2.Lexical Analysis
编译原理第四版课后答案
编译原理第四版课后答案1. What are the three basic phases of a compiler and what are their main functions?- The three basic phases of a compiler are lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and code generation.- The main function of lexical analysis is to read the source code and break it into individual tokens, such as keywords, identifiers, numbers, and symbols.- The main function of the syntax analysis is to parse the tokens and verify that they form valid syntax according to the grammar rules of the programming language.- The main function of code generation is to convert the parsed tokens into executable code in a target programming language or machine code.2. What is lexical analysis and what are its main tasks?- Lexical analysis is the first phase of a compiler, which reads the source code and breaks it into individual tokens.- The main tasks of lexical analysis include tokenization, where the source code is divided into meaningful units called tokens, such as keywords, identifiers, numbers, and symbols; removal of comments, where any comments in the source code are ignored; and removal of white spaces, where unnecessary spaces, tabs, and line breaks are eliminated.3. What is a parser and what is its main function?- A parser is a component of the compiler that performs syntax analysis, also known as parsing.- Its main function is to analyze the structure of the tokens generated by the lexical analysis phase and verify that they form avalid syntax according to the grammar rules of the programming language.- The parser constructs a derivation tree or a parse tree to represent the structure of the code and checks for syntax errors, such as missing or misplaced tokens.4. What is the difference between a compiler and an interpreter?- A compiler is a program that translates the entire source code of a programming language into an equivalent target code or machine code before execution.- An interpreter, on the other hand, does not translate the entire source code into machine code before execution. Instead, it reads and executes the source code line by line, translating and executing each line as it encounters it.- In terms of efficiency, a compiled program tends to run faster than an interpreted program because the compiled code is already in machine language, whereas the interpreted code needs to be translated and executed at runtime.5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using an interpreted language?- Advantages of using an interpreted language include faster development time, as there is no need to compile the entire code before execution; easier debugging, as errors can be detected and fixed immediately; and platform independence, as the interpreter can run on different operating systems without the need to compile separate binaries.- Disadvantages of using an interpreted language include slower execution speed compared to compiled languages; lower performance, as the interpreter needs to translate and execute eachline at runtime; and potential security risks, as the interpreted code can be easily accessed and modified.6. What is meant by bytecode and what is its role in interpreter-based execution?- Bytecode is a low-level representation of the source code that is generated by a compiler or an interpreter. It is a set of instructions that can be executed by a virtual machine.- In interpreter-based execution, the source code is first compiled into bytecode, which is a platform-independent representation of the code. The interpreter then reads and executes the bytecode on the virtual machine, providing a compromise between compilation and interpretation.- Bytecode allows for faster execution compared to interpreting the source code directly, as the bytecode is already in a form that can be executed by the virtual machine.7. What is code optimization and why is it important?- Code optimization is the process of improving the efficiency and performance of the generated code by the compiler.- It is important because optimized code can run faster and consume less memory, resulting in improved overall performance of the program.- Code optimization techniques include constant folding, loop unrolling, dead code elimination, and register allocation, among others.8. What is a symbol table and what is its purpose?- A symbol table is a data structure that is used by a compiler to store information about the variable and function namesencountered in the source code.- Its purpose is to keep track of the properties and attributes of each symbol, such as its data type, memory location, scope, and visibility.- The symbol table is used by various phases of the compiler, such as the lexical analyzer, parser, and code generator, to perform tasks such as name resolution, type checking, and memory management.9. What is the role of an assembler in the compilation process?- An assembler is a program that converts assembly language code into machine code.- In the compilation process, the assembler is responsible for translating the assembly language code written by the programmer into machine code that can be executed directly by the computer hardware.- The assembler performs a one-to-one mapping of assembly instructions to their corresponding machine code instructions, and also resolves symbolic addresses and labels used by the programmer.10. What is the difference between a single-pass compiler and a multi-pass compiler?- A single-pass compiler is a compiler that reads the source code of a program once and generates the corresponding executable code in a single pass or iteration.- A multi-pass compiler, on the other hand, requires multiple passes or iterations over the source code in order to generate the executable code.- Single-pass compilers are generally simpler and require less memory, but they are unable to perform certain optimizations orglobal analysis that requires information from the entire source code. Multi-pass compilers are more powerful and can perform more complex optimizations and analysis, but they are typically slower and require more memory.。
lexical 词根
lexical 词根(原创版)目录1.引言:介绍词根的定义和作用2.词根的分类:a) 语义词根b) 音位词根c) 语法词根3.语义词根:a) 语义词根的概念b) 语义词根的例子c) 语义词根在词汇构成中的作用4.音位词根:a) 音位词根的概念b) 音位词根的例子c) 音位词根在词汇构成中的作用5.语法词根:a) 语法词根的概念b) 语法词根的例子c) 语法词根在词汇构成中的作用6.词根的发展和演变:a) 词根的发展过程b) 词根的演变原因7.结论:总结词根的重要性和在语言学中的地位正文一、引言词根,是词汇构成的基本单位,是词汇意义的基础。
在语言学研究中,词根具有重要的地位。
它可以帮助我们理解词汇的意义,分析词汇的构成,还可以揭示语言的发展变化。
二、词根的分类词根可以根据其功能和特点进行分类,主要分为三类:语义词根、音位词根和语法词根。
三、语义词根语义词根,也称为意义词根,是词汇意义的基本单位。
它可以单独构成词汇,也可以与其他语素组合构成新的词汇。
例如,“书”(shū)的词根是“书”(shū),“图书馆”(tushuguan)的词根是“图”(tú)和“书”(shū)。
语义词根在词汇构成中起着重要的作用,它们是词汇意义的核心。
四、音位词根音位词根,也称为音位基础,是词汇发音的基本单位。
它可以单独构成词汇,也可以与其他音位词根组合构成新的词汇。
例如,“车”(chē)的词根是“车”(chē),“轿车”(zhongche)的词根是“轿”(jiào)和“车”(chē)。
音位词根在词汇构成中起着重要的作用,它们是词汇发音的基础。
五、语法词根语法词根,也称为语法基础,是词汇语法功能的基本单位。
它可以单独构成词汇,也可以与其他语法词根组合构成新的词汇。
例如,“好”(h ǎo)的词根是“好”(hǎo),“不好”(bù hǎo)的词根是“不”(bù)和“好”(hǎo)。
语法词根在词汇构成中起着重要的作用,它们是词汇语法功能的基础。
10.the lexical approach汇总
theory of learning
There are three approaches to learning lexical chunks. 1. Krashen’s input hypothesis 2. Computer based corpus 3. Contrastive approach
Three important Uk-based corpora are the COBUILD Bank of English Corpus, the Cambridge International Corpus and the British National Corpus.
Approach
The Lexical Approach
Background
Approach
Design Procedure
Conclusion
Background
A
lexical approach in language teaching refers to one derived from the belief that building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar, functions, notions or some other unit of planning and teaching but lexis, that is, words and word combinations.
克拉申输入假说
克拉申的输入假说(Input Hypothesis)是第二语言习 得的一种理论。第二语言习得理论作为一门独立的学科 形成于20世纪60年代末、70年代初。在这方面的研究 中成就最大、影响最广的要算克拉申(S. D. Krashen)。 克拉申是美国南加州大学的教师,他从70年代初开始研 究第二语言习得,并多次在他的著作及文章中阐述他的 输入假说。克拉申认为,只有当习得者接触到可理解的 语言输入(comprehensive input),即略高于他现有 语言技能水平的第二语言输入,而他又能把注意力集中 于对意义或信息的理解而不是对形式的理解时,才能产 生习得。如果习得者现有水平为“i”,能促进他习得就 是“i+1”的输入。根据克拉申的观点,这种“i+1”的输 入并不需要人们故意地去提供,只要习得者能理解输入, 而他又有足够的量时,就自动地提供了这种输入。按照 输入假设,说话的流利程度是随时间的流逝自然而然地 达到。
文体学5-lexical.
