC)outlined his appr0ach to translation
of De optimo genere oratrum (On the excellent orator)in 46 BCE.
Horace’s view about translation
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Justification by faith
Romans 3:28 Wir halten, daβ der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des
Gesetzes Werk, allein durch den Glauben. [ we hold, that man becomes rectified without the work of
The first written translation in the West is the Latin translation of Homer’s Odyssey in 250BC., which was finished by Livius Andronicus (Ca. 284-204 BC), a Roman writer. Up to now, the western translation history can fall into three phases(categories): the translation of Greek works, the Biblical translation and the translation of Chinese works.

(完整版)translationtheory

Aspirations of Function—Oriented Approach on College S tudents’ Classroom Translation TeachingAbstract：This paper aims to investigate the aspirations on college students’ classroom translation teaching by discussing the function—oriented approach in descriptive translation studies。

Through the analysis of the function—oriented translation approach in the process of translation, it is can be found that: 1） Teachers should pay more attention on translation theories teaching to help students be aware of the main points and hard parts in translating process and choose the proper translation strategies； 2） Introducing more social cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language can make students have a clear mind in choosing right expressions and usages of vocabularies， and also some transfers in adjusting the expressions of the target-language translation versions; 3） Paying much more attention on teaching semantic differences so that students can grasp well of the usages of vocabularies。

大学体验英语(第三版)课文原文及翻译

Frog Story蛙的故事A couple of odd things have happened lately.最近发生了几桩怪事儿。

I have a log cabin in those woods of Northern Wisconsin.I built it by hand and also added a greenho use to the front of it.It is a joy to live in.In fact,I work out of my home doing audio production and en vironmental work.As a tool of that trade I have a computer and a studio.我在北威斯康星州的树林中有一座小木屋。

是我亲手搭建的，前面还有一间花房。

住在里面相当惬意。

实际上我是在户外做音频制作和环境方面的工作——作为干这一行的工具，我还装备了一间带电脑的工作室。

I also have a tree frog that has taken up residence in my studio.还有一只树蛙也在我的工作室中住了下来。

How odd,I thought,last November when I first noticed him sitting atop my sound-board over my computer.I figured that he(and I say he,though I really don’t have a clue if she is a he or vice versa)would be more comfortable in the greenhouse.So I put him in the greenhouse.Back he ca me.And stayed.After a while I got quite used to the fact that as I would check my morning email and online news,he would be there with me surveying the world.去年十一月，我第一次惊讶地发现他（只是这样称呼罢了，事实上我并不知道该称“他”还是“她”）坐在电脑的音箱上。

Chapter 3-translation theory before the 20th century (China)

2.“愚智天隔，圣人叵阶，乃欲以千岁之上微言，传使合百王之下末俗，二不易也。‛ 佛陀的智慧与一般百姓的思想相隔悬殊，要使佛教的思想为世人所接受，也是不容易的。 3.“阿难出经，去佛未久，尊者大迦叶令五百六通(指具备六种神通的五百罗汉)迭察迭书，今离千年而以近意量裁，彼阿罗汉乃兢兢若此，此生死人而平平若此，岂将不知法者勇乎？斯三不易也。‛ 当初，迦叶主持第一次结集，阿难诵出佛经，五百罗汉加以审定，尚且小心谨慎，今天从事翻译的人要以自己的领会转达佛意，就更不容易。

局限性理论意识不强基本范畴缺乏学术基础薄弱注：理论与思想的区别？

刘宓庆(中西翻译思想比较研究中国对外翻译出版公司，2005，11） translation principle 指翻译家对翻译之‚道‛的经验的高度提升或高层级认知，这种认知又反过来指导他在更高层级上的实践，由此获得新的经验，从此周而复始。翻译思想通常表现为对译事的某种原则主张或基本理念，通常经历三个深化（或提升）阶段：体验 (experiencing)、体认(knowing)、体悟 (apprehending) 翻译思想是翻译理论的第三个层级（第一个是方法论；第二个是对策论）

中国翻译史高潮汉唐时期的佛经翻译（如玄奘）明末清初的科技翻译（如徐光启）鸦片战争后的西学翻译（如林纾）中国译论（陈福康）古代译论明末清初民国时期新中国成立后当代译论

中国译论主要思想

支谦的佛经译论开篇《法句经序》 “名物不同，传实不易…因循本旨，不加文饰。‛ 曹明伦：《法句经序》是我国第一篇文本尚存的翻译理论文章三重意义：表明我国译者在公元三世纪初期就已经自觉地开始了翻译研究该序触及了翻译理论的核心问题,即后来纽马克所说的‚翻译理论的核心是翻译问题‛ ‚翻译的主要问题从来就是直译意译的问题‛; 该序说明直译意译从来都是共生共存、互补互彰的。

(完整word版)全新版大学英语综合教程3课后习题翻译题目及答案

Unit1Translation1. Translate the sentences into English ( P21 )1)We have a problem with the computer system, but I think it is fairlyminor.2)My father died when I was too young to live on my own. The peopleof my hometown took over responsibility for my upbringing at that point.3)the toys have to meet strict safety requirements before they can besold to children.4)Radio and television have supplemented rather than replaced thenewspaper as carriers of new and opinion.5)When it comes to this magazine, it is a digest of articles from manynewspapers and magazines around the world.1.Translate the passage into English ( P21 )十年之前，南希做了许许多多美国人梦寐以求的事。

