英语自考本科-英语语法-名词解释

1．Predicative modal auxility
The Predicative modal auxility is a category of modal auxiliary. The predictive meaning, rather homogeneous in nature, is concerned with the speaker’s assuption or assessment of probability and, in most cases, indicates the speaker’s confidence in the truth of his statement. For example, might, may, could,can.
2.Anaphoric refernce
Anaphoric refernce: refernce backwards in the text. A personal pronoun, for example, often has anaphoric reference, i.e. you have to look at the preceding context to see what it refers to. For example, ann was studying for her exams. She found it difficult to concentrate. In this example, she has anaphoric reference.
3. Non-finite verbs:
The non-finite verbs are so called because they are not marked for ttense of for subject-verb concord. We recognite three types of non-finite verbs: infinitive, -ing participle and –ed participle.
4. Extraposition
The extraposition is defined as the replacement of the postponed item by a substitute form.
5. Text
The term text refers to a unified passage. A text may be spoken or written, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue. It may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to all-day discussion on a committee.
6. participles
Participles belong to non-finite verb type.
There are two kinds of participles: -ing participle and –ed participle.
7. What is dangling participle?
When the subject of a participle is not expressed, it is normally understood to be the subject of the main clause. We call this kind of participle dangling participle.
8. What is “fronting”?
“fronting”is a term which refers to the removal of an item from its unmarked post-subject position to the marked pre-subject position. As fronting moves into the initial position an item which does not usually belong there, such a grammatical device disturbs the expected route of information flow and inevitable brings about unusualness, i.e. “this man over there people in the vicinity have a very low opinion of.”
9. Define “ellipsis”
The basic principle of ellipsis is leaving out something understood and hence produces imcomplete sentences with such a structure as to presuppose a preceding item. Ellipsis, somehow like substitutions, sets up cohesion on the basis of structural recoverability with reference to the linguistic context. Here are three types of ellipsis:
nominal: why give me two cups of coffee? I only asked for one.
a.Verbal:A: have you seen him before?
B: yes, I have.
b.clausal: A: will it rain tomorrow?
B: perhaps.
10. Determiners
Determiners refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the head word.
11. the major function of prepositions
The major function of prepositions is to connect nouns, verbs andadjectives to other parts of the sentence, e.g.. I get uo early in the morning.
12. disjunct
Disjuncts convey a comment on the content of the clause to which they are peripherally attached.
13. adjunt
Adjunt is a word or a group of words which we add to a clause to say something the circumstances of an event or situation, for example, when, where or how it occurs.
14. What is double relative clause?
It is used to cover all the verb forms that express assumptions contrary to the given fact or not likely to be materialized, and becomes a far less important verbal category than was suggested. 15. Coordination
Coordination is realized by coordinators which join units at the same level.
16.Subordination
Subordination is realized by subordinators, involves the linking of units at different levels so that they form a hierarchy. A subordinator introduces a subordinate clause which is attached to the main clause.
18. Double genitive
Double genitive, also referred to as the “post genitive”, is also called because it is a combination of the genitive and the of-phrase, such as a friend of my brother’s.
21.noun classes
Noun classes include proper nouns and common nouns.
Common nouns include countable nouns and mass nouns.
Countable nouns include concrete nouns and abstract nouns.
22. Proper nouns
Proper nouns denote individual persons, places,etc. a proper noun normally begins with a capical letter, has no plural form and cannot occur after an article.
23. Mass nouns
Nouns cannot take plural are called mass nouns.
24. Collective noun
Collective nouns refer to a group of people, animal and things, which are usually countable. 25. Union noun
It is also called "partitive", is a very special class of words that is used to specify the quantities measures and shapes of the modified noun such as: piece, batch, bunch, item, etc.
26. Plural invariables
Nouns are always occur in plural form.
27. Plural compounds
Three tendencies are at work in the inflection of compounds for plural: pluralize the last element, pluralize the first element and plurize both first and the last elements.
28. Singular invariables
Singular invariable are normally invariable singulars, proper nouns and mass nouns belong to singular invariables.
29. Alternative questions:
Those questions that suggest two (or more) alternatives and usually imply that one of them could be true.
30. How-exclamations:
Exclamations that are led by the adverb ‘how’. It highlights the adjective, adverb, or verb in exclamations.
31. Foreign plurals：
They are words borrowed from some other languages which still take their original forms of plural，Most often，they are from-Latin，French，Greek：alumna--alumnae，index--indices，plateau--plateaux，analysis—analyses，etc.
32. Genitives
Forms or construction used to denote possession, measurement or source.