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Stylistic value
• General terms are often two vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader/hearer’s mind.
• The relationship between a general (Superordinate) term and its specific term (Hyponym) is called Hyponymy.
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flower tree vegetable
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• b. This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
• The United Nations shall establish under its authority an international trusteeship system for the administration and supervision of such territories as may be placed thereunder by subsequent individual agreements. These territories are hereinafter referred to as trust territories.
英语公示翻译技巧
IntroductionInternational communication is becoming popular now. China, with the rapid development of economy and society, has maintained increasingly close ties with other countries around the world. In recent years, more and more people come to Chengde City to have a visit or study. Chengde is famous for the Summer Mountain Resorts. There are all kinds of public signs in the Summer Mountain Resorts. It brings convenience to the visitors and improves the culture taste of the city. However, there are also many errors of public signs, including: lexical errors, spelling errors, grammar errors, unclear description, cultural confusion and Chinglish. In this situation, the paper will try to give a theoretical and practical analysis of C-E translation of public signs from the perspective of functionalist translation. The paper offers some suggestions for the public signs translation by utilizing the three principles of skopos theory and analyzing many examples. “The end justified the means”means that the translation strategies and methods are determined by acceptability and effectiveness of translation.Public signs translation has great significance to both our country and the foreigners. English translations of Chinese public signs belong to publicity materials. Proper translations not only bring precise information to foreigners but also help build a good communication and good understanding. So the research on the translation of public signs is very important.Chapter One A Brief Introduction of Public signsBefore an exploration of translation public signs, some information about public signs needs to be provided. This chapter will introduce the definition, function, classification of public signs and the language style of public signs.1.1 The definition of public signsAs we known the public signs is a logo shown to some groups of people in particular place in order to have the function of communication. Public signs have become an academic term since 2000. “Si gn are anything from the simplest way finding or information maker to the technically sophisticated communication of a message”(Wang & Lv, 2007: 4). “Signing affects everybody---travelers, shoppers, visitors, and drivers etc. whether in the course of business or pleasure”(Cheng,2000:104).Basic literal information that are publicly shown to the public, tourists, oversea guest, foreigners in China and the Chinese in other countries to satisfy their behavior and needs in food, dwelling, travel and entertainment, are all within the category of signs (Lv, 2005:22).Some websites also pay close attention to public signs translation, such as, “”, “”and “”. “”provides the following definition: “literal information for public in public places”.According to the definition above, public signs have the following features: First they convey warning, instructional, restrictive, prohibitive or advocating information. Second, they are expressed in literal. Third they are not aimed at individuals but groups of people.1.2 The function of public signsPublic signs are widely used in daily life, such as airport, ticket office, high way, gas station, subway, taxi, museums, docks, emergency, school, tourist site, park, restaurant, street, cinema, etc.They are greatly informative. They can give us great help and facility. All the signs have four principal functions in application: directing, prompting, restricting, compelling effects.Directing signs convey the information to the public, without any restricting or compelling indication. It does not require the public to take actions, but give them an instruction or direction. For example: At the sight of “Information”(问询中心)people will know they can ask some questions and get answers. From “P et Hotel”(宠物旅馆)people will know their pets can be taken care in this place.Prompting signs are widely used although they do not have any special meaning. They just have prompting functions. For example, “S old Out”(售完)“P reserved”(预留席位)“B eware of Dog”(当心犬只)“F ull Booked”(客满)“M aximum Height”(限高), etc.Restricting signs order the audience to restrict the behavior. The language used is straightforward but not rude. For example, “E mergency Passage Way, Please Not Hand Luggage on the Floor” (紧急通道,请勿将手提物品搁置地上),“Give Way”(让路),“Ticket Only”(凭票进场),etc.Compelling signs ask the public to take some actions or not, otherwise they would be punished. For example, “Police Line Do Not Pass”(警戒线,勿超越)“Don‟t Walk”(禁止通行), “No Smoking”(禁止吸烟),“No Overnight Parking”(严禁过夜停车).From the discussion above, we know the function of public signs. This is one of the ways of dividing the functions of public signs. We can also divide the functions into directing, reminding and ordering.1.3 The classification of public signsGenerally speaking, we have different ways to classify public signsaccording to different criteria.1.3.1 Informative and evocativePublic signs can be divided into “informative” (content focused) and “evocative” (appeal focused). Informative public signs provide information or describe a situation. The readers do not need to take some actions. They are widely used in scenic spots, such as, facilities, the name of the park, introduction, etc.Evocative public signs are designed to present information with a particular perspective. According to Nord, “…evocative‟is called …appellative‟”:the use of language to make the receivers do something corresponding (Nord, 2006:40). e.g. “No Fishing Here, 禁止垂钓”“Wet Floor, 小心地滑”and “Free for Children under 12, 十二岁以下儿童免费”.1.3.2 Slogans and advertisementsPublic signs include “slogans” and “advertisements” according to the purpose of usage.Slogans are used for publicity. For example, create a new situation, modernize in all fields (全面开创社会主义现代化建设新局面). The later is shown in written form outside. For example, “we care to provide service above and beyond the call of duty”(殷勤有加,风雨不改,UPS联合快递公司).1.3.3 Public signs in scenic spots and other placesAccording to the place where the public signs appear we can classify the public signs as the following:Public signs in scenic spots: signs in the scenic spots are designed to give the travelers some help or instruction. e.g.: Please Protect Facilities(保护公共设施, State Protect Historic Site(国家级文物保护单位).There are also some traffic signs and road signs, for example, Xin Hua Road(新华路), No Parking(禁止停车).All above are the classifications of public signs.1.4 The language style of public signsAll the public signs have special features because they are mainly used in public places and their functions are communicative. Understanding the language style of public signs is very important. The main language features of public signs are conciseness and directness.1.4.1 ConcisenessPublic signs must be short and they must express the meaning clearly with right structures because the functions of public signs are to arouse readers‟ attention, and then, they can give readers warning or notice. Besides, they are usually written on the billboards or posters, which have limited writing space. Wordy public signs can‟t convey the effective information to the readers but make the readers confused. For example, “H and Off, 请勿触摸”, which means “please don‟t touch the exhibits”, “C losed during Repairs,停业整顿” which means “the store is being repaired, suspensions of business”1.4.2 DirectnessTo be direct means the public signs should be expressed directly. Public signs should be written in the simple words so that everybody can understand it. Obscure terms should be avoided in signs. For example, Staff Only, which means if you are not the staff, please doesn‟t enter.Chapter Two Problems of C-E Public Signs Translations inSummer Mountain ResortsNow we know the important function and situation of public signs for people but the translation errors still exist in public signs, even in the Summer Mountain Resorts. It is unfortunate that there are a lot of problems such as lexical errors, spelling errors, grammar errors, literal translation, and cultural differences, against convention and so on. All of that have harmful effect on the society.2.1 Lexical errorsErrors coming from lexical mistranslation account for the biggest percentage of the total linguistic errors according to the relevant statistic material. This phenomenon exists because the translators only know the vocabulary of formal