Chapter-1 Introduction

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Chapter1-Introduction

Requires reflection and synthesis Difficult to structure, capture Often tacit

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信息和知识隐藏在数据中

商务智能要求有一个坚固、可靠的大型数据库作后盾，建立这样一个数据库的任务是极其艰巨的。数据的质量问题也是令人头疼而又不可以掉以轻心的。虽然数据是宝贵的财富，然而许多公司并不能充分利用这种财富，因为信息隐藏在数据中，并不易识别。为了在竞争中占得优势地位，必须识别和应用隐藏在所收集的数据中的信息。
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信息流畅通了还需要？
商务智能BI（business intelligence）
SCM
供应链管理
ERP
企业资源规划系统
B2B、B2C
CRM
数据
Internet等基础设施
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新一代决策支持系统
交易处理系统 DSS 资料库外部资料
DSS软件系统模式 OLAP工具资料挖掘工具使用者界面

目标市场资金分配贸易选择在哪儿做广告销售的地理位置
数据爆炸，知识贫乏
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Do You Trust Your Information?

Up to 75% have made business decisions that later turned out to be wrong due to flawed data
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概念解析

何谓智能？企业有智能吗？智能的表现
信息共享和企业信息集成知识挖掘与管理

Chapter 1 Introduction

Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
to be and describing how things are
Prescriptive: the early study of language aims to lay down
rules for correct and standard behavior in using languages, such as grammars, to set models for language users to follow. Descriptive: the study of language aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it correct or not; modern linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective, they believe that whatever occurs in language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the formation of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.

新编简明英语语言学教程chapter 1 Introduction

Example:

男生做完头发:

甲：呀，剃头了？乙：呵呵，剃了。甲：真“瓜”。乙：滚！
1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics

Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics
语音学音系学词汇学句法学语义学语音学
Writing: later developed

Langue vs. Parole (Saussure)

Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.

Example:

甲：就是呀，我觉得她长得多漂亮呀！特别像ⅹⅹⅹ。乙：哦，对了。听说ⅹⅹⅹ拍了一部新电视剧，你看了吗？甲：我也听说了，不过一直没找到什么地方能下载呀。怎么？你下了？乙：没有，不过男朋友给我带来了。甲：你看看，你男朋友对你多好。我男朋友能有他一半就好了。乙：你男朋友也不错的，那次你感冒了看把他忙的！甲：什么呀！我感冒还不是因为他！要不是陪他去买电影票能感冒吗？乙：哦，那次你们看的什么电影？甲：是ⅹⅹⅹ，没意思。不过主演ⅹⅹ还是很帅的。乙：ⅹⅹ？哦，就是演ⅹⅹⅹⅹⅹ的那个吧！甲：就是了，他其实演技一般，就是那双眼睛特别迷人。
(2) Class attendance and participation 30%
Chapter One Introduction

(完整word版)新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONDefinition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language 。

It isalways guided by thethree cannons of science ：exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versus traditional grammar ：Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics PragmaticsMacrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics StylisticsDiscourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticsDefinition:Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to theobjects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise 。

Pooh-Pooh Theory ： language came from interjections ， which express he speaker ’semotions 。

Origins Yo-He —Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered ， during strain of work.Ta —Ta Theory ： language came from the combination of certain gestures and tonguesmovements.Bow —Wow Theory ： language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard inLinguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness 。

最全医学微生物学(全英文)Ch0 Introduction-1

• Industrial Microbiology
Food industry Metallurgy (extract copper from low-grade copper sulfide ores) antibiotics and human proteins
• Agricultural Microbiology
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and some algae are all in this category
General properties of Microbes: 1. tiny in size (μm or nm) 2. simple in structure 3. fast rate in multiplication 4. active in metabolism 5. easy in variation 6. widely distributed
Chapter 1 Introduction
Microbiology
Microbiology is the biology of microorganisms.
It is a bioscience for the study of the evolution, classification, morphology, physiology, genetics of microbes under certain conditions; The law of their life activities, and their interaction with human being, animals or plants as well as with naturaMicrobes