Example: John’s car; a moment’s digression; the resistance of Iraq
33. Non-progressive verbs
verbs that cannot occur in the progressive aspect.
34. Tense
Any one of the inflected forms in the conjugation of a verb that indicates the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs.
35. Aspect
Aspect reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time.
36.Get-passive and be-passive
Get-passive is far less popular than be-passive. The reasons are: first, get-passive is generally avoided in forma syle, and even in informal English it is far less frequent than be-passive. Second, semantically, get-passive is typically used to refer to an event, rather than a state; to denote the consequence rather that the rocess, of an event; and to lay emphasis on what happens(usu. Unfavorably) to the subject as a result of the event, rather than who actually causes the event.
37.pseudo-passive:
A pseudo-passive sentence is passive in form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectivalized so that it becomes a subject complement. As an adjective, it can occur in a comparative construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get.
38. V oice:
A property of verbs or a set of verb inflections indicating the relation between the subject and the action expressed by the verb.
39. Mood:
A set of verb forms or inflections used to indicate the speaker's attitude toward the factuality or likelihood of the action or condition expressed. In English the indicative mood is used to make factual statements, the subjunctive mood to indicate doubt or unlikelihood, and the imperative mood to express a command.
40.be-passive：
The passive made up of ‘auxiliary be + v-ed’. For example: The book was written by Hamilton. be-subjunctive:
41. Allomorph
An allomorph is an indistinctive variant of a morpheme.
42.The be-subjunctive
It is formally marked by the use of the base of the verb; that is , the verb invariably occurs in the base form free from the concord constraints with the subject and from the tense agreement with other verbs. For example: It is important that the boss handle it in person.
43. Modal auxiliary:
One of a set of English verbs, including can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, would and etc., that are characteristically used with other verbs to express mood or tense.
44. The bare infinitive?
The infinitive, which occurs as a verb in the base form without to is called bare infinitive. Preposition: In some languages, a word placed before a substantive and indicating the relation of that substantive to a verb, an adjective, or another substantive, as English at, by, in, to, from, and with.
45. Concord:
It also terme d ‘agreement’, can be defined as ‘the relationship between two grammatical units such that one of tem displays a particular feature that accords with a displayed feature in the other.
46. Statements:
Statements in the form of simple sentences are the foundation stone of all the english sentences. Their primary function is to convey information, in a positive way or in a negative. There are two major types of statements on a polarity-positive statement and negative statement.
47. Assertion:
An assertive sentence is either an interrogative sentence or a negative sentence. It is associated to assertive words.
48. Non-assertion:
A non-assertive sentence is either an interrogative sentence or a negative sentence. It is associated to non-assertive words and negative words.
49. A negative statement
A negative statement basically exoresses the speaker’s negative attitude toward his proposition. The negation of a statement can be accomplicated by inseting a variety of negative words, among which “not” is by far the most commonly used either in writing or in speaking.
50. Transferred negation
Transferred negation refers ti the shift if nagation from the subordinate clause, where it semantically belongs to, the main clause. It normally occurs with such verbs as think, believe, suppose, imagine and expect, that is, verbs that express “opinion”.
51. Semi-negatives
Semi-negatives refer to words which are negative in meaning but no in appearance. They include seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few,etc. their similarities to the ordinary negative items are such that they are followed by non-assertive rather than assertive words and that they are followed by positive than negative tag questions.
52. Yes-no questions
They are so called because they can be answered by a simple “yes” or “no”. they challenge the validity of the proposition by way of asking for confirmation or denial of the statement they contain. They are normally spoken with a final rising tone.
53. Non-finite clauses
The non-clasuses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms
54. Wh-questions
They covers all questions that normally begins with wh-series of words, i.e. what, when, why, who, whose, which and how. Spoken with a final falling tone, they are sometimes called “information questions” because they require some specific information in the reply. Rather, they ask for details about a part of it.
55. Alternative Questions
They fall into two subclasses: one is formed on the basis of yes-no quedtions; the other on the basis of wh-questions. They suggest two alternatives and usually imply that one of them could be true. They expect one of the suggested answers.
56. Tag questions
They are also called “disjunctive questions”. A tag question normally consists of a statement and a question tag. The tag is a yes-no question cut the statement. Contration is the norm in a negative tag.
57. Commands
Commands are also called directives. It is used by the speaker or writer when they intends to get thing done. They typically take the form of an imperative sentence and the main verb in an imperative sentence takes the base form and the sentence generally goes with a subject. Negative imperatives are generally formed by adding “don’t”in the intial position and substituting non-assertive word for assertive word where applicable.