equivalence, and ignore vocabulary dynamic equivalence. A word is the smallest unit of language. Translators should use the proper words in translation on the basis of accurate comprehension of the original. So the translators should make sure to understand the correct comprehension of each word in is source text, and express the correct expression in target language. How to choose a proper word is the key step.Example (1): there is a big public signs in the gate of the Summer Mountain Resorts: “W ay Out”, which refers to the place from which you can go out of a building in British English and in the scenic spots we should use “E xit” instead.Example (2): “请在此排队Join the Main Line”. It should write “Please Queue”.Example (3): “请注意安全Please Pay Attention to Safety”. It should write “Caution: Risk of Danger”.2.2 Spelling errorsSpelling errors are apparent and easy to be avoided. In the Summer Mountain Resorts we find out lots of spelling errors. For example, “芳园居fragrant Garden”. I t should be capitalized. “观莲所Lotus view PA VILION”, the word on the board are confused. They should be written in uniform format. Spelling errors also include the misuse of Chinese pinyin. Pinyin is often mixed with English in nonstandard ways. Like “西岭晨霞Xilingchenxia Chamber”. The foreigners can‟t understand its meaning. “云帆月航a tower in the shape of boat , the …seneryis‟ a boat-shaped chamber with two floors.” “S ceneryis” should be written as“scenery is”.2.3 Grammar errorsChinese and English have two different grammar rules and grammar errors are likely to happen because of the differences. Grammar errors refer to the system of inflection, syntax and word formation of a language. For example:“It was built in 1703, was over the palace area before 1771, after the formal palace had been completed, the island becomes a major scenic attraction in the landscape area.”“如意洲建于1703年,1771年之前竣工,在正宫完成之后,如意洲成为景区的主要景点。
lexical semantics名词解释
一、概述Lexical semantics是语义学的一个分支,专门研究词汇的含义和用法。
它关注词汇之间的含义关系,以及词汇和语境之间的交互关系。
在语言学和计算机科学领域,lexical semantics的研究对于理解语言的含义、进行自然语言处理和机器翻译等方面至关重要。
二、词汇和语义1. 词汇的含义在lexical semantics中,词汇的含义是研究的核心。
词汇的含义可以通过定义、示例和语境来理解。
动词"跑"的含义可以通过其定义"以较快的速度移动双脚"来表达,也可以通过句子"他跑得很快"中的使用情境来体现。
2. 同义词和义项在lexical semantics中,同义词的研究也是至关重要的。
同义词是指含义相近或相似的词语,它们之间存在着一定的替换关系。
"车"和"汽车"、"高兴"和"快乐"都是同义词对。
一些词语可能具有多个义项,即在不同的语义场景下,它们可能表达不同的含义。
"银行"既可以指金融机构,也可以指河岸。
三、词汇关系1. 含义关系在lexical semantics中,词汇之间存在着各种不同类型的含义关系,例如同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系、关联关系等。
同义关系是指含义相近或相似的词语之间的关系,例如"车"和"汽车"就是同义词对。
反义关系是指含义相对应或相反的词语之间的关系,例如"大"和"小"就是反义词对。
上下位关系是指词语之间存在包含或被包含的关系,例如"水果"是"苹果"的上位词,"苹果"是"水果"的下位词。
关联关系是指词语之间存在着某种因果、时间、空间或逻辑上的关联,例如"因果关系"中的"原因"和"结果"。
语域理论视域下《干校六记》两个英译本对比分析
摘要《干校六记》是由中国著名散文家、剧作家和翻译家杨绛所写的一部以文化大革命为背景的回忆性散文集。
这本书主要记述了杨绛及其丈夫钱钟书去干校接受劳动改造时的所见所闻,所感所悟,给人们了解文化大革命这一历史以及在这一历史阶段下知识分子的生活状况和精神世界提供了一份真实有效的参考资料。
无论是其艺术表现,还是其忠实于“文化大革命”这段历史的内容,都有很大的研究价值。
《干校六记》一经发表,陆续被翻译成日语、英语和法语版本,在文学界引起广泛关注。
其中英语版本有三个。
基于译者的不同国籍、语言和文化背景,本文选取葛浩文和章楚的英译本来进行对比研究。
两位译者都有着丰富的翻译经验。
前者是专门研究汉语文化且多年来一直致力于中国文学英译的翻译家,后者是多年从事联合国公文翻译的中国译员。
两译者对原文风格的理解与诠释不甚相同。
两个英译本体现了《干校六记》中描写的这段文革历史是如何在译者的笔下向西方传播的。
本研究将在语域理论的指导下进行。
语域理论是系统功能语言学的基础理论之一。
语域指的是由语场、语旨和语式三个情景语境变量决定的语言变异。
情景语境三要素则分别体现为语言语义层的经验功能、人际功能和语篇功能。
相应地,这些功能又分别体现为词汇语法层的及物性、语气和主位等系统和结构。
本文在语域理论的框架下对《干校六记》的葛浩文译本和章楚译本进行对比分析,目的并非是比较两个译本的优劣,而是探讨从语域视角看,两个译本各有何特点,哪一个译本更大程度的实现了与原文的语域对等。
通过定性和定量相结合的研究方法对原文和两个英译本的概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能的分析发现,葛浩文译本在语域的三个情景变量——语场、语旨、语式的表达上都更加贴近原文。
而章楚译本也在一定程度上与原文语域相符,但相比之下,葛浩文译本略胜一筹。
关键词:语域理论,话语范围,话语方式,话语基调,三大元功能CONTENTS原创性声明 (ii)DECLARATION (iii)ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (iv)ABSTRACT (v)摘要 (vii)CONTENTS (viii)Chapter One INTRODUCTION (1)1.1Research Background (1)1.2Research Objective (3)1.3Research Methodology (3)1.4Research Significance (4)1.5The Layout of the Thesis (4)Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW (6)2.1Previous Studies on Translation Based on Register Theory (6)2.1.1Previous studies on translation based on register theory abroad (6)2.1.2Previous studies on translation based on register theory at home (7)2.2Previous Studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and Its English Versions (10)2.2.1Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions abroad (10)2.2.2Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions at home (10)Chapter Three THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK (13)3.1Brief Introduction to Register Theory (13)3.2The Relations between Meta-functions of Language and Register Parameters.143.2.1Field and experiential function (14)3.2.2Tenor and interpersonal function (16)3.2.3Mode and textual function (18)Chapter Four A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE TWO ENGLISH VERSIONS OF GAN XIAO LIU JI FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF REGISTER THEORY..214.1The Analysis of Field (21)4.1.1Lexical choice (22)4.1.2Transitivity analysis of the source text and the target texts (28)4.2The Analysis of Tenor (39)4.2.1Mood system (40)4.2.2Modality system (46)4.3The Analysis of Mode (55)4.3.1Thematic and information structure (55)4.3.2Cohesion system (64)Chapter Five CONCLUSION (72)5.1Major Findings (72)5.2Limitations (77)REFERENCES (78)Chapter OneINTRODUCTION1.1Research BackgroundGan Xiao Liu Ji is written by Yang Jiang who is an outstanding writer, playwright and translator in China,after her return from the cadre school to Beijing. Gan Xiao Liu Ji is composed of six chapters which records that Yang Jiang and her husband Qian Zhongshu were forced to devolve to the cadre school from November 1969to March1972.In the Cultural Revolution,the cadre school(that is,the“May7”cadre school)is nominally a cadre school with labor and study as its main task,but in fact,it is a reform-through-labor farm that punishes revolutionary cadres and persecutes intellectuals.This event itself belongs to the absurd life in turbulent times, which contains the destruction and torture of cadres and intellectuals from the body to the spirit by far-left politics.However,the work does not straightforwardly describe the main content of life in the cadre school——to carry out endless political movements and struggles but takes the initiative to get away from political events, describing the trifles of life,comradeship and spousal love.Gan Xiao Liu Ji was serialized in China-Hong Kong Wide Angle magazine in1981,a single edition was published by SDX Joint Publishing Company in July of the same year.Soon after the publication of Gan Xiao Liu Ji,it was translated into Japanese by Japanese sinologist Nakajima,published by installments in Water Yan magazine in Japan in1982,and published in separate booklets.The three English versions were respectively translated by American sinologist Howard Goldblatt,Chinese scholar Djang Chu who was living in the United States and Australian scholar Geremie Barme.And the two French versions were published in Paris.In The History of Contemporary Chinese Literature,Hong Zicheng made comments on Gan Xiao Liu Ji,“Yang Jiang’s words are simple and implicit.Her tone is gentle.And She keeps a moderate distance to historical events and makes a calm examination of them.She focuses on the episodes of the events of the great age.In the account of her own experiences and feelings,shecan also see the times.”Gan Xiao Liu Ji is regarded as one of the most remarkable proses which describe the Cultural Revolution artistically.Based on the translators’different nationalities and linguistic backgrounds,this thesis makes a comparative study of two English versions of Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu.Both Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu have rich experience in translation.While the former is a translator of Chinese literature with high status in the world,the latter is a Chinese translator who has been working in the United Nations for many years.Howard Goldblatt’s English version was evaluated as“the most prominent English translation of Chinese literature in the20th century”by the Times Literary Supplement.The two translators Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu represent the East and the West cultures.There are many differences in their educational backgrounds,views and values,their translation motivations and translation strategies so that the styles of their English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji are distinct.But each has its own virtues.It should be more appropriate to use these two English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji to examine the translation events from the perspective of the register theory.Register theory originates from Malinowski’s thought of ter,Halliday, the founder of Systemic Functional Linguistics,put forward his thoughts of context and register,and incorporated register analysis into the theoretical system of the Systemic Functional Linguistics.Register refers to language variation determined by three situational context variables:field of discourse,tenor of discourse and mode of discourse,which are respectively called field,tenor and mode for short.Field