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。

Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。

The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。

A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。

1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

Chapter 1 -- Introduction to Sociology

Baudrillard, Jameson, Lyotard Life is the chocolates
Auguste Comte -- French Emile Durkheim – French* Max Weber – German* Karl Marx – German* Talcott Parsons - American

Developed comparative typologies of
societies
▪ Mechanical and Organic
MECHANICAL ARITY
Low division of Labor
Roles were specific Tight knit groups Large primary groups Occupations were

Sociological Imagination
Understanding large scale changes and
individual behavior The structural links between social change and individual behavior The ability to see the larger picture

Capitalism Owners now exploit workers for profit Private ownership of property is the key component Work for the self has disappeared False consciousness is dominant Alienation ▪ Destruction of social relationships ▪ Self, Product, Peers, Process

Chapter 1 Introduction-文档资料

The uncle responded to his nephew in a letter dated February 6, 1875 in which he told his nephew that he would fulfill his promise. Story I also stated that he would prefer to wait until his nephew was older before actually handing over the (then) extremely large sum of money (according to an online inflation calculator, $5000 in 1890 would be worth approximately $118,000). The elder Story also declared in his letter that the money owed to his nephew would accrue interest while he held it on his nephew's behalf. The younger Story consented to his uncle's wishes and agreed that the money would remain with his uncle until Story II became older.
William E. Story I died on January 29, 1887 without having transferred any of the money owed to his nephew. Story II had meanwhile transferred the $5,000 financial interest to his wife; Story II's wife had later transferred this financial interest to Louisa Hamer on assignment. The elder Story's estate executor refused to grant Hamer the money, believing there was no binding contract due to a lack of consideration. As a result, Hamer sued the estate's executor, Franklin Sidway.

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black”　in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …　2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …　2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

Chapter 1-1

3
Language is ……
What is language?
4
Comments on the following ideas
1. Language is a means of communication. 2. Language has a form-meaning correspondence. 3. The function of language is to exchange information.
The subject matter of linguistics
• The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages, living or dead. • It studies the origin, growth, organization, nature and development of languages. • It discovers the general rules and principles governing languages.
21
Phonetics (语音学)
• It is the scientific study of speech sounds, including the articulation, transmission and reception of speech sounds, the description and classification of speech sounds. • [b] 双唇爆破辅音
• Linguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways:

Part_1_Chapter_1_Introduction_to_international_financial_reporting

From national accounting standards to global standards
• Advantages of a single set of global accounting standards:
– – – – – – – – – – – More accurate and timely information. Lower risk for small investors. Easier access to foreign capital markets. Increased credibility of domestic capital markets among foreign capital providers and potential foreign merger partners. Increased credibility of financial statements of companies in lessdeveloped countries. Lower cost of capital for companies. No need for reconciliation another country’s accounting standards. Comparability of financial data across borders. Increased market efficiency. Greater transparency and greater understandability. Reduced national standard-setting costs.
Advanced accounting and international financial reporting standards Pag. 5