她辞去了经理职位，在邻进地区开了一家家用器具商店。

像南希那样的人做出这种决定主要是想要改善生活质量。

然而，经营小本生意绝非易事。

在失去稳定的收入后，南希不得不削减日常开支。

有时候她甚至没有钱支付她所需要的种种保险的费用。

幸运的是，通过自己的努力，她已经度过了最困难的时期。

她决心继续追求她所向往的更加美好的生活。

A decade ago, Nancy did what so many Americans dream about. She quit an executive position and opened a household device store in her neighborhood. People like Nancy made the decision primarily for theimprovement in the quality of their lives.But, to run a business on a small scale is by no means an easy job. Without her steady income, Nancy had to cut back on her daily expenses. Sometimes she did not even have the money to pay the premiums for the various kinds of insurance she needed.Fortunately, through her own hard work, she has now got through the most difficult time. She is determined to continue pursuing her vision of a better life.Unit2I.TRANSLATION1.Though greatly affected by the consequences of the global financial crisis, we are still confident that we can face up to the challenge and overcome the crisis.2.Under threat of constant sand storms, we were compelled to leave our cherished village and move to the new settlement.3.According to a recent online survey, a lot of consumers say they may be motivated to consider buying products shown in TV commercials.4.Having spotted a truck driver dumping contaminated waste alongside the river, the old man reported to the police at once.5.Some scientists hold to the firm conviction that people will come to like genetically modified crops someday since they can increase yields and help combat hunger and disease in the developing world.2.亨森获得自由后不久就一心帮助逃亡奴隶。

翻译研究简史(英文)

their writings exerted an important influence up until the twentieth century
St Jerome’s approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin affected later translations of the Scriptures.
TRANSLATION STUDIES: A BRIEF HISTORY
A brief history of the discipline
1. Cicero, Horace (1st cent BCE), St Jerome (4th cent. CE): The Bible – battleground of conflicting ideologies in western Europe: literal vs. free (word or sense; interpres ut orator)
The result was that people congregated with other people who spoke the same language - and then went and settled in other parts of the world (Genesis 11:8-9).
of the foreign 5. TR theories in 19th and early 20th
cent.
Word-for-word or sense-for-sense TR
TR theory until 20th cent.: a sterile debate over the triad literal, free, and faithful TR (Steiner 1998)

西方翻译简史1

St. Jerome: Latin scholar who produced the Vulgate, the first authentic Latin translation of the Bible from Hebrew
He insisted on “the accurate transmission of the meaning of the text rather than the budding orator's freely ranging imagination“. He introduced "the first major shift in western translation theory”. Jerome initiateed the major terms of source text and target text, original meaning and translated meaning, the concepts of literal and dynamic translation ("word for word" and "sense for sense“). Interpreting the original meaning "correctly in order to reproduce it properly"
Cicero (西塞罗公元前 106-前43年, 古罗马政治家、雄辩家)
"I saw that to employ the same expressions profited me nothing, while to employ others was a positive hindrance… Afterwards I resolved to translate freely Greek speeches of the most eminent orators". As a consequence, "I not only found myself using the best words, and yet quite familiar ones, but also coining by analogy certain words such as would be new to our people, provided only they were appropriate" (Robinson 1997a: 7).

Chapter-3-translation-theory-before-the-20th-centu

当时，迦叶主持第一次结集，阿难诵出佛经，五百罗汉加以审定，尚且留神慎重，今日从事翻译的人要以自己的领悟转达佛意，就更不简洁。
鸠摩罗什
“改梵为秦，失其藻蔚，虽得大意，殊隔文体，有似嚼饭与人，非徒失味，乃令呕秽也。”
慧远：阙中论《三法度》 “文不害意。依实去华，务存其本。…参通胡晋，
际上检查译主有无看错〕；四、书写，写出音译；五、笔受，将梵文译为汉文；六、缀文，依据汉语语法整理译文；
七、参译，校勘原文，并将译文译回原文，再与原文比照；
八、刊定，删削译文使洗练；九、润文，润色译文；十、梵呗，唱诵原文，修正音韵。十一、监护大使，钦命大臣监阅译经。
赞宁：总结
3.“重译直译为一例”重译，是指将梵本译为胡言；直译，是指从五印度携带梵原来华，直接译成汉文。下分：直译、重译、亦直亦重、二非句 (指携带梵原来华的僧人虽然兼通胡语，但没有从事译经工作)四句。
4.“粗言细语为一例”粗言，是指言音不清晰而讹僻的语言，即古印度的俗语；细语，是指言音清晰而高雅的语言，即梵语。下分：是粗非细、唯细非粗、亦粗亦细、二非句(内容阙)四句。
刘宓庆(中西翻译思想比较争论中国对外翻译出版公司，2023，11〕
translation principle
指翻译家对翻译之“道”的阅历的高度提升或高层级认知，这种认知又反过来指导他在更高层级上的实践，由此获得新的阅历，从今周而复始。
翻译思想通常表现为对译事的某种原则主见或根本理念，通常经受三个深化〔或提升〕阶段：体验 (experiencing)、体认(knowing)、体悟 (apprehending)想
人文主义的语言观而不是科学主义的语言观〔模糊任凭〕
人文社科类为主要文本类型，以文学翻译的艺术性为主