refers to what happens in the world,including the topic,participant,time,place,etc.Tenor refers to the relationship between participants,including the status and role of participants.Mode refers to the role of language in communication,including communication channels(spoken/written),media,rhetorical way,etc.For the Systemic Functional Linguistics,the change of any situational factor will give rise to different language variation and different types of register.The differences between registers determine the grammatical and lexical selection.The three elements of situational context are respectively associated with three strands of meanings,or “discourse semantics”,in the text.These three strands are known as“metafunctions”,which are the experiential function,the interpersonal function and the textual function. Specifically,the discourse of field,the discourse of tenor and the discourse of mode respectively stimulate the experiential meaning,the interpersonal meaning and the textual meaning in the semantic system.In other words,the discourse of field,the discourse of tenor and the discourse of mode are realized by the experiential function, the interpersonal function and the textual function of language in the discourse, respectively.Correspondingly,these three functions are embodied in the system and structure of the lexico-grammatical level,such as transitivity,mood and thematic structures(Halliday,1985,1994).1.2Research ObjectiveThe purpose of this thesis is not to find out the pros and cons of the two English versions,but to explore the characteristics of the two versions from the perspective of register and which version achieves register equivalence to a greater extent. Meanwhile,this thesis discusses the contents and methods of register analysis, specifically,from the perspective of the Systemic Functional Linguistics,which discusses the method of register analysis of the English translation of Gan Xiao Liu Ji, as well as the direction and standard of evaluation of the translation.1.3Research MethodologyThe analytical method used in this study is a combination of quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis.First of all,the lexico-grammatical analysis of the source text and the two target texts is carried out,that is,the functional grammatical analysis is carried out in the unit of clauses at the semantic layer.Through the analysis of the transitivity system,mood system and modality system,theme system and information system of the source text and the target texts,it will be clear that what forms of expression are chosen and what meanings are expressed in the three texts,that is, experiential meaning,interpersonal meaning and textual meaning.And then to compare the meanings conveyed by the three texts can reveal whether the two target texts are“equivalent”or“deviated”from the source text.Then based on the analysis of experiential meaning,interpersonal meaning and textual meaning of the source text and the two translated texts,the thesis will analyze the situational context of the three texts,that is,field of discourse,tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.In other words,the content,the participants and their relationships which are expressed in the text outside the language,and the linguistic medium,channel,rhetorical devices in which the original author chooses to express social meaning in the communication are analyzed.Finally,according to the analysis of the register of the source text and the two target texts,and the final judgment is made on whether the register of the two translated texts are equivalent to that of the source text or not.1.4Research SignificanceIn this study,the Systemic Functional Linguistics is used to study translation practice.The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the English versions of Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu from the perspective of the register theory,and to obtain the register analysis methods of translation studies including Gan Xiao Liu Ji, and to evaluate the criteria and principles of the translation.In practice,this thesis has reference significance for translation practice,discourse analyses and translation studies related to Gan Xiao Liu Ji.In general,the register theory links the context and the various levels of the language system,which is conducive to comprehensively interpreting the circular process between the context and the language in the process of translation.Register theory provides a theoretical platform for comparison between the source text and the source context,the target text and the target context of Gan Xiao Liu Ji.1.5The Layout of the ThesisAccording to the nature and content of the study,this thesis is divided into five parts.Chapter one is a brief introduction to the background,object,significance and framework of the study.Chapter two is a literature review,summarizing the previous studies on theregister theory,translation practice based on the register theory,as well as the source text and two English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji.Chapter three is the theoretical framework on which this research relies,that is, the description of the register theory.Chapter four is of great significance in the thesis,which is the author’s comparative analysis of the two English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji using the combination of qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis under the register theory.Chapter five is the conclusion made from the above analysis and the limitations of this study.Chapter TwoLITERATURE REVIEW2.1Previous Studies on Translation Based on Register TheoryThis part focuses on the studies at home and abroad of register theory and the combination of register theory and translation practice.2.1.1Previous studies on translation based on register theory abroadThere are many scholars studying translation from the perspective of register analysis abroad.Catford(1965)tried to establish a new theory of translation by analyzing the discourse involved in translation based on Halliday’s theory of Scale and Category Grammar.He also discussed the language variants in translation and introduced dialect,register,language type and way of language,and then put forward the concept of translation shift and classified the shift in translation.Ure(1971) initially defined the concept of the register from the perspective of lexical grammar, trying to distinguish the categories of register according to lexical categories.As far as Gregory(1988)concerned,in the translation studies,the research of the translatability can not leave the register equivalence alone.From the perspective of language use, Bell(1991)analyzed the three elements of the discourse:field,tenor and mode.He believes that social factors are closely related to the discourse,and the translator should analyze the original text based on the three parameters——field,tenor and mode before translating.As a translation theorist,Mona Baker(1992)investigated discourse analysis from a functional perspective.In her exploration of translation,she put emphasis mainly on the textual function of texts.Hatim and Mason(1990,1997) paid special attention to the meaning of context analysis.They studied the context from three aspects:communicative process,pragmatic behavior and symbolic communication.Among them,communicative process refers to the content of discourse theme,participants and their relationship,means of discourse and so on, which is actually the content of Halliday’s register analysis.House(1997,1981)putforward a systematic model of translation quality assessment based on register analysis.Steiner(1997)began to study translation from the perspective of the register in1997.Based on register analysis,Steiner(1998)explored the methods of analysis and evaluation of translation and put forward some new interpretations of some translation problems.Munday(2001)introduced and analyzed the main translation theories up to the end of the20th century.Among them,he analyzed and commented on the translation studies of House,Baker,Hatim and Mason whose studies were based on Halliday’s discourse analysis and register analysis.Matthiessen(2001) studied the translation in context,arguing that context is the greatest environment for translation and the value of the translation can be determined by using the field,the tenor and the mode.However,they only analyze the situational variables involved in the source text and lack systematic analysis of the target text.In recent years,the rise of Corpus Linguistics has provided a new tool for translation studies based on register theory. For example,Kruger(2012)focused on the register of the translated texts and found that there was relatively few register variation in the target text compared with the source text.Kreinkühle(2014)explored register shifts in scientific and technical translation.Neumann(2014)discussed the analysis of cross-linguistic register in translation studies at the theoretical and methodological level.These studies have achieved good