Chapter 1 - Introduction

Chapter 1 - I ntroductionEcho sounding is a technique for measuring water depths by transmitting acoustic pulses from the ocean surface and listening for their reflection (or echo) from the sea floor. This technique has been used since the early twentieth century to provide the vital depth input to charts that now map most of the world’s water-covered areas. These charts have permitted ships to navigate safely through the world’s oceans. In addition, information derived from echo sounding has aided in laying trans-oceanic telephone cables, exploring and drilling for off-shore oil, locating important underwater mineral deposits, and improving our understanding of the Earth’s geological processes. Until the early 1960s most depth sounding used single-beam echo sounders. These devices make a single depth measurement with each acoustic pulse (or ping) and include both wide and narrow beam systems. Relatively inexpensive wide-beam “unstabilized” sounders detect echoes within a large solid angle under a vessel and are useful for finding potential hazards to safe navigation. However, these devices are unable to provide much detailed information about the sea bottom. On the other hand, more expensive narrow-beam “stabilized” sounders are capable of providing high spatial resolution with the small solid angle encompassed by their beam, but can cover only a limited survey area with each ping. Neither system provides a method for creating detailed maps of the sea floor that minimizes ship time and is thus cost-effective. The unstabilized systems lack the necessary spatial resolution, while the stabilized systems map too little area with each ping.In 1964, SeaBeam Instruments—at the time the Harris Anti-Submarine Warfare Division of General Instrument Corporation—patented a technique for multiple narrow-beam depth sounding. The first such systems to use this technique were built by SeaBeam for the US Navy and were known as Sonar Array Sounding Systems (SASS). SASS employed two separate sonar arrays oriented orthogonal to one another—one for transmitting and one for receiving—an arrangement called a Mills Cross Array. The arrays and the associated analog electronics provided 90 1°-wide unstabilized beams. Roll and pitch compensation produced 60 1°-wide stabilized beams, which permitted mapping a 60° “fan” of the sea floor with each ping. This system allowed survey vessels to produce high-resolution coverage of wide swaths of the ocean bottom in far less ship time than would have been required for a single-beam echo sounder, greatly reducing the costs of such mapping endeavors.Figure Chapter 1 - -1: Contour Map of Perth CanyonMost multibeam bathymetry systems still use the Mills Cross technique for beam forming. However, as faster computers and Large Scale Integrated (LSI) digital chips have become available, most of the signal processing, including beam forming, moved from analog signal processing into the digital (discrete) signal processing (DSP) domain using digital signal microprocessor (DSPµP) chips. The availability of fast DSPµPs has also permitted the implementation of sophisticated detection algorithms. As a result, survey vessels today can do on-board real-time multibeam processing and display of bathymetry data in a manner impossible only a few years ago. Figure Chapter 1 - -1 shows a sample of a high-quality ocean floor map produced by a SEA BEAM 2100 Multibeam Survey System, the latest generation of multibeam sonar from SeaBeam Instruments.The SEA BEAM 2100 system represents the culmination of over a third of a century of design, development, and production experience by SeaBeam Instruments in the area of multibeam bathymetric systems. With added sophistication, this latest generation multibeam sonar system has added capabilities and complexity. It is necessary to have a basic theoretical understanding of the way multibeam bathymetry systems in general, and the SEA BEAM 2100 in particular, work in order to both:•Operate the system in a manner that maximizes coverage and data quality•Evaluate the system performance for signs of system degradationOrganization of this DocumentThis manual provides a general explanation of the way a multibeam sonar system works and describes in detail the implementation of multibeam technology represented by the SEA BEAM 2100 system.Chapter 2, “Sonar Concepts,” introduces the concepts and definitions involved in echo sounding, using a description of a simple single-beam echo sounder as an example. Characteristics of the creation and transmission of acoustic pulses in water and their echoes off the ocean bottom are discussed. This chapter also explains some of the limitations of a single-beam sonar.Chapter 3, “Introduction to Multibeam Sonar: Projector and Hydrophone Systems,” describes the Mills Cross technique, including the processes of beam forming and beam steering and how it is applied to sonar and to the SEA BEAM 2100 in particular. The chapter discusses how systems that employ the Mills Cross technique can make up for many of the short-comings of single-beam echo sounders.Chapter 4, “Detection Processing and Range Calculation,” describes how the SEA BEAM 2100 extracts signals and determines the location of the sea floor from multibeam echoes. The processes used for ship motion compensation and the formation of stable beams and the implementation of sound velocity profiles are discussed.Chapter 5, “Sidescan Sonar,” discusses sea floor imaging using sidescan sonars and how the SEA BEAM 2100 can be used simultaneously as a depth-finding and sidescan sonar.A glossary of the terminology of multibeam sonar technology is included as an appendix. Scope of this DocumentMultibeam technology involves a number of disciplines including underwater acoustics, digital signal processing, and detection theory statistics. Many excellent texts are available that provide in-depth mathematical treatment of each of these fields. The purpose of this document is not to cover all related topics in rigorous mathematical detail, but instead to present you with a simple, clear understanding of the fundamental concepts required to develop the full potential of a multibeam sonar system. Ideas are presented in a graphical and descriptive way, with minimal use of complex mathematics. Where appropriate, references to texts are provided so you can pursue topics in greater detail. While directed at users of the SEA BEAM 2100 system in particular, most of the concepts explained in this document are common to all multibeam sonars, so much of this information can be applied to any commercially available multibeam system.。