专用英语翻译理论

Specialized English Translation Theory
目录
CONTENTS
Overview of Specialized English Translation The Core Theory of Specialized English Translation Skills and Practice of Specialized English Translation Evaluation and quality monitoring of specialized English translation The Future Development and Challenges of Specialized English Translation
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
Alienation and Naturalization Theory
Teleology emphasizes that translation is a purposive activity, and the translator should have a clear purpose for translation and control the translation process according to this purpose
Modern trends
单击此处添加内容，文字是您思想的提炼单击此处添加内容，文字是您思想的提炼单击此处添加内容，文字是您思想的提炼单击此处添加内容
The origin of specialized English translation
The development of specialized English translation accelerated in the 20th century with the increasing international trade, investment, and cultural exchange

古代汉语英译

古代汉语英译Ancient Chinese Language English TranslationAncient Chinese language is the language used in China before the middle of the 20th century. It is an ancient language with a long history, which has been used for more than two thousand years. The written forms of ancient Chinese include both characters and characters combined with pictographs. Its pronunciation system is mainly based on the four tones of the ancient Chinese language.Ancient Chinese literature is extremely rich, which includes the ancient classics, historiography, poetry and philosophical works. Many famous works such as the Classic of Poetry, the Analects of Confucius, the Mencius, the Book of Rites, the Classic of History, the Chuci, the Collection of Masters of Huainan, the Records of the Grand Historian and the Dream of the Red Chamber were written in ancient Chinese.Ancient Chinese language is an important part of the Chinese culture and civilization. It is an important means of understanding and appreciating the Chinese culture. It is also a powerful tool for understanding the culture and traditions of China, and is essential to the study of Chinese history.。