results to a certain extent which provide a reference basis and direction for register research and make a certain contribution to the development of register theory.As for the related research of combining register theory and translation practice,it has gradually increased in recent years.However, more systematic methods that are used to analyse translation from the perspective of register theory need to be further improved,and the operational level of elaboration and examples need to be explored.2.1.2Previous studies on translation based on register theory at homeThe introduction of register theory into China was first done by Zhang Delu.He (1987)explained the status of this theory in the systemic functional grammar,thecharacteristics and functions of register.Guo(1989)also discussed the register theory in terms of the lexical level of language and language style.He introduced this theory into the Chinese to English translation and developed the application of this theory. Hu(2005)conducted the study on the equivalence of register in translation study.The equivalence in both the source and target text can be realized in both the form and content.Wu(2002)proposed how to grasp the register at the same time of “agreement”,and then achieve“fitness”in translation.Specifically,the target text is not only faithful to the content of the source text,but also faithful to the style of the source text.Tang(2002)elaborated on a combination of traditional stylistics with modern approaches to the analysis of language varieties and registers at various levels of comprehension of translation.Wang and Chai(2009)intended to integrate the concept of“register”in the Systemic Functional Linguistics into“transformation”, and put forward the concept of“register transformation”to expand the connotation of “transformation”at the level of pure language and connect the study of culture, context and text in the analysis of corresponding texts.Wang(2009)put forward the concepts of semantic drift and intertextual interference and analyzed the semantic drift and intertextual interference of polysemy.By comparing the Olympic slogan of China,the slogan of Asian Games in China and the slogan of Asian Games in Korea, Wang discussed how to evaluate the risk of translation choices in the context of semantic evolution to avoid possible negative intertextuality.Cao(2007)believes that in the process of translation,the translator’s grasp of the register of the original text helps the translator to understand the stylistic characteristics of the original text,so it is necessary to rebuild the register of the translated text corresponding to that of the original text.Then he(2016)chose specific examples in the translation of children’s literature to analyze and explore how the translator reproduces the register of the original text and what the suppositional social role of the translator acts in the context of the target text.While agreeing with Halliday’s thought of register,Gao(2013) found that register not only has the characteristics of situational context,but also has the characteristics of language.He(2014)applied the register analysis to the translation study and put forward the three-level model of register analysis oftranslation study.Then he(2015)proposed that the register has two sides,which provides the basis for the new concept of register reconstruction.Chen(Chen,Wang, &Zhang,2014)combined with the specific examples of Yang Xianyi’s and Hawkes’translation of Hong Lou Meng,exploring the correspondence of the register(field, register,tenor)of address translation in literary works,to ensure that the target text is faithful not only to the conceptual meaning of the original address,but also to the typological meaning of the potential structure of the text determined by the functional domain,in order to achieve its communicative and rhetorical functions.Liu(2016) compared the register space of English and Chinese with a qualitative method, concluding that the register level of Chinese is narrower than that of English.The root of the narrowing of register level in Chinese probably has a close relationship with the May4th Movement.From the perspective of register theory,Jing(Jing,&Duan,2017) discussed the equivalence of culture-loaded words in translation shift.Huang(Huang, &Sun,2017)conducted the research on the causes and methods of the register transformation in textual translation based on the register theory.And they put forward the strategy and type of three-step register transformation.Also,in recent years,many graduate students have written master’s degree theses in register and translation.These studies analyze different texts from the perspective of the register which have certain value and significance and provide different degrees of reference for further research.However,these studies are still in the introductory stage or primary stage in terms of research methods and perspectives.Most of these studies analyze different corpus based on the concept of three variables of situational context in the Systemic Functional Linguistics.The combination of register theory and analysis is not very close,that is,some analyses of translation are not built on lexical grammar which embodies the three language meta-functions,but on personal subjective impressions so that most of the analyses are interpreted at the linguistic level of words, sentences and so on.Some research is not deep and specific enough.2.2Previous Studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and Its English VersionsThis part combs the research thread of the source text and the two target texts of Gan Xiao Liu Ji at home and abroad.2.2.1Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions abroadHowever,according to the literature the author holds,few scholars are studying the translating characteristics of the English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji,let alone studying that from the perspective of the register.The story itself is more welcome abroad.2.2.2Previous studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its English versions at homeGan Xiao Liu Ji is an outstanding work in the setting of the Cultural Revolution. It describes what the author Yang Jiang and her husband Qian Zhongshu saw,felt and realized in the special period of the Cultural Revolution,which not only shows people their difficult experiences,but also directly provides people with real and valuable materials for understanding this history.Yang Jiang has always enjoyed a high reputation in the Chinese literary world,and her literary attainments are quite high. The style of her article is unique,especially prose.Therefore,most of the domestic studies on Gan Xiao Liu Ji focus on its plain and simple writing style and its historical or cultural significance.Zhang(1994)believes that Yang Jiang’s placid narration is to convey her inner feelings and depict her painful soul with moderation.Her self-soothing and self-deprecating words express the irony of this historical event.Li (2009)combed the process of publishing Gan Xiao Liu Ji and its increasing popularity in the literary circles at home and abroad and praised Yang Jiang’s plain and simple writing style and her pure and unfiltered aesthetic realm.Wu(1991) considers that it is narrow to put Gan Xiao Liu Ji into the type of“optimism”prose because there is the protest in calmness and sympathy.Thus,the author called it “indefinite-form prose”.Wei(2012)interpreted Gan Xiao Liu Ji from Yang Jiang’s female perspective and intellectual standpoint.Under the method of10“society-literature,”Zhu(2019)tried to utilize the theory of cultural memory to show how the memory of intellectuals was edited by the literature of that period in the Gan Xiao Liu Ji.These studies are based on Yang Jiang’s writing style and the deep implication conveyed in her writing,which slightly involves in the language level,but not in-depth.Since the publication of Gan Xiao Liu Ji,it has aroused widespread concern in Chinese academic circles.However,there is not much research on the English translation of the book.Chen(2010)explored the translation strategies adopted in the three English versions to reflect the salient meaning of reduplicative words and the translation model embodied by these translation strategies.Zhang(2010)pointed out that interpretation on the part of the translators could work out well only when it complied with the intention of the source texts and the authors by quoting examples of amplification from the two English versions(respectively translated by Goldblatt and Djang Chu)of Yang Jiang’s Gan Xiao Liu Ji.Deng(2011)tried to analyze the two English versions respectively translated by Djang Chu and Geremie Barme from three aspects:the translator’s interpretation of the source text,the translator’s translation strategy and translation style,in order to explain the embodiment of the translator’s subjectivity in the target text.Xu(2016)studied the translation process of Goldblatt’s English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji based on83letters between Goldblatt and editors, publishers,authors,scholars and readers in the period of translating Gan Xiao Liu Ji, which were collected by the Archives of Chinese Literature Translation at the University of Oklahoma.Besides,this topic has aroused many graduate students’attention in recent years. On the basis of the German scholar Albrecht Neubert’s viewpoint on the theory of translation competence,Wu(2017)made a comparative study of two English versions of Gan Xiao Liu Ji which were respectively translated by Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu from aesthetic,thematic,linguistic,cultural,textual and transformational aspects combined with the characteristics of the source text.Based on the theory of adaptation,Wang(2018)discussed the adaptation made in the process of translating Gan Xiao Liu Ji by Howard Goldblatt,the corresponding translation methods and thefactors that affect the author’s choice of adaptation from four aspects:contextual relationship,structural object,the dynamics of adaptation and the degree of consciousness in the process of adaptation.Han(2018),from the perspective of social semiotics,studied the difficulties encountered in the process of the translation of the language meaning,and the compensation strategy adopted by Howard Goldblatt to minimize the loss of meaning in the translation process.There are not many pieces of research on the English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji in China.Moreover,the above researches on the translation phenomena in the translated texts of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji is not thorough and comprehensive,and there are few examples revealing the characteristics of the translated texts.However,the above researches are of great significance to the study of the English versions of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji,which can enlighten future scholars.The author finds that no one has studied the translated texts of the Gan Xiao Liu Ji from the perspective of the register theory of the Systemic Functional Linguistics,and the results of the comparative study of Howard Goldblatt and Djang Chu are rare.Most domestic scholars tend to study Howard Goldblat’s English translation and his translation ability and style.Chapter ThreeTHEORETICAL FRAMEWORK3.1Brief Introduction to Register TheoryThe research of register analysis originated from Malinowski’s related researches.He put forward the concept of situational context in1923,he thought that language activities of human always occur in a specific context,and the use of language should consider the context in which it is located(Malinowski,1923). However,to succeed in verbal communication,especially when communicative activities occur between people who speak different languages,the role of culture can not be ignored,so Malinowski proposed the concept of cultural context in1935 (Malinowski,1935).The initial development of register analysis benefits from Firth. He incorporated Malinowski’s thought of situational context into his linguistic theory. In his opinion,linguistics is the study of meaning of language which is the function of language in context(Firth,1935).The concept of the register was first put forward by Reid when he studied bilingual phenomena in1956(Reid,1956).In the early1960s, Halliday,the funder of the Systemic Functional Linguistics,inheriting and developing the concept of situational context raised by Malinowski and relation theory of meaning presented by Firth,held that language varies with its function,and this linguistic variant distinguished by function was register.In1964,Halliday summarized that the situational context consists of three elements or variables,namely, field of discourse,mode of discourse and style of discourse.In1978,for the sake of avoiding ambiguity,Halliday transformed“style of discourse”into“tenor of discourse”(Halliday,1978).And these three situational variables are called the field, tenor and mode for short.Meanwhile,Halliday found that these three situational variables were related to the three metafunctions of language(experiential, interpersonal and textual function).He believed that a particular register was a given type of situation,which acted on the semantic system and selected and activated a specific semantic network.The meaning potential determined by this process is the。
双语表征研究的理论与实验方法
《当代语言学》第3卷2001年第4期289—304页,北京双语表征研究的理论与实验方法木李荣宝福建师范大学彭聃龄北京师范大学摘要本文详细介绍了近半个世纪以来双语表征研究的主要理论和实验方法。
对各种理论和方法的历史背景进行了全面的考察,并对其主要贡献和存在的具体问题进行了客观的评价。
从现存的问题中,我们可以看出。
由于语言认知过程本身的复杂性,对双语表征问题只有采用多学科结合的研究手段,从双语表征的各个层面进行综合性实验研究,才能得出一致的结论并且建立起一个科学的双语表征模型。
关键词双语表征1.双语表征研究的理论背景在二十世纪五十年代末期,Chomsky的《句法结构》(1957)给语言学的研究带来了深刻的影响,有力地推动了语言认知科学的发展。
心理学家和语言学家都试图从不同的角度去验证Chomsky语言普遍性的假设,从而揭示人类语言和思维的本质。
Chomsky认为,人类语言就其本质而言是相同的,也就是说,各种语言之间具有普遍的,共同的属性。
这种属性是由人类自身的属性所决定的。
Chomsky认为,人类的语言是人类与生俱来的一种本能,它不是后天学习和训练的产物。
人类之所以能在如此短暂的时间里掌握如此复杂的语言系统,其主要原因是,每一个心智健全的人,都有一套由遗传决定的、带有语言普遍特性的语法机制,其核心是句法。
他认为人类的语言机制,通过后天语言环境的刺激而被激活,成为具体的语言能力。
在一种具体的语言环境中,人们不是象Skinner(1957)所说的那样.通过刺激一反应式的强化过程来习得语言,而是在普遍语言能力的支配下,通过掌握有限的规则而实现的。
Chomsky还认为,虽然从具体结构来看,人类语言千差万别,但是从本质上来看,所有语言都是相似的。
他的原则一参数论(principles- and.p aram eter s approach)假设,所有语言共有一部普遍语法(universal grammar),它是一个通用规则的集合。
Lexical Semantics
big red
buy sell
→ →
about size about color
not antonyms
→ change in possession
relational opposites
Evidence for Semantic Features
Consider the following unintentional word substitutions that some speakers have actually spoken.
Lexical Semantics
Word Meanings
The Convention of Lexical Semantics
“There‟s glory for you!” “I don‟t know what you mean by „glory,‟” Alice said. Bob smiled, “Of course you don‟t—till I tell you. I meant „there‟s a nice knockdown argument for you!‟” “But „glory‟ doesn‟t mean „a nice knockdown argument,‟” Alice objected. “When I use a word,” Bob said, “it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.”
These additional elements of meaning are often termed sense.
Conclusion
Reference [指称]: concrete entity Reference is the association with its referent.
编译原理(第2版)陈意云张昱编著课后答案
Use as a study resource to enhance comprehension and retention of the material.
编译原理概述
1 Definition
Study of translating source code into machine-readable format.
A tool that performs lexical analysis by scanning and tokenizing the source code.
结论和要点
Key Takeaways
1. Understanding compilation principles is essential for software development.
3 Group Study
Collaborate with classmates to compare and discuss solutions.
第一章:引论
1
Introduction to Compilation
Overview of the compilation process and its importance.
2 Importance
Essential for understanding software development and building compilers.
3 Topics Covered
Lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, and optimization.
课后答案的使用方法
1 Reference Guide
the lexical approach 词汇教学法
for use in the classroom or accessible on the Internet.
Design
Role of teachers
Role of learners
1.Teacher talk is a major source of learner input.
2.Teacher meOthrodgoalongyi:zTearsk, Planning,
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
• Lexical approach can enhance accuracy and fluency of language production.
• Lexical approach can deepen learners’ understanding of language rules.
the single word.
4.The role of collocation is also
important.
1.Lexis is the
nguage consists
basis of
of grammaticalized
language.
lexis, not lexicalized grammar.
02
The lexical syllabus is related closely with computer corpus.
Design
Learning activities
• Intensive and extensive listening and reading in the
target language.
语言学的名词解释
When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you.1. Acculturation(同化过程)is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair(相邻语对);a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)(一致): a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators(发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体): the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气); the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant.E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant(辅音); a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature(会话含义):meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims.municative competence(交际能力); the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.11. constituent(成分): a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.12.case(格):the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause(小句): a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class(封闭词类): a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members.15.coinage(创新词): the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布): the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language.17.duality(双重结构): a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units.18.entailment(包含); the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism(委婉语): a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence(花园小径句): a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection(屈折变化): the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.ernment(支配): the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.nguage universal(语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系)The substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition(预设): implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem(词干): the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo(禁忌语):words that are offensive or embarrassing, c onsidered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.37.contrastive distribution(对比分布):If the speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context and the substitution results a contrast in meaning, we say they are in contrastive distribution.38.immidiate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法)is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.39.