语言学教程Chapter 1_introduction(1)

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• Without the awareness of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
8
Discuss with your neighbors ---• What is language? • What do you know when you claim to know a language?
“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.” --Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)
3
Some fundamental views about L
• Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. • Language operates by rules. • All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. • Everyone speaks a dialect. • Language slowly changes.
17
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)

1-4单元《新编语言学教程》课后答案

Chapter 1Introduction1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientiﬁc or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。

语言学第一章

Theoretical linguistics
2.1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱPhonetics( 语音学） is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication， e g. how a person make a sound 2.2 Phonology(音位学）studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication, for example, the sound /l/
in leap and feel are two different sounds, but they are interchangeable and make no differences in meaning, we can just leave them as one phoneme(音位） /l/
3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study（共时的）---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study（历时的）---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
2.7 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）is the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society ,for example, dirty words are spoken in different social classes, but the extent of speaking it is varied concerning different area, education background and so on. 2.8 Psycholinguistics（心理语言学） is the study of language that relates to psychology such as how our mind works when we use language, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in communication.

Chapter 1Introduction 练习题

Chapter One IntroducitonI. Multiple Choices.Directions: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question to complete the sentence.1. __________ function constructs a model of experience and logical relations.A. InterpersonalB. TextualC. MetalingualD. Ideational2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ____________,A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. Saussure3. Which function is the major role of Language?A. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. Emotive4.Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Linguistics?A. SyntaxB. PragmaticsC. PhoneticsD. Anthropology5. The ___________ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A. performativeB. phaticC. recreationalD. emotive6. The term __________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language changes over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative7.__________ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A. SemanticsB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Morphology8.Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as __________.A. paroleB. languageC. systemD. langue9.The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed by _________.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Austin10. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and lettersB. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols.11. ___________ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax12. The founder of modern linguistics is ___________.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. BloomfieldD. Saussure13. Modern linguistics focuses on the present day language, and it will be possible to describe language from a _________ perspective.A. sociologicalB.synchronicC. diachronicD. Psychological14. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?A. Metalingual function.B. Interpersonal function.C. Emotive functionD. Cultural transmission15.We can refer to Chairman Mao. This feature of language is called _________.A.dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement16.The sentence "Don't say X." is ___________.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. obligatoryD. Narrative17.Which of the following functions are NOT the functions put forward by Halliday?A. The Ideational FunctionB. The Interpersonal FunctionC. The Generative FunctionD. The Textual Function20. __________ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. WordsC. Sentence structuresD. Phrase structure rules21. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed _________ from a functional language’s view.A. linguistic potentialB. communicative competenceC. competenceD. langue22. Traditional grammar regards the __________ form of language as primary, not the spoken from.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the __________ nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmissionnguage is __________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. productive25.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechII. Complete each of the following statements.1.When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact ratherthan exchanging information or ideas, its function is ____________ function.2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ___________.3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be___________; it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be __________. 4.In modern linguistics, ___________ study seems to enjoy priority over ___________ study.The reason is that successful studies of various sates of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” This famous quotation from Shakespeareillustrates that language has the design feature of _______________.6.An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language, but they are notmutually intelligible, which show that language is culturally ____________.7.The features that define our human languages can be called ____________ features.8.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called ___________.9.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______________ and performance.10.___________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the otherhand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.III. Answer the following questions.1. A distinction can be drawn between competence and performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsky draw such a distinction?2. Explain the following statements with examples: Our language can be used to talk about itself.3.How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?1.phatic2. displacement3. descriptive, prescriptive4. synchronic, diachronic5. arbitrariness6. transmitted7. design8. morphology9. competence 10.Pragmatics。