奈达翻译理论研究第二章笔记

Chapter Two Reviews of Nida’s Translation Theory2.1 A survey of Chinese traditional translation theory before the 1980sChinese translation studies can be roughly divided into 2 phases, 1) traditional translation studies before the 1980s 2) modern translation studies from the 1980s to the present time.2.1.1 Debate over Literal and Free translation in Buddhist translationIt is generally agreed that the first recorded statements on translation were made by Zhi Qian(支谦), a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the period of The Three Kingdoms.Master Lao Zi says that beautiful words are not faithful, and faithful words are not beautiful.Confucius says that words cannot fully express one’s thoughts, and thoughts cannot express what one really means.Evidently, early discussions on translation not only touched upon the question of “difficulty”and “fidelity”of translation, but also revealed the conflict between “substance”(质) and “ornament”(文).Dao An(道安AD313—385) in the Eastern Jin Dynasty further emphasized the principle of “fidelity”, insisting that the translators of Buddhist sutras should adhere to the original text without any alteration at the expense of the original words and sentences.Since early Buddhist translators took “fidelity” as their translation principle and adhered too closely to the original, many translations were unintelligible word-for-word renderings. This situation in Buddhist translation did not change until AD 401 when Kumarajiva arrived in Chang’an to take charge of Buddhist translation. He was opposed to literal translation. He advocated free translation. He insisted that the text be translated with the target language usage, and the draft be polished for literary quality.Xuan Zang(602—664), the great Buddhist translator in the Tang Dynasty, who succeeded in regulating free translation and literal translation. He emphasized the importance of the transference of the style in translation.2.1.2 Translation principles in the late Qing DynastyMa Jianzhong, the eminent Chinese linguist, says the translated text should be similar to the original without any difference between them. The reader of the translation benefits from it almost the same as the reader does from the original. Ma could be considered the first person to have explored translation theory in modern China.The most influential translation principle in the history of Chinese translation theory was formulated by Y an Fu in 1898. And Y an’s postulation of the three—character translation principle does not point the way forward for the solution of literal translation versus free translation.During this period, Lin Shu, Y an’s contemporary, was the most renowned figure for literary translation. Lin knew no foreign language at all, but “translated”, or rewrote.2.1.3 The debates on “faithfulness” versus “smoothness” in the 1930sThe discussion of Y an’s principle began in the 1920s, and, in the 1930s, gradually evolved in heated debates over the dichotomy between “faithfulness”and “smoothness”.The two representatives of one of the two opposing schools were the eminent writers Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, and the other school was represented by Zhao Jingshen. The former upheld that “faithfulness”as the fundamental principle, and preferred to literal translation with the purpose of enriching the target language; while the latter maintained that “smoothness” had priority over “faithfulness”, for the reader of the target language preferred a translation easy to read.金隄：he has taken the combination of “faithfulness” and “smoothness” as his translation criterion before he knew of Nida’s theory in the late 1970s.林语堂：he further developed the concept of Y an’s “elegance”from the perspective of literal translation.In his essay “On Translation”, he advanced “f aithfulness, fluency and beautifulness”（忠实，通顺，美）as translation criterion. He broadened the concept of “elegance”by replacing it with the aesthetic criterion “beautifulness”[Lin’s “beautifulness”criterion refers to the aesthetic nature of literary translation; while Y an’s “elegance”in his term means the usage of the classic Chinese language before the Han Dynasty].Lin’s “beautifulness” criterion reflected the emphasis on the aesthetic aspect of literary translation.2.1.4 Translation criterion acknowledged from the 1940 to the 1960s朱生豪: the dedicated translator of Shakespeare’s plays, he put forward his translation principle of “transference of spirit”.傅雷: the noted translator of Balzac’s novels, like Zhu Shenghao, he stressed the importance of “spirit” in translation.“Translation, in terms of effectiveness, is like copying paintings. What the translator seeks after is resemblance in spirit rather than in form.The term “spirit resemblance”, borrowed from the theory of Chinese classic painting, is his translation principle.钱钟书: in his treatise “Lin Shu’s Translation”proposed “sublimation”as an ideal translation criterion, and further emphasized the importance of reproduction of artistic effect in literary translation.Qian said, in a “sublimated”translation, on the one hand, there should be no trace of unnaturalness and stiffness of language resulting from the differences between the two languages. On the other hand, the flavor of the original is retained.Nida and Taber said the best translation does not sound like a translation.2.1.5 Translation studies during the “Cultural Revolution”Except for a few translation theories, such as Tytler’s translation principles and Fedorov’s theory of equivalent translation, almost no other western translation theories were ever introduced into China.2.1.6 The features of Chinese traditional translation theoriesFirstly, the dispute over literal versus free translation, content versus form hasnever been satisfactorily settled.In general, Chinese traditional translation theories prefer “naturalizing translation”, which requires a natural and idiomatic target language in the translation. This tendency to naturalization method provides grounds for the ready reception of Nida’s translation theory in China in the 1980s, for Nida advocates naturalizing translation in his theory.Secondly, Chinese traditional translation theories have roots in Chinese classical aesthetic and literary criticism. Chinese traditional translation theory has its own special characteristics with a set of unique and idiomatic expressions such as “雅”“气韵”“风骨”“意境”“神韵”“神似”“化境”.Thirdly, since most Chinese traditional translation theories are stated in the form of brief remarks by practioners, they merely focus on translation principles, criterion and methods. Issues like what concrete steps to be taken in the translation process, how to have an adequate understanding of the meaning of the original text, and how to analyze the style, are not dealt with in a systematic and scientific manner.In brief, the emphasis on the transference of aesthetic values of literary works contributes greatly to the high quality of translated literature into Chinese. Nida’s theory won the greatest popularity, for it possessed some features which were similar to Chinese translation studies, such as source—text oriented, preference for naturalization method.2.2 Nida’s translation in China2.2.1 Popularity of Nida’s theory from 1981 to the late 1980sThe first introductory article on Nida’s theory was Lin Shuwu’s “Introduction of Nida’s Translation Theory”published in 1981. Lin criticized Nida for his inappropriate incorporation of Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar into translation study.The year of 1982 saw two introductory articles on Nida’s translation theory. One was Tan Zaixi’Translating byNew Concept of Translation”a) Tan’s article, based on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translation ,reviewedcomparatively the main aspects Nida’s theory, including his view oflanguage, the function of translation, semantic analysis, translationprinciples and methoda.b) Zhuang’s article introduced Nida’s work The Theory and Practice ofTranslation. He made a comparative study between some passage of NewEnglish Bible, Good News Bible (also referred to as Today’s English Version)and the King James Version, and concluded that Good News Bible was betterin terms of intelligibility. Then he introduced Nida’s “new concept oftranslation”, which put emphasis on “the response of the receptor”instead of“the form of the message”.Also, during this period, three books were written on Nida’s theory 1) Nida on Translation by Tan Zaixi, 2) On Translation: with special reference to Chinese andEnglish by Nida and Jin Di, 3) In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect by Jin Di.解释：Jin held that the term “response”in Nida’s theory was not appropriate term for a general translation theory. According to Jin, since Nida’s theory was used to guide Bible translating, the emphasis on receptor’s response was to make the Christian believers react correspondingly when they read the Word of God. But in general translation practice, such response was not one of the fundamental steps of translation process. Therefore, he suggested that the term “effect”as in “equivalent effect” “only referred to the impact upon the receptor, but not the receptor’s response”.The three books mentioned above have played a decisive role in spreading Nida’s theory in China. Nida on Translation makes his theory easily accessible to most Chinese translation scholars. On Translation attempts to apply his theory to Chinese translation practice. In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect indicates that Chinese scholars begin to realize the limitations of his theory and try to modify it to make it more applicable to translation practice between Chinese and English.In On Translation, the authors argue that the conflict between literal and free translation is primarily a matter of focus. A literal approach attempts to preserve the formal elements of the source text while a free approach attempts to make the target text elegant and intelligible. The two approaches share something in common. Both of them focus on the comparison between the source text and the target text. A dynamic equivalent translation, however, shifts the focus from verbal comparison to reader’s response. So long as a translation produces an equivalent response, whichever method the translator adopts is acceptable. In this way the dispute over literal and free translation can be solved.Lao Long highly praised Nida’s theory, pointing out the significance of “dynamic equivalence”for Chinese translation. He asserted that “dynamic equivalence”, which took “reader’s response”as a translation criterion, was more specific, objective and specific than Chinese traditional criterion such as “faithfulness”, “spirit resemblance”etc in evaluating a translation.Nida’s theory was best represented in his Toward a Science of Translation and The Theory and Practice of Translation.2.2.2 Rethinking Nida’s theory freom the late 1980s through the Mid-1990sBy adopting Chomsky’s linguistic model, Nida formed his concept of “back-transformation”in his Toward a Science of Translation and advanced his three-step translation procedure:1) To back-transform the surface structure of the source text to its kernel,2) To transfer the meaning of the text from source language to receptor language at the kernel level,3) To transform the kernel to its surface structure in the receptor language.In 1990, Luo Xinzhang in his article “Some Views on Resemblance and Equivalence in Translation” questioned the concept of “equivalence”. Interestingly, he didn’t deny these “equivalence theories”. He asserted that western “equivalence”theories (西方的“等值”论) and Chinese “resemblance” theories (中国的“神似”论) were not contradictory, but supplementary.“equal value”(等值论)“equal effect”(等效论) and “spirit resemblance”(神似论)/ T he theory of “equal value” was faithful to the original text;The theory of “equal effect” was faithful to the reader,The theory of “spirit resemblance”was faithful to the aesthetic value of a literary work.It was not until Wu Yicheng published his article “On Problems of Translationuseless for Chinese translation.2.2.4 Problems in the studies of Nida’s theory in ChinaAdmittedly, Nida’s theory has its own weaknesses because it is based on Bible translation only. But problems do exsit in the way his theory is approached by Chinese scholars, such as:1)the significance of Nida’s theory is exaggerated2)There are mistaken renderings and reviews of Nida’a theory in someintroductory articles.Nida’a definition of translation: translation consists in reproducing in thereceptor language the closet natural equivalent of the source languagemessage, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. 所谓翻译，是指从语义到文体在译语中用最贴近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息。