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构)One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构)the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.42.PP(politeness principle)tact maxim;generosity principle;approbation maxim;modesty maxim;agreement maxim;sympathy maxim.43.irony(反语)is the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning of the utterance.44.code-switching: (语码转换) means the alternation between two or more languages,language varieties or registers in communication.45.affective filter(情感过滤):A screen of emotion that can block language acquisition or learning if it keeps the learners being too self-conscious or too embarrassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.46.Conversion(转类构词)is a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it. A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or zero derivation.47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper as well as by the patterns of word order that is part of the grammatical system of a language. The part of the sentence meaning contributed by words is called the lexical meaning and the part of sentence meaning that depends upon the way the words are put together is called grammatical meaning, in which the function words and the word order play a very important role.48.paralinguistic meaning VS non-linguistic meaning (副语言意义与非语言意义)In human communication, apart from the linguistic meaning conveyed by language itself,there are numerous paralinguistic meanings and non-linguistic meanings that are perceived simultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are those attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice,tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non-linguistic meanings are thoseindicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of body languages and different contexts of situation.49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. Connotation is not the basic meaing of the word but some emotive or evaluative meaings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind.50.linguistic relativity VS linguistic determinism (语言相对论与语言决定论)The Sapir-Wholf Hypothesis states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. It boils down to two principles: linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.Linguistic relativity states that disctinctions encoded in one language are unique to that langage alone, and that there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we view and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strongdeterminism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that language actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。
现代语言学名词解释
现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The s tudy of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example:“John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,: The seal c ould not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$is best} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to createa word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.{$is best}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Chomsky def ines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i.e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed byrules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning ofa sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers ofa language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act perfo rmed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. {$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in whicha word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves asa medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 taboo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemisms, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. {$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is known as the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers toa period in one’s life extending fr om about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
编译过程的六个阶段
编译过程的六个阶段
编译过程一般包括以下六个阶段:
1. 词法分析(Lexical Analysis):将源代码分解为一个个的词法单元,比如标识符、关键字、运算符等。
2. 语法分析(Syntax Analysis):根据编程语言的语法规则,将词法单元组织成一棵语法树。
这个阶段也被称为解析(Parsing)。
3. 语义分析(Semantic Analysis):检查语法树的语义正确性,比如变量的声明和使用是否符合规则,类型是否匹配等。
4. 中间代码生成(Intermediate Code Generation):将语法树转换为中间代码,可以是抽象语法树、三地址码、字节码等。
5. 优化(Optimization):对生成的中间代码进行优化,以提高程序的运行效率,比如常量折叠、循环展开等。
6. 目标代码生成(Code Generation):将优化后的中间代码转换为目标机器的机器码。
这个阶段还包括内存分配、寄存器分配等操作。
需要注意的是,不同的编译器可能会有不同的实现方式和额外的阶段,但一般来说,以上六个阶段是编译过程的核心部分。
sklearn.discriminant_analysis 方法
sklearn.discriminant_analysis 方法sklearn.discriminant_analysis 是scikit-learn 库中的一个子模块,它提供了用于执行线性判别分析(Linear Discriminant Analysis, LDA) 的工具。
LDA 是一种监督学习方法,用于多分类问题,它的目标是找到一个投影方向,使得同一类别的样本尽可能接近,而不同类别的样本尽可能远离。
以下是sklearn.discriminant_analysis 中一些重要的方法和函数:1、LinearDiscriminantAnalysis: 这是LDA 的主要实现。
你可以使用这个类来执行LDA,并得到降维后的数据。
pythonfrom sklearn.discriminant_analysis import LinearDiscriminantAnalysis# 实例化LDA 对象lda = LinearDiscriminantAnalysis()# 拟合数据lda.fit(X_train, y_train)# 转换数据X_train_lda = lda.transform(X_train)X_test_lda = lda.transform(X_test)2、QDA: 这是Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (QDA) 的实现,它是一个非线性的LDA 版本。
使用方法与LDA 类似。
3、GaussianDiscriminantAnalysis: 这是一个基于高斯分布的LDA 实现,适用于数据大致服从高斯分布的情况。
4、MiniBatchLDA: 这是一个小批量的LDA 实现,用于处理大数据集。
它允许你使用小批量样本来估计类别的概率分布,从而加速计算。
5、TransformedTargetRegressor: 这是一个用于处理目标转换回归问题的类。
它允许你在训练过程中对目标变量进行变换,例如将二分类问题转换为多分类问题。
sql解析流程
sql解析流程SQL(Structured Query Language)是用于管理关系数据库的标准编程语言。
当你在数据库管理系统(如 MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server 等)中执行一个 SQL 查询时,它经历了以下的基本流程:1. 词法分析(Lexical Analysis):输入的 SQL 语句首先被分解为一系列的词素或标记(tokens)。
例如,关键字、操作符、标识符、字符串字面量等都被识别出来。
2. 语法分析(Syntax Analysis):这些标记然后被组织成一个语法树(parse tree)或抽象语法树(Abstract Syntax Tree, AST)。
这个树形结构表示了 SQL 语句中的语法关系。
3. 语义分析(Semantic Analysis):在这一步,数据库系统会检查语法树中的语义准确性。
这包括检查表和列是否存在、数据类型是否正确、权限检查等。
4. 查询优化(Query Optimization):在这一步,系统会尝试找到执行查询的最有效的方法。
这可能涉及到多种策略,例如使用索引、合并连接操作等。
优化器会生成一个或多个执行计划,并选择其中的最佳方案。
5. 执行计划(Execution Plan):根据优化器选择的最佳方案,系统会生成一个执行计划。
这个计划详细说明了如何检索数据,包括读取哪些表、使用哪些索引等。
6. 执行(Execution):最后,系统根据执行计划执行查询,检索或修改数据,并返回结果。
7. 返回结果(Result Return):如果查询是 SELECT 类型,系统会返回查询结果。
如果是 DML(数据操纵语言)或 DDL(数据定义语言)类型的查询,系统会根据指令修改或创建数据。
8. 清理和关闭(Cleanup and Closure):在查询完成后,系统会释放为该查询分配的资源。
这包括关闭打开的表、释放锁等。
这个过程是大多数关系数据库管理系统处理 SQL 查询的基本方式。
Lecture03 Lexical Analysis2
Example
(a|b)*abb
Transition Function: Move
Transition function (table): move(s, c) a s0 s1 s2 s3 s1 s1 s1 s1 b s0 s2 s3 s0
DFA
O(|x|),x is input string,|x| is the length of x
作业
Assignment2.doc
See you next time!
From NFA to DFA
e.g.
From NFA to DFA
e.g.
move({0, 1, 2, 4, 7}, a) = {3, 8}
Subset Construction
Algorithm:Subset Construction Input: An NFA N Output: A DFA D accepting the same language as N Method: Each state of D is a set of NFA states. The algorithm constructs a transition table Dtran for D.
From Regular Expression to NFA
Example
Construct an NFA for (a|b)*abb
a
b
a|b
Exampleቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
(a|b)*
(a|b)*a
Example
(a|b)*abb
From NFA to DFA
一些记号:
e.g.
Є-closure(0)={0, 1, 2, 4, 7}
在搭配中学习科技英语次专业术语的实证探讨.
在搭配中学习科技英语次专业术语的实证探讨内容导读: 3 4 5 6 7 下一页在我国,面对本科低年级学生的大学英语教学和面对高年级学生的专业英语教学都面临着挑战。
大学英语教学实际上成为高中英语学习的重复,而专业英语教学更多地将重点放在词汇的构成分析和翻译上。
问题的产生引出我国英语教学的三个矛盾:普通英语和专业英语教学没有衔接;语言教师缺乏专业知识而专业教师欠缺语言知识;用传统的教学模式讲授专业英语学习材料。
针对这些现象和问题,特别是没有一个可操纵的‘科技英语’词汇教学模型问题,本研究提出,理工科学生在专业英语学习之前要接受一些‘科技英语’的学习,以利于更进一步的专业英语学习和今后更有效的专业交际,并进行了科技英语词汇教学的实证研究。
传统的词汇教学模式可以被称为‘词典式’学习,词汇的学习是孤立的。
由于专业词典的编撰跟不上科技的发展变化,用传统的词汇教学模式来翻译和学习科技英语不是十分成功的。
很多学者都提到过在语篇中搭配学习词汇的好处,在搭配中习得的词汇,特别是实现语篇衔接的名词短语更利于表达复杂的思想。
另据语料库统计,专业术语仅占科技英语文章9的词汇,而次专业术语__依靠语境、跨学科的高频词___以及由次专业术语构成的名词性短语在科技语篇中占有重要地位。
因此,本研究提出在搭配中学习科技英语次专业术语(CBSTT)的教学模式,依据功能理论,运用词汇搭配方法、特别是词汇重复衔接模式,以理工科一年级本科生为对象,以科技英语次专业术语搭配为内容进行的词汇教学模式的探索。
为检验效果,本研究将在搭配中学习科技英语次专业术语的教学模式与传统的词汇教学模式进行了对比实验研究,运用了短语组合和写作两种任务形式收集实验数据检验该词汇教学模式对次专业术语的搭配能力、产出能力和科技语篇词汇重复衔接手段的效果,采用SPSSV15.0统计软件对前测、后测中采集的数据进行了独立样本T检验,并对数据结果进行了分析讨论和解释。
数据分析表明,对照组和实验组的学生在科技英语次专业词汇的习得生对科技体裁的恐惧,以为更进一步的专业英语学习和进行有效的专业交际打下基础。
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return(relop, EQ)
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
标识符和保留字的转换图
letter或digit 或 开始
9
letter
10
other
*
11
return(installId( ))
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
无符号数的转换图
number → digit+ (.digit+)? (E (+ | )? digit+)?