chapter 1 introduction

经过近80年的研究改进，汽车阻力系数从 0.8降至0.137，阻力减小为原来的1/5 。
3. How can the airplane fly?
Boeing 747 70.7×64.4× 19.41 (m)
An-225 84×88.4×18.1 (m) 600,000kg
395 000kg
机翼升力：来自下部还是上部？人们的直观印象是空气从下面冲击着鸟的翅膀，把鸟托在空中。19世纪初建立的流体力学环量理论彻底改变了人们的传统观念。
20世纪30年代起，人们开始运用流体力学原理改进汽车尾部形状，出现甲壳虫型，阻力系数降至0.6。
20世纪50－60年代改进为船型，阻力系数为0.45。
80年代经过风洞(wind tunnel experiments) 实验系统研究后，又改进为鱼型，阻力系数为0.3 。
以后进一步改进为楔型，阻力系数为0.2。
MБайду номын сангаасst engineering problems are concerned with physical dimensions much larger than this limiting volume.
The elemental volume must be small enough in macroscope
g
Viscosity
Reconsider flow between fixed and moving parallel plates (Couette flow)
Note: u(0)=0 and u(h)=U i.e., satisfies noslip boundary condition
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.

Chapter 1Introduction(高级微观经济学-上海财经大学,沈凌)