翻译研究在新世纪的新转向(Review)

·126·玛丽·斯内尔-霍恩比（Mary Snell-Hornby）是国际著名翻译理论家，维也纳大学翻译教授，在翻译研究方面很有建树，具有重大的学术影响。

《翻译研究的多重转向》（The Turns of Translation Studies）是斯内尔-霍恩比的最新力作，由约翰·本杰明斯出版公司（John Benjamins Publishing Company）于2006年6月出版。

斯内尔-霍恩比指出，翻译研究这门学科已经发生多次转向，需要从一个全新的视角恰当地加以描写。

因此，她在书中对翻译研究的发展作出了审慎严谨的评价，重点论述了最近20年来的新发展，并在分析21世纪初学科现状的基础上，对翻译研究未来的发展方向作了大胆的预测。

全书共分6章。

第一章“翻译研究：学科的成立”，第二章“20世纪80年代的文化转向”，第三章“20世纪90年代的‘交叉学科’”，第四章“20世纪90年代的转向”，第五章“新千年之交：学科现状”，第六章“翻译研究——未来的转向”。

笔者认为，该书的观点对于国内译界同仁厘清翻译研究的学科渊源、展望未来的发展方向具有参考价值。

现不揣浅陋，将各章内容概述如下，并加以简评。

一勒菲维尔（Andre Lefevere）曾在Translating Literature ：The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig （1977）一书的引言中，按杰勒德·拉德尼特茨基（Gerard Radnitzky ）（1970）的分类方法，把学科代表人物分为四类：先驱（precursors）、先锋（pioneers）、大师（masters）和信徒（disciples）。

斯内尔－霍恩比首先追溯了翻译研究的学科收稿日期：2008-01-15作者简介：王宏（1956— ），男，苏州大学外国语学院教授；曾艳（1973— ），女，苏州大学外国语学院讲师。

