大学心理学与生活期末考试重点范围

1、chunking the process of taking single items of information and recoding them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle.2、Double-blind control an experimental technique in which biased expectation of experimenters are eliminated by keeping both participants and experimental assistants unaware of which participants have received which treatment.3、Shape constancy the ability to perceive the true shape of an object despite variations in the size of the retinal image.4、Law of effect a basic law of learning that states that the power of a stimulus to evoke a response is strengthened when the response is followed by a reward and weakened when it is not followed by a reward.5、Think-aloud protocol reports made by experimental participants of the mental processes and strategies they use while working on a task.6、Stereotype threat the threat associated with being at risk for confirming a negative stereotype of one’s group.7、Within subject design a research design that uses each participant as his or her own control; for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment.8、Locus of control it is a belief about whether the outcomes of actons are contingent on what you do(internal control orientation) or on environmental factors( external control orientation).9、positive reinforcement a behavior is followed by the presentation of an appetitive stimulus increasing the probability of that behavior.10、placebo effect a change in behavior in the absence of an experimental manipulation.11、observer bias the distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer.1、Why are reliability and validity important in intelligence testing?Reliability is the extent to which an assessment instrument can be trusted to give consistent scores.The validity of a test is the degree to which it measures what an assessor intends it to measure.One straightforward way to find out if a test is reliable is to calculate its test-retest reliability-a measure of the corelation between the scores of the same people, on the same test,given on two different occasions.3、what are consequences of different schedules of reinforcement?(1)Fixed-Ratio(FR)schedules:Brief pauses after each reinforcer is delivered. The higher the ratio, the longer the pause after each reinforcement.(2)Variable-Ratio(VR)schedules:No pauses after each reinforcer is delivered.(3)Fixed-Interval(FI)schedules:Few responses after each reinforcer is delivered.(4)Variable-Interval(VI)schedules:Responding occurs at a fairly constant rate.4、could you explain James-Lange theory of emotion? And please give one example.James-Lange theory of emotion: A peripheral-feedback theory of emotion stating that eliciting stimulus triggers a behavioral response that sends different sensory and motor feedback to the brain and creates the feeling of a specific emotion.The example: we feel sorry because we cry,angry because we strike,afraid because we tremble.5、what are the most important contract between co structuralism and functionalism? p10Structuralism :the study of the structure of mind and behavior; the view that all human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events. Functionalism: the perspective on mind and behavior that focuses on the examination of their functions in an organism’s interactions with environment.Contrast: for structuralism, the study of consciousness was reduced to elements,contents,and structures. They emphasized the “what”of mental contents rather than the “why”or “how” of thinking.But for functionalism, consciousness was an ongoing stream, a property of mind in continual interaction with the environment. And thus, the acts and functions of mental processes were of significance,not the contents of the mind. (They recognized a uniqueness in each individual that could not be reduced to formulas or numbers from test results, and) explanation rather than experimental control was the goal of psychology.6、Describe two examples of how you use stimulus generalization and discrimination in everydayactivities.Stimulus: A child bitten by a big dog is likely to respond with fear even to smaller dogs.Discrimination:A child bitten by a big dog just responds with fear to big dogs ,not to smaller dogs.7、Explain why recognition is an easier form of retrieval than recall.Both memory tests require a search using cues. For recall, you have to hope that the cue alone will help you locate the information. For recognition, part of the work has been done for you. Retrieval cues are more straightforward for recognition.填空题：1.Psychology as the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes.2.研究领域包括psychodynamic perspective, behaviorist perspective, humanistic perspective, cognitive perspective, biological perspective.3.The independent variable is the factor that researcher manipulates; it functions as the causal part of the relationship. The effect part of the relationship is served by the dependent variable, which is what the experimenter measures.4.IQ tests are used widely today: the Stanford-Binet scales and the Wechsler scaler. （补充）IQ=mental age÷chronological age×1005.Structuralism psychological school（属于哪个学派）In 1879,Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory devoted to experimental psychology.6.Bottom-up (data-driven)processing occurs when the perceptual representation is derived from the information available in the sensory input. Top-down (conceptually driven) processing occurs when the perceptual representation is affected by an individual’s prior knowledge, motivations,expectations, and other aspects of higher mental functioning.。