Chapter 1: Introductionz How to build an economic model? (Hal R.Varian)1. An economic model: an idealization of the reality, but not the reality.2. Why do we need an economic model?3. How to build an economic model? z Getting ideas from reality: An interesting one? Is the idea worth pursuing? z Don’t look at the literature too soon z Simplifying and Generalizing your model z Making mistakes: team work z Searching the literature z Giving a seminar1z Mathematics 1. Set theoryA Set (A) is a collection of objects called elements (a): a ∈ A The empty set is Φ , and the universal set is U .Binary operations on set: 1. 2. 3. 4. the union of A and B is the set A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} the intersection of A and B is A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} the difference of A and B isA \ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B}the symmetric difference of A and B is A∆B = ( A ∪ B ) \ ( A ∩ B )The complement of A is Ac = U \ ATheorem 1Let A, B and C be sets,1. 2.A \ (B ∪ C ) = ( A \ B ) ∩ ( A \ C ) A \ (B ∩ C ) = ( A \ B ) ∪ ( A \ C )ACBCorollary 2 (DeMorgan’s Law)( A ∪ B )c = Ac ∩ B cand ( A ∩ B ) = Ac ∪ B cc2Generalizing theorem 1 to theorem 3: A\⎛ ⎜ ∪ Si ⎞ ⎟ = ∩( A \ S i ) and A \ ⎛ ⎜ ∩ Si ⎞ ⎟ = ∪( A \ S i ) ⎝ i∈I ={1, 2,3...} ⎠ i∈I ⎝ i∈I ={1, 2,3...} ⎠ i∈IGiven any set A, the power set of A, written by Ρ( A) is the set consisting of all subsets of A, i.e., Ρ( A) = {B | B ⊂ A}Question : If a set A has n elements, how many elements are there in Ρ( A) ?The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B (also called the product set or cross product) is defined to be the set of all points (a, b ) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B . It is denoted A × B .Example:R2 ≡ R × RR n ≡ R × R × R × ...R = {( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) | xi ∈ R, i = 1,2,...n} ,wheretheelement(x1 , x2 ,...xn ) ofR n is an n-dimensional ordered vector. We denote: xS ⊂ R n is a convex set if ∀x, y ∈ S , we have tx + (1 − t ) y ∈ S for all t ∈ [0,1]The intersection of convex sets is convex, but the union of them is not.32. TopologyA metric space is a set S with a global distance function (the metric d ) that, for every pointsx and y in S , gives the distance between them as a nonnegative real number d (x, y ) . Ametric space must satisfy: 1. d (x, y ) = 0 iff x = y 2. d (x, y ) = d ( y, x ) 3. d ( x, y ) + d ( x, z ) ≥ d (x, z ) Example: Euclidean metric in R 2 : d (x, y ) =(x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2Open and Closed ε − Balls: let ε be a real positive number, then 1. The open ε − ball with center x 0 and radius ε > 0 isBε x 0 = x ∈ R n | d x 0 , x < ε( ) {() }) }2. The closed ε − ball with center x 0 and radius ε > 0 isBε x 0 = x ∈ R n | d x 0 , x ≤ ε( ) {(Open and Closed sets in R n : A set S ⊂ R n is open if ∀x ∈ S , ∃ε > 0,Bε ( x ) ⊂ S .A set S ⊂ R n is closed if its complement, S c , is open.Some important properties of open and closed sets: 1. The union of open sets is open. 2. The intersection of any finite number of open sets is open. 3. The union of any finite number of closed sets is closed.44. The intersection of closed sets is closed.Question: what if the collection is infinite for 2. and 3.?Theorem 4: Every open set is a collection of open balls.Bounded sets in R n : A set S ⊂ R n is bounded if ∃ε > 0 and x ∈ R n , S ⊂ Bε ( x ) .Let S ⊂ R be a nonempty set of real numbers: 1. Any real number l is a lower bound if ∀ x ∈ S , 2. Any real number u is an upper bound if ∀ x ∈ S ,x ≥ l . The set is bounded from below. x ≤ u . The set is bounded from above.3. The largest number among lower bounds is called the greatest lower bound of S. 4. The smallest number among upper bounds is called the least upper bound of S.A bounded set is bounded both from below and above. We can show that for any bounded subsets of the real line, there always exists a g.l.b. and l.u.b.Let S ⊂ R be a bounded set and let a be the g.l.b of S and b be the l.u.b. of S, then we have: 1. If S is open, then a ∉ S and b ∉ S 2. if S is closed, then a ∈ S and b ∈ SCompact sets : A set is compact if it is closed and bounded.53. Relations and functionsConsider an ordered pair (s, t ) that associated an element s ∈ S to another element t ∈ T . Any collection of such ordered pairs is said to constitute a binary relation between the sets S andT . Note that a binary relation R is a subset of the cross product S × T .Some properties of relations: 1. The relation is complete if either xRy or yRx. 2. 3. 