重大社《新时代大学互动英语2》习题答案unit5

Unit 5 How to Introduce A CompanyPart I Writing （30 minutes）Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay on The university’s Branch Campuses in Suburban Areas. You should write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words.Part II Listening Comprehension（25 minutes）Section ADirections: In this section, you will hear three news reports. At the end of each news report, you will hear two or three questions. Both the news report and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the center.Questions 1 and 2 are based on the news report you have just heard.1.A) Run it in place of NASA.B) Market their own products.C) Launch missions of 30 days or longer.D) Send their people to the Moon.2.A) To help companies increase profits.B) To improve the welfare of astronauts.C) To save money for other projects.D) To develop new commercial products.Questions 3 and 4 are based on the news report you have just heard.3.A) Serve standardised food nationwide.B) Put calorie information on the menu.C) Increase protein content in the food.D) Offer convenient food to customers.4.A) They will be fined.B) They will be closed.C) They will get a warning.D) They will lose customers.4.Questions 5 to 7 are based on the news report you have just heard.5.A) Cleaning service in great demand all over the world.B) Two ladies giving up well-paid jobs to do cleaning.C) A new company to clean up the mess after parties.D) Cleaners gainfully employed at nights and weekends.6.A) It takes a lot of time to prepare.B) It leaves the house in a mess.C) It makes party goers exhausted.D) It creates noise and misconduct.7.A) Hire an Australian lawyer.B) Visit the U.S. and Canada.C) Settle a legal dispute.D) Expand their business.Section BDirections: In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of each conversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose thebest answer from the four choices marked A), B), C), D). Then mark the corresponding letter on answer sheet 1 with a single line through the center.Questions 8 to 11 are based on the conversation you have just heard.8.A) Buying some fitness equipment for the new gym.B) Opening a gym and becoming personal trainers.C) Signing up for a weight-loss course.D) Trying out a new gym in town.9.A) Professional personal training.B) Free exercise for the first week.C) A discount for a half-year membership.D) Additional benefits for young couples.10.A) The safety of weight-lifting.B) The high membership fee.C) The renewal of his membership.D) The operation of fitness equipment.11.A) She wants her invitation renewed.B) She used to do 200 sit-ups every day.C) She knows the basics of weight-lifting.D) She used to be the gym's personal trainer.Questions 12 to 15 are based on the conversation you have just heard.12.A) Go to a concert with him and his girlfriend.B) Try out a new restaurant together in town.C) Go with him to choose a pearl for Susan.D) Attend the opening of a local restaurant.13.13.A) It is sponsored by local restaurants.B) It specializes in food advertizing.C) It is especially popular with the young.D) It provides information on local events.14.A) They design a special set of menus for themselves.B) They treat themselves to various entertainments.C) They go to eat at different stylish restaurants.D) They participate in a variety of social events.15.A) More restaurants will join Restaurant Week.B) This year’s Restaurant Week will start soon.C) Bigger discounts will be offered this Restaurant Week.D) More types of food will be served this Restaurant Week.Section CDirections: In this section, you will hear three passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear three or four questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you, hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C), D). Then mark the corresponding letter on answer sheet 1 with a single line through the center.Questions 16 to 18 are based on the passage you have just heard.16.A) They help spread the latest technology.B) They greatly enrich people’s leisure life.C) They provide residents with the resources needed.D) They allow free access to digital books and videos.17.A) By helping them find jobs.B) By inspiring their creativity.C) By keeping them off the streets.D) By providing a place of relaxation.18.A) Their interaction with teenagers proved fruitful.B) They used libraries less often than teenagers.C) They tended to visit libraries regularly.D) Their number increased modestly.Questions 19 to 21 are based on the passage you have just heard.19.A) Since the 18h century.B) Since the early 1990s.C) Before the 20th century.D) In rent years.20.A) It supports 99 languages.B) It offers free translation service.C) Its data protection is insufficient.D) It is targeted at language workers.21.A) Cooperate with a translation agency.B) Use online translation tools,C) Work with a self employed translator.D) Hire a full time translator.Questions 22 to 25 are based on the passage you have just heard.22.A) Chatting while driving.B) Messaging while driving.C) Driving under age.D) Speeding on highways.23.A) A gadget to hold a phone on the steering wheel.B) A gadget to charge the phone in a car.C) A device to control the speed of a vehicle.D) A device to ensure people drive with both hands.24.A) The car keeps flashing its headlights.B) The car slows down gradually to a halt.C) They are alerted with a light and a sound.D) They get a warning on their smart phone.25.A) Installing a camera.B) Using a connected app.C) Checking their emails.D) Keeping a daily record.Part III Reading Comprehension (40 minutes)Section ADirections: In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices. Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter. Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre. You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.(26-35题)1.For some educators, there is nothing wrong with fun and games. A group called the Education Arcade recently held a conference in Los Angeles to discuss the future of 26 games. The Education Arcade brings together international game designers, publishers, teachers and policymakers. They say they want to lead 27in the way the world learns through computer and video games.The 28 was part of E-three, the Electronic Entertainment Exposition. This is a yearly trade 29 where companies show off new games and educational products.The Education Arcade started at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, near Boston. Professors worked with the Microsoft company to create what they called the Games-to-Teach Project. The group began to 30 ways to use technology in teaching and learning. They worked with game designers to develop ideas about how 31 and science could mix with game playing. The Education Arcade is the research part of this Games-to-Teach Project.The group recently announced that a “Games for Learning” statement will be32 on some products. This should begin to appear in American stores in about six months. The 33 is to help people find games that are fun but will also teach. The Education Arcade says it also wants to get businesses to produce more games that teach.Companies have been creating systems like hand-held educational 34made by LeapFrog. And new educational role-playing games are being developed. M.I.T. and the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in Virginia are developing a game called “Revolution.” Players will get to experience the American Revolution 35 .Section BDirections: In this section, you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it. Each statement contains information, given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once. Each paragraph is marked with a letter. Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2.(36-45题)Are we ready for the library of the future?A) Librarians today will tell you their job is not so much to take care of books but to give people access to information in all forms. Since librarians, like so many people, believe that the entire universe of commerce, communication and information is moving to digital form, they are on a reform to give people access to the Internet—to prevent them from becoming second-class citizens in an all-digital world. Something funny happened on the road to the digital library of the future, though. Far from becoming keepers of the keys to the Grand Database of Universal Knowledge, today’s librarians are increasingly finding themselves in an unexpected, overloaded role: They have become the general public’s last-resort providers of tech support.B) It wasn’t supposed to be this way. Today’s libraries offer a variety of media and social-cultural events—they are “blended libraries. ” to use a term created by Kathleen Imhoff, assistant director of the Broward County Library of Fort Lauderdale, Florida. At the newly remodeled San Francisco Public Library, the computers are prominently displayed in the center of the library building while the books are all but hidden on the periphery(外围). Irnhoff's own library has word processing and other types of software for visitors to use, Internet access, audio CDs, videotapes, concerts, lectures, books and periodicals in three forms(print, microfiche and digital). Many libraries have found that this kind of “blending” is hugely popular in their communities, and librarians explain the changes in their institutions’ roles by pointing to the public demand for these new services. But other trends are at work, too.C) For some time, libraries have been automating their back-end,behind-the-desk functions for reasons of cost and convenience, just like any otherbusiness. Now, the computers have moved out from behind librarians’ desks and onto the floor where the visitors are. This means that, suddenly, library-goers will have to know how to use those computers. This sounds reasonable enough until you take a close look. Unfortunately, the same technology that cuts costs and relieves librarians of work behind the scenes increases it for the public—and for the librarians at the front desk who have to help the public figure out how to use the technology. The unhappy result: People are simply not finding the information they seek.D) If you are just coming to the library to read a book for pleasure and you know what a card catalog is and you have some basic computer skills, then you are going to be OK. But if you are trying to find some specific information — say, whether software in the classroom helps kids learn better or the causes of lung cancer or the basic procedure for doing a cost-benefit analysis of computer systems (three topics I have actually tried to look up in the San Francisco library) —then you’re in trouble.E) To begin with, library visitors must now be able to type, to use a mouse and a menu and to understand the various types of computer interfaces (terminal text, windows and browsers). It’s also nice if you know 17 different ways to quit a program, which electronic databases you should look in for what kinds of information, the grammar nec essary to define your search and the Library of Congress’ controlled vocabulary. After I had been to the new San Francisco library three times, I started keeping a folder of instructions on how to do a keyword search(for an author, for example), since l would forget between visits.F) Probably 50% of the population has never used a computer, fewer know how to type and almost nobody knows anything about electronic databases or searching grammar. As a result, the public library is now engaged in a massive attempt to teach computer literacy to the entire country. Some librarians compare it to the adult literacy programs the library also sponsors, but this is on a far larger scale—and less closely tied to the library’s traditional mission. The response at each l ibrary system has been different. Some libraries actually give courses in word processing, accounting program and so on. But even at libraries where the staff has resisted becoming computer trainers, they are still forced to devote significant resources to the problem.G) Such has been the case in San Francisco where people with disabilities can sign up to use the voice-recognition program Dragon Dictate—but only if they can prove they already know how to use the software. The librarians have neither the time nor the peculiar skill(nor the time to develop the skill)to teach it to them. At the reference desks, librarians try not to spend a lot of time teaching people the basics of how to use the computer, but sometimes it’s unavoidable. “We try to get thems tarted,” says business librarian John Kenney. “We let them do as much as they call on their own and they come get us. It’s certainly a big problem.”H) The San Francisco library offers classes on its own electronic catalog, commercial periodical indexes and the Internet twice a week as well as occasional lectures about the Internet. Although it seems odd to me that people now need to take a two-hour class before they can use the library, the classes are always full. But despite the excellent teachers, two hours is simply not enough to meet the needs of the students, many of whom have never used a computer before in their lives and many of whom simply can’t type. When I took the class one Tuesday, the man sitting next to me said he has used the library’s comp uter catalog many times, but he keeps making typing mistakes without knowing it. This unexpectedly throws him into the wrong screens and he doesn’t know how to get back. On the floor, he repeatedly has to ask a librarian for help.I) “Providing technology does not mean people can use the technology,” says Marc Webb, a San Francisco librarian and one of the teachers. “Half the voters ar e still trying to read English.” The library has also had to deal with the practical difficulties of making its catalog accessible via the Internet, a new service many libraries are starting to offer. “It’s absolutely overwhelming,” Webb says. “Everyone is getting to us with multiple transports, they’re all using different software, they have Winsock or Telnet set up differently, and suddenly the library is forced to become a hardware and software help desk. When you’re trying to tell someone over the telephone how to set up Winsock through AOL when this is the first time they’ve ever used a computer, it’s very diffic ult.”36. Computers are more prominently displayed than books in San Francisco PublicLibrary.37. Libraries have been automating their back-end, behind-the-desk functions in consideration of cost and convenience.38. Recently, many libraries are trying to provide the visitors with a new service: making their catalogs accessible via the Internet.39. As 50% of the population may have never used a computer, the public library now has been engaged in computer literacy