58. Exclamations
There are two major types if exclamations: what-exclamations and how-exclamations. They are very emotional; they express the extent of our impression of something, typically our surprise, excitement, amazement, disappoinment, hatred and so on. They are followed by an exclamation mark.
59. What-exclamations
It is kind of exclamation which is introduced by what, “what”, a determiner in a what-exclamation, helps to identify the idea expressed by the noun phrase where it belongs. The what-noun phrase can be object, complement, adverbial or even subject. The what-noun phrase can be a singular countable noun and it can also be a plural or an uncountable noun.
60. How-exclamation
This exclamation is introduced by how.”how” is an adverb. It high-lights the adjective, adverb, or verb in exclamations.
61. Morph
A morph is the realization of an orthographic form in writing or a phonetic form in speaking of
a morpheme.
62. Morpheme
A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierachy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realizes the morpheme.
63. Free morpheme
A free morpheme is a morpheme that has a meaning of its own and can be used independently.
A free morpheme can be a simple word or the root of a derivative..
64. Finite clauses
The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as predicates.
65. Bound morpheme
A free morpheme is a morpheme that doesn’t have a meaning of its own and can’t be used independently. Bound morphemes only posses additional or grammatical meanings.
66. Simple sentence
The simple sentence is a sentence that contains one clause.
67. Compoud sentence
The compoud sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause, usually joined by conjunctions like and, or, but, etc.
68. Complex sentence
The complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause that are joined together by subordinating one to another.
69. Noun phrases
The noun phrase can be classified partly by its external function and partly by its internal structure. The head word of a noun phrase is typically a noun of a pronoun, which may be premodified and/or postmodified by a variety of items on various levels ranging from word to phrase.
70. Common nouns
They can be classified into countable nouns and mass nouns, of which, countable nouns may take singular and plural forms.
71. Countable nouns
They refer to the nouns that can take plural forms.
72. Number
Number is one of the imporatnt criteria in diatinguishing classes of nouns. In terms of number, some nouns are variable and some are usually not.
73. Irregular plurals
By definition, irregular plurals are unpredicable form the form of corresponding singulars, which means that generalization is usually not applicable and that the plurals have to be tlisted and learned as individual lexical units. The general types of irregulat plurals include: nouns with irregular spelling or pronunciation of both, nouns with zero plurals and nouns that take foreign plurals.
74. Unit nouns
Unit nouns, also referred to as “partitives”, are a very special class if words that are used ti specify the quantities of the modified noun. They are especially used to indicate the plural notion of a mass noun. But unit nouns also modify countable nouns by referring to numble, measure, shape, etc.
75. Co-occurrence of determiners
They mean determiners may no-occur in the premodification of a noun phrse; that is, two of more determiners may modify one and the same head word. In such cases, each determiner take a relatively fixed position on the sequence.
76. Articles
As a derterminer, it premodifies a head noun. In the english language, there two articles: the definite article “ the” and the indefinite article “a(n)”. the two terms indicate some of the semantic implications of article usage.
77. Zero articles
It means nouns that use plural forms and go without an article.
78. Forms of genitive
The genitive is generally formed in writing by adding “’s” to singular nouns and to the plural nouns that do not end in-s. plural nouns that end in –s take apostrophe as genetive marker.
79. Group genitive
The group genitive is a term that refers the genitive formed by adding “’s” to the last element of
a postmodified or coordinates noun phrase.
80. Local genitive
The genitive is sometimes used alone without a following noun. Nouns used in the local genitive are invariably nouns referring to persons and denoting residence, public buidings, places where business is conducted.
81. Auxiliary vebs
They do not comply with the definition of verb, because they are not used alone, except in elliptical sentences. But they share some of the verb characteristics, it si classified as a subdivision of verbs.
82. Simple verb phrase
A verb phrase that consists of a head wors only is referred to as a simple verb phrase.
83. Complex verb phrase
A verb phrase that has premodification is referred to as a complex verb phrase.
84. Classification of verbs
Verbs can be classified into lexical verbs and auxiliarues. Lexical verbs can be further divided into transitive, intransitive and copula verbs. And auxiliaries also can be further divided into primary and modal verbs.
85. The simple present
It is primarily used to express the present time and typically implies the sense of permence. Other uses of the simple present include reference to the past and to the future in appropriate contexts.
86. The simple past tense
It is primarily associated with reference to the past time. Other uses of the simple past include situations where it is used to express hypothesis, special attitudes, etc. in which case it may refer to the present of the future.