4. transitive if xRy and yRz implies xRz. reflexive if xRx. symmetric if xRy ⇔ yRxExamples: The preference relation ( ≿ ) is complete, transitive and reflexive.The function is a mapping from one set D (domain) to another set R (range) denoted as:f :D→ RThe image of f : I ≡ {y | y = f ( x)} ⊂ R The inverse image of a set of points S ⊂ R is: f −1 (S ) ≡ {x | x ∈ D, f ( x ) ∈ S } The graph of f : G ≡ {(x, y ) | x ∈ D, y = f ( x ) ∈ S } A function is a surjective function if the range ran( f ) = R A function is an injective function (or one to one) if f (a) = f (b) implies a = b A function is bijective if it is both surjective and injective. In a sense, the domain and the range must have the same number of elements.6Homogeneous function A function f ( x1 ,...x N ) is homogeneous of degree r ( for r = ...,−1,0,1,... ) if ∀t > 0 we have:f (tx1 ,...tx N ) = t r f ( x1 ,...x N )Theorem 5 (Euler’s Formula) suppose that f ( x1 ,...x N ) is homogeneous of degree r ( forr = ...,−1,0,1,... ) and differentiable. Then at any (x1 ,..., x N ) we have∑∂f ( x1 ,...x N ) xn = rf ( x1 ,..., x N ) ∂xn n =1NProof: by definition, we have f (tx1 ,...tx N ) − t r f (x1 ,...x N ) = 0 Differentiation this expression with respect to t gives∑∂f (tx1 ,...tx N ) xn − rt r −1 f ( x1 ,..., x N ) = 0 ∂ (txn ) n =1NEvaluating at t = 1 , we obtain Euler’s Formula.□74. ContinuityA function f : R → R is continuous at a point x 0 if ∀ε > 0 , ∃δ > 0 such that d (x, x 0 ) < δ implies that d ( f ( x), f ( x 0 ) ) < ε . Cauchy definition: the function is continuous at the point x 0 ∈ D if ∀ε > 0 , ∃δ > 0 such that f (Bδ ( x 0 ) ∩ D ) ⊂ Bε ( f (x 0 )) A function is continuous function if it is continuous at every point in its domain.Open and closed set in D: A subset S ⊂ D is open in D if for every x ∈ S , there is an ε > 0 such that Bε ( x) ∩ D ⊂ S . A subset is closed in D if its complement S in D, is open in D.Theorem 6The following statements are equivalent: 1.f : D → R n is continuous;2. for every open ball B in R n , f −1 (B ) is open in D; 3. for every open set S in R n , f −1 (S ) is open in D. Remark: the continuous inverse image of an open set is an open set. In short, the inverse mapping of a continuous function can preserve the openness of sets. For what kind of sets the continuous image can preserve its properties? It turns out to be a compact set. The continuous image of a compact set is a compact set.85. Some existence theoremsTheorem 7 (Weierstrass) Existence of Extreme ValuesLet f : S → R be a continuous real-values mapping, where S is a nonempty compact subset of R n . Then there exists two vectors xmax,xmin∈ S such that for all x ∈ S ,f x( ) ≤ f (x ) ≤ f (x )min maxTheorem 8 (Brouwer) Fixed-pointLet S ⊂ R n be a nonempty compact set and f : S → S be a continuous real-values mapping, then there exists at least one fixed point x of f in S . I.e., f ( x ) = x .∗ ∗ ∗96. Real valued functionsSets related to a real valued function f : D → R :L( y 0 ) is a Level set if L( y 0 ) = {x | x ∈ D, f ( x ) = y 0 }, where y 0 ∈ R .Superior and inferior sets: 1. S ( y 0 ) = {x | x ∈ D, f ( x ) ≥ y 0 } is called the superior set (or upper contour set) for levely 0 ∈ R . S ' ( y 0 ) = {x | x ∈ D, f ( x ) > y 0 } is called the strictly superior set for level y 0 ∈ R2. I ( y 0 ) = {x | x ∈ D, f ( x ) ≤ y 0 } is called the inferior set (or lower contour set) for levely 0 ∈ R . I ' ( y 0 ) = {x | x ∈ D, f ( x ) < y 0 } is called the strictly inferior set for level y 0 ∈ RConcave function: ∀x1 , x 2 ∈ D, t ∈ [0,1] , f (tx1 + (1 − t )x 2 ) ≥ tf (x1 ) + (1 − t ) f (x 2 ) Strictly concave function: ∀x1 , x 2 ∈ D, t ∈ (0,1) , f (tx1 + (1 − t )x 2 ) > tf (x1 ) + (1 − t ) f (x 2 ) If the function is differentiable, then it is concave iff f ' ' ( x ) ≤ 0 , and it is strictly concave iff ' ' ( x ) < 0 but the reverse is not true.In the multi-dimensional case, the condition for concavity is equivalent to that the matrix (known as Hessian matrix) of second order derivative is negative semidefinite at every point. If the Hessian matrix of a function is negative definite at every point, then the function must be strictly concave. But the reverse is not true.⎛ ∂ 2 f (x ) ∂ 2 f (x ) ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ... ⎜ ∂x1∂x1 ∂x1∂xn ⎟ ⎟ D 2 f (x ) = ⎜ ..... ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ∂ 2 f (x ) ∂ 2 f (x ) ⎟ ... ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ∂xn ∂x1 ∂xn ∂xn ⎠1011 Convex function: []1,0,,21∈∈∀t D x x , ()()()()()212111x f t x tf x t tx f −+≤−+ Strictly convex function: ()1,0,,21∈∈∀t D x x , ()()()()()212111x f t x tf x t tx f −+<−+ If the function is differentiable, then it is concave iff ()0''≥x f , and it is strictly concave if ()0''>x f but the reverse is not true.In the multi-dimensional case, the condition for concavity is equivalent to that the matrix (known as Hessian matrix) of second order derivative is positive semidefinite at every point. If the Hessian matrix of a function is positive definite at every point, then the function must be strictly concave. But the reverse is not true.()x f is a (strictly) concave iff ()x f − is (strictly) convex.The following statements are equivalent:1. R D f →: is Quasiconcave Function2. []1,0,,21∈∈∀t D x x , ()()()()[]2121,min 1x f x f x t tx f ≥−+3. ()x f − is quasiconvex4. ()y S is convex set for all R y ∈ Quasiconvex Function ?• A function R A f →: is quasiconcave if its upper contour sets (){}t x f A x ≥∈: are convex sets; i.e., if ()t x f ≥ and ()t x f ≥′, then ()()t x x f ≥′−+αα1 for any R t ∈, A x x ∈′, and []1,0∈α.• A function R A f →: is strictly quasiconcave if ()()t x x f >′−+αα1 for x x ′≠ and()1,0∈α.。