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
正规定义的例子(进行下一步讨论的例子) 正规定义的例子(进行下一步讨论的例子)
while → while do → do relop → < | < = | = | < > | > | > = letter → A | B | … | Z | a | b | … | z id → letter (letter | digit )* number → digit+ (.digit+)? (E (+ | )? digit+)? delim → blank | tab | newline ws → delim+
2.3 有 限 自 动 机
2.3.1 不确定的有限自动机(简称 不确定的有限自动机(简称NFA) )
一个数学模型,它包括: 一个数学模型,它包括: 1、状态集合 、状态集合S 2、输入符号集合∑ 、输入符号集合∑ 3、转换函数 、转换函数move : S × ( ∑∪{ε} ) → P(S) ε 4、状态 0是唯一的开始状态 、状态s 5、F S是接受状态集合 是接受状态集合 a 识别语言 (a|b)*ab 的NFA 开始 0 b a 1 b 2
例
L: { A, B, …, Z, a, b, …, z }, D: { 0, 1, …, 9 } L ∪ D, LD, L6, L*, L(L ∪ D )*, D+
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
2.2.2 正规式 正规式用来表示简单的语言,叫做正规集 正规式用来表示简单的语言,叫做正规集 用来表示简单的语言 正规式 定义的语言 备注 ε { ε} a a∈∑ {a} } (r) | (s) L(r)∪L(s) r和s是正规式 ∪ 和 是正规式 (r)(s) L(r)L(s) r和s是正规式 和 是正规式 (L(r))* r是正规式 (r)* 是正规式 (r) L(r) r是正规式 是正规式 ((a) (b)*)| (c)可以写成 *| c 可以写成ab 可以写成
–保留字是语言预先确定了含义的词法单元 保留字 保留 – 标准标识符也是预先确定了含义的标识符,但程 标准标识符也是预先确定了含义的标识符, 序可以重新声明它的含义
2.1 词法记号及属性
2.1.2 词法记号的属性
position = initial + rate 60的记号和属性值: 的记号和属性值: 的记号和属性值 条目的指针 id,指向符号表中 ,指向符号表中position条目的指针 条目的指针 assign _ op 条目的指针 id,指向符号表中 ,指向符号表中initial条目的指针 条目的指针 add_op id,指向符号表中rate条目的指针 ,指向符号表中 条目的指针 条目的指针 mul_ op number,整数值 ,整数值60
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
正规定义的例子
无符号数集合, 无符号数集合,例1946,11.28,63E8,1.99E6 , , , digit → 0 | 1 | … | 9 digits → digit digit* optional_fraction → .digits|ε | optional_exponent → ( E ( + | | ε ) digits ) | ε number→digits optional_fraction optional_exponent → 简化表示 number → digit+ (.digit+)? (E(+|)? digit+)?
2
2.3 有 限 自 动 机
例 (a|b)*ab,NFA如下,把它变换为 如下, , 如下 把它变换为DFA
ε ε 1 ε 4 b ε 5 2 a 3 ε ε 6 ε 7 a 8 b 9
开始 0
ε
2.3 有 限 自 动 机
状态 输入符号 a b
ε ε 1 ε 4 b ε 5 2 a 3 ε ε 6 ε 7 a 8 b 9
E digit 开始 digit 12 13 .
14
digit digit
15
digit E +/ digit
digit
18
16
17
otherother来自other *19
return( installNum( ) )
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
空白的转换图 空白的转换图
delim → blank | tab | newline ws → delim+ delim 开始 20 delim 21 other 22 *
ε ε
2.3 有 限 自 动 机
2.3.2 确定的有限自动机(简称 确定的有限自动机(简称DFA) ) 一个数学模型,包括: 一个数学模型,包括:
1、状态集合S 、状态集合 2、输入字母集合Σ 、输入字母集合Σ 3、转换函数 、转换函数move : S × Σ → S,且可以是部分函数 , 4、唯一的开始状态 s0 、 b 5、接受状态集合 S b 集合F 、接受状态集合 识别语言 (a|b)*ab 的DFA
子集构造法 1、DFA的一个状态是 的一个状态是NFA的一个状态集合 、 的一个状态是 的一个状态集合 2、读了输入 1 a2 … an后, 、读了输入a NFA能到达的所有状态:s1, s2, …, sk,则 能到达的所有状态: 能到达的所有状态 DFA到达状态 1, s2, …, sk} 到达状态{s 到达状态 a a a 开始 {0} {0, 1} b a 0 1 b 未画完 b {0, 2} b
串的运算
– 连接(积) xy,sε = εs = s 连接( ,ε –幂 s0为ε,si为si -1s(i > 0) 幂 ( )
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
语言的运算
–并: 并 –连接: 连接: 连接 – 幂: –闭包: 闭包: 闭包 – 正闭包: 正闭包: L ∪ M = {s | s ∈L 或 s ∈ M } LM = {st | s ∈ L 且 t ∈ M} L0是{ε},Li是Li -1L ε, L = L0 ∪ L1 ∪ L2 ∪ … L+ = L1 ∪ L2 ∪ …
2.1 词法记号及属性
2.1.3 词法错误
–词法分析器对源程序采取非常局部的观点 词法分析器对源程序采取非常局部的观点 –例:难以发现下面的错误 例 fi (a == f (x) ) … – 在实数是 格式下,可以发现下面的错误 在实数是a.b格式下 格式下, 123.x –紧急方式的错误恢复 紧急方式的错误恢复 紧急方式 删掉当前若干个字符, 删掉当前若干个字符,直至能读出正确的记号 – 错误修补 进行增、 进行增、删、替换和交换字符的尝试
第二章 词法分析
记号(token) 记号 源程序 词法分析器 取下一个记号 符号表 语法分析器
本章内容
– 词法分析器:把构成源程序的字符流翻译成 词法分析器: 记号流, 记号流,还完成和用户接口的一些任务 – 围绕词法分析器的自动生成展开 – 介绍正规式、状态转换图和有限自动机概念 介绍正规式、
2.1 词法记号及属性
2.3 有 限 自 动 机
NFA的转换表 的转换表
状 态 0 1 2 a 识别语言 (a|b)*ab 的NFA 开始 0 b a 输 入 符 号 a {0, 1} b {0} {2} b
1
2
2.3 有 限 自 动 机
例 识别 *|bb*的NFA 识别aa
a 1 a 2 b 3 b 4
开始 0
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
2.2.1 串和语言
– 字母表:符号的有限集合, 例:∑ = { 0, 1} 字母表:符号的有限集合, – 串:符号的有穷序列,例:0110, ε 符号的有穷序列, – 语言:字母表上的一个串集 语言: {ε, 0, 00, 000, …}, {ε}, ε ε – 句子:属于语言的串 句子:
2.2 词法记号的描述与识别
正规定义的例子
– C语言的标识符是字母、数字和下划线组成的串 语言的标识符是字母、 语言的标识符是字母 letter_ → A | B | … | Z | a | b | … | z | _ digit → 0 | 1 | … | 9 id → letter_(letter_ |digit)* ( )
2.1.1 词法记号、模式、词法单元 词法记号、模式、
记号名 if for relation id number literal 符 词法单元例举 if for < , <= , = , … sum, count, D5 3.1, 10, 2.8 E12 “seg. error” 模式的非形式描述 字符i, 字符 f 字符f, o, r 字符 < 或 <= 或 = 或 … 由字母开头的字母数字串 任何数值常数 引号“ 和 ” 之间的任意字 引号 “ 串,但引号本身除外
2.1 词法记号及属性
历史上词法定义中的一些问题
–忽略空格带来的困难 忽略空格带来的困难 DO 8 I = 3. 75 DO8I = 3. 75 DO 8 I = 3, 75 – 关键字不保留 IF THEN THEN THEN=ELSE;ELSE … ;
关键字、保留字和标准标识符的区别 关键字、保留字和标准标识符的区别 字和
复杂的例子