87. Present progressive
The present progressive may refer ti different temporal distinctions in different contevts with a variety of semantic overtones such as duration, simultaneity, temporariness, incompleteness, vividness, emphasis, etc.
88. Progressive Verbs
They can be classified into action verbs, transition verbs and sensation verbs.
89. Non-progressive verbs
They can be classified into relational verbs, perception verbs and attitudinal verbs.
90. The past progressive
Generally, the past progressive has the characteristics of both the past tense and the progressive aspect. It can be used to denote simultaneity, incompleteness, temporariness, characteristic habit, etc.-quite similar to the present progressive, only fixed in the past time frame.
91. The present perfect progressive
It is used to express the unfinished idea of the present perfect.
92. The present perfect
It is basically used to denote a relation between the past and the present,i.e. to refer ti a past occurrence as conceived to be realted with the present.
93. The past perfect
It is typically used to refer ti “a past in the past”. A definite moment or period in the past is taken as the point of departure. The past perfect also has two basic uses: finished use and unfinished use. Another important use of the past perfect is found in a hypothetical expression to refer to noun-fact.
94. The past perfect progressive
It is to strengthen the sense if future continuation and to replace the past prefect in its unfinished use. The past perfect progressive in its finished use also carries the implication of recency or immediacy of an early state of affairs.
95. The present progressiver
As a future time expression, the present progressive refers to a future happening as the result of the present plan and carries the implication that some preparation may have bee happening. It usually goes with a time adverbial when it serves as a future time expression.
96. Subjunctive mood
Subjunctive mood is used to cover all the verb forms that express assumptions contrary to the given fact or not likely to be materialized, and becomes a far less important verbal category than was suggested.
97. The were-subjunctive
The were-subjunctive is the smallest grammatical category because it has only one form-were. It is used with all subjects regardless of their person distinctions, thus formally contrasting with the indicative forms of be. The subjunctive “were”is usually found in subordinate clauses expressing hypothesis.
98. The non-finite verb phrase or clause
A phrase or clause where the main verb occurs in the non-finite form is termed a non-finite phrase or clause.
99. The infinitive
It occurs as a verb in the base form which may go with or without to, the former being called the to-infinitive and the latter the bare infinitive.
100. The –ing participle
The -ing participle used to be called “the person” or “the gerund”. Now the two “participles”have merged into one because, whatever function they may perform in a given context, they take the same form,which is the foundation stone for present grammatical categorization.
Like the infinitive, the –ing participle can serve as the subject in a clause, the modifier of a noun, the object to a verb or the adverbial. Also like the infinitive, its object-to-verb function could be the most problem atic and, therefore, deserves our due attention.
101. The –ed participle
It is so termed because it is the form not the meaning that is a stressed in categorizing, and because the –ed participle does not necessary denote the past time, it can perform a variety of grammatical functions.
102. Non-inherent adjectives
The identify qualities in an indirect way.
103. Adjectives
The adjective, according to the modern grammar, is defined by their positions, their function, and their forms, as attributive function, predicative function, premodification by the intensifier “very”, and comparative forms.
104. Semantic classification of adjectives
Adjectives can be classified in terms of three scales: stative/dynamic, gradable/nongradable, and inherent/non-inherent. The three scales are really three different ways of slicing of the same bread and could be complementary with each other.
105. Gradable adjectives
They refer to adjectives which can take comparative forms, inflectional of periphrastic, or they can be modified by intensifiers like “very” and “so”and graded on a scale of intensity.
106. Non-gradable adjectives
They refer to adjectives which can not take comparative forms, adjectives which exclusively act as attributes, adjectives denoting provenance and adjectives with an absolute meaning.
107. Inherent adjectives
Adjectives denoting inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun.
108. Restrictive adjectives
Restrictive adjectives help identify the referent of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities.
109. Non-restrictive adjectives
Non-restrictive adjectives merely provide some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent.
110. Marked adjectives
Marked adjective usually presuppose the qualities of the referent with restrictive meanings. 111. Unmarked adjectives
An unmarked adjective usualy doesn’t suppose the qualities of the referent with non-restrictive meanings.
112. Comparison
Comparison refers to adjectives, adverbs and some determiners that are gradable. Grammarians have generalized three degrees of comparison: positive degree, comparative degree and superlative degree, which are neatly correctly with three grammatical constructions.
113. Comparative constructions
They refer to the three degrees of comparison expressed by three comparative constructuins: Positive degree:as…as
Comparetive degree: more…than…
Superlative degree : the most.