programs.40. In today’s libraries, the librarians are playing an unexpected role as a provider of tech support for the public.41. Library visitors have to know how to type and use a mouse if they want to seek information in the modern library.42. If you have some basic knowledge of card catalogue and computer skills, you will be able to read a book for pleasure.43. The San Francisco library regularly provides classes on computers skills and the Internet.44. Blended libraries are hugely popular in communities at the present time.45. Dragon Dictate is the software which is used to help the disabled in library use.Section CDirections: There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.Passage OneQuestions 46 to 50 are based on the following passage.1.Henry Ford, the famous U.S. inventor and car manufacturer, once said, "The business of America is business." By this he meant that the U.S. way of life is based on the values of the business world.Few would argue with Ford’s statement. A brief glimpse at a daily newspaper vividly shows how much people in the United States think about business. For example, nearly every newspaper has a business section, in which the deals and projects, finances and management, stock prices and labor problems of corporations are reported daily. In addition, business news can appear in every other section. Most national news has an important financial aspect to it. Welfare, foreign aid, the federal budget, and the policies of the Federal Reserve Bank are all heavily affected by business. Moreover, business news appears in some of the unlikeliest places. The world of arts and entertainment is often referred to as “the entertainment industry” or “show business.”The positive side of Henry Ford’s statement can be seen in the prosperity that business has brought to U.S. life. One of the most important reasons so many people from all over the world come to live in the United States is the dream of a better job. Jobs are produced in abundance because the U.S. economic system is driven by competition. People believe that this system creates more wealth, more jobs, and a materially better way of life.The negative side of Henry Ford's statement, however, can be seen when the word business is taken to mean big business. And the term big business — referring to the biggest companies, is seen in opposition to labor. Throughout U.S. history working people have had to fight hard for higher wages, better working conditions, and the right to form unions. Today, many of the old labor disputes are over, but there is still some employee anxiety. Downsizing — the laying off of thousands of workers to keep expenses low and profits high — creates feelings of insecurity for many.46.The United States is a typical country ______.A) which encourages free trade at home and abroadB) where people's chief concern is how to make moneyC) where all businesses are managed scientificallyD) which normally works according to the federal budget47. The influence of business in the U.S. is evidenced by the fact that ______.A) most newspapers are run by big businessesB) even public organizations concentrate on working for profitsC) Americans of all professions know how to do businessD) even arts and entertainment are regarded as business47. According to the passage, immigrants choose to settle in the U.S., dreaming that ______.A) they can start profitable businesses thereB) they can be more competitive in businessC) they will make a fortune overnight thereD) they will find better chances of employment48. Henry Ford’s statement can be taken negatively because ______.A) working people are discouraged to fight for their rightsB) there are many industries controlled by a few big capitalistsC) there is a conflicting relationship between big corporations and laborD) public services are not run by the federal government49. A company's efforts to keep expenses low and profits high may result in ______.A) reduction in the number of employeesB) improvement of working conditionsC) fewer disputes between labor and managementD) a rise in workers’ wagesPassage TwoQuestions 51 to 55 are based on the following passage.2.Federal Express is a company that specializes in rapid overnight delivery of high-priority packages. The first company of its type, Federal Express was founded by the youthful Fred Smith in 1971, when he was only 28 years old. Smith had actually developed the idea for the rapid delivery service in a term paper for an economics class when he was a student at Yale University. The term paper received aless-than-stellar grade because of the infeasibility of the project that Smith had outlined. The model that Smith proposed had never been tried; it was a model thatwas efficient to operate but at the same time very difficult to institute.Smith achieved efficiency in his model by designing a system that was separate from the passenger system and could, therefore, focus on how to deliver packages most efficiently. His strategy was to have his own planes so that he could create his own schedules and to ship all packages through the centralized hub city of Memphis, a set-up which resembles the spokes（轮辐）on the wheel of a bicycle. With this combination of his own planes and hub set-up, he could get packages anywhere in the United States overnight.What made Smith’s idea difficult to institute was the fact that the entire system had to be created before the company could begin operations. He needed a fleet of aircraft to collect packages from airports every night and deliver them to Memphis, where they were immediately sorted and flown out to their new destinations; he needed a fleet of trucks to deliver packages to and from the various airports; he needed facilities and trained staff all in place to handle the operation. Smith had a $4 million inheritance from his father, and he managed to raise an additional 91 million dollars from venture capitalists to get the company operating.51. The most appropriate title for this passage is “_____”.A) The Problems and Frustrations of a Business StudentB) The Importance of Business StudiesC) The Capitalization of Federal ExpressD) The Implementation of a Successful Business52. What is stated in the passage about Smith’s term paper?A) Smith submitted it through a delivery service.B) It was written by a student of Smith’s.C) The grade was not quite satisfactory.D) The professor thought it had great potential.53. What was Smith’s key idea?A) That he should focus on passenger service.B) That package delivery should be separate from passenger service.C) That packages could be delivered on other companies’ planes.D) That passenger service had to be efficient.54. What difficulty did Smith confront to make his idea true?A) No hub city was found before the company’s operation.B) The entire delivery system had to be built up before the company’s operation.C) No plane was available to him before the company’s o peration.D) No bicycle wheel was available to him before the company’s operation.55. It can be inferred from the passage that Smith selected Memphis as his hub city because it____.A) was near the middle of the countryB) had a large number of passenger aircraftC) already had a large package delivery serviceD) was a favorite passenger airportPart IV TranslationDirections: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to translate a passage from Chinese into English.“中国制造”指在中国制造的商品所附的标签。