114. Prepositions
A preposition is a closed word class. Its major function is to connect words of the noun, verb and adjective classes to other parts of the sentence. In form, prepositions are either simple or complex. A preposition is usually meaningful in its own right, unless it is attached to a noun, a verb, or an adjective to form a fixed collocation.
115. Simple prepositions
Simple prepositions consitute a closed class. Usually there is only one word in simple prepositions.
116. Forms of prepositions
Prepositions can be divided into two types:simple preposition and complex prepositions. Complex prepositions can be further divides into prepositions consisting of two words and those of more than two words.
117. Complex prepositions
A complex preposition connsists if two words or more than two words. In principle, a complex preposition is an unalterable, fixed form.
118. Free prepositional phrases
A free prepositional phrase also consists of two words or more than two words. In principle, a free prepositional phrase is a changeable unfixed prepositional phrase.
119. Prepositions relating to place
It means prepositions indicate the place where or something is, or the place where an action occurs.
120.Durative prepositions
It means prepositions which denote temporal durations.
121.Non-durative prepositions
It refers to prepositions which denote temporal positions,i.e. the points of time.
122. Coordinators
They can divided into central coordinators, correlative coordinators,semi-coordinators and quasi-coordinators. The functions of coordinators are to be used to join units in coordination. 123. Central coordinators
They are also called pure coordinators because they are typically used to put together units at the same syntactic level.
124. Correlative coordinators
They are almost invariably found conjoining two parallel units
125. Semi-coordinators
They are used to act not only as coordinators but also as conjuncts often.
126. Quasi-coordinators
They behave sometinms like coordinators, and attimes like subordinators or prepositions. 127. The main clause
In a complex sentence, the attached clause on the higher level is termed the main clause. 128. The subordinate clause
In a complex sentence, the attached clause on the lower level is termed the subordinate clause. 129. Subordinators
Subordinators can be divided into simple, complex, correlative and marginal subordinators. They are used to introduce subordinate clauses which are attached to the main clauses.
130. Subordinate clauses
The majoriety of the subordinate clauses bear a atatus marker-the subdinator. Sundinator clauses are usualy divided into three tyoes by their function: relative clauses, adverbial clauses and nominal clauses. In form, subordinate clauses may also be diveded into finite clauses, non-finite clauses and verbless clauses.
131. The relative clause
The relative clause is often defined as a clausal modifier of preceding noun or noun phrase. It occures in the form of a finite or non-finite clause.
132. A restrictive clause
A restrictive clause provides essential information for the identification of what its antecedent refers to.
133. A non-restrictive relative clause
A non-restrictive relative clause supplies additional information and places little limitation on the possible reference of its antecedent.
134. Antecedent
The antecedent is that preceding item which the relative clause modifies. It has two kinds: nominal antecedents and non-niminal antecedents.
135. Nominal antecedents
Nominal antecedents fass into different sunclasses: common nouns or proper nouns, personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns.
136. Relative adverbs
Where, when, and why play a special role in postmodification. Tjey serve as adverbial in the relative clause.
137. Adverbials
It is divided into intergrated adverbials and perpheral adverbials. As the name suggests, advertials are closedly related with adverbs, which is the principal from of its realization.
138. Integrated adverbials
They are commonly referred to as adjuncts, which typically modify the verb.
139. Peripheral adverbials
They can further divided into disjuncts and conjuncts according to their functions. Disjuncts convery a comment on the content of the clause to which they are typically attached. Conjuncts are adheresives, fuctioning to connect a new sentence with the context.
140. Adjuncts
An adjuncts is a word or a group of words which we add to a cause to say something about the circunstances of an event or situation. We have a variety of adjuncts such as time adjuncts, place adjuncts and manner adjuncts.
141. Time adjuncts
A time adjuncts usually answers a when-question. Elements functioning as time adjuncts can be divided into three major types: when-adjuncts, duration-adjuncts and frequency adjuncts.
142. When-adjuncts
They denote the time of occurrence of an event or state and can usually be elicited by a when-question. When-adjuncts relate to time in two ways: either denoting a specific point or period of time ot implying a point or period of time.
143. Duration-adjuncts
They denoted the duration of the occurrence of an event or state and so they can usually be elicited by questions with “how long…?”. Duration-adjuncts are most typically realized by the prepositional phrase for + a noun phrase.
144. Frequency-adjuncts
They denote the frequency of the occurrence of an event or state. Such adjuncts can often be elicited by asking “how many times…?”or “how often …?”. Frequency-adjuncts are usually realized by adverbs.
145. Place adjuncts
They usually answer the where-question, so they can usually be elicited by such a question.。