Evidence from quasi-periodic oscillations for a millisecond pulsar in the low mass x-ray bi

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2017年12月16日托福阅读考试最新预测

2017年12月16日托福阅读考试预测题目Title：The Cambrian ExplosionThe earliest fossil evidence for eukaryotes complex organisms whose cells contain a distinct nucleus dates to only about 1.2 billionyears ago. The fossil record suggests that animal evolution progressedslowly, with relatively little change seen between fossils from 1.2 billion years ago and those from a half-billion years later. But thensomething quite dramatic happened as can be judged by the manydifferent animal groups that suddenly appear in the fossil record.Biologists classify animals according to their basic body plans. For example, the basic body plan shared by mammals and reptiles is fundamentally different from that of insects.Animals are grouped by body plan into what biologists call phyla. Mammals and reptiles both belong to the single phylum Chordata, which includes animals with internal skeletons. Insects, crabs, and spiders belong to the phylum Arthropoda, which contains animals with body features such as jointed legs, an external skeleton, and segmented bodies. Classifying animals into phyla is an ongoing project for biologists, but modern animals appear to comprise about 30 different phyla, each representing a different body plan.Remarkably, nearly all of these different body plans, plus a few others that have gone extinct, make their first known appearance in the geological record during a period spanning only about 40 million years less than about 1 percent of Earth's history. This remarkable flowering of animal diversity appears to have begun about 545 million years ago, which corresponds to the start of the Cambrian period. Hence it is called the Cambrian explosion.The fact that the Cambrian explosion marks the only major diversification of body plans in the geological record presents us with two important and related questions: Why, so long after the origin of eukaryotes, did the pace of evolution suddenly accelerate dramatically at the beginning of the Cambrian, and why hasn't there been another period of similarly explosive diversification since then We can identify at least four factors that might have contributed to the Cambrian explosion. First, the oxygen level in our atmosphere may have remained well below its present level until about the time of the Cambrian explosion. Thus, the rapid diversification in animal life may have occurred at least in part because oxygen reached a critical level for the survival of larger and more energy-intensive life forms.A second factor that may have been important was the evolution of genetic complexity.As eukaryotes evolved, they developedmore and more genetic variation in their DNA. Some scientists believe that the Cambrian explosion marks the point at which organismsdeveloped certain kinds of genes (homeobox genes) that control body form and that could be combined in different ways, allowing the evolution of a great diversity of forms over time。

证据分析英语作文带翻译

证据分析英语作文带翻译Title: Analysis of Evidence。

In the realm of academic discourse and critical thinking, the analysis of evidence plays a pivotal role in constructing cogent arguments and drawing informed conclusions. Whether in scientific research, legal proceedings, or everyday discussions, the ability to scrutinize evidence effectively is essential for fostering rational discourse and advancing knowledge. This essay will delve into the significance of evidence analysis, explore its methodologies, and highlight its implications across various domains.Firstly, let us elucidate the importance of evidence analysis. Evidence serves as the foundation upon which assertions are validated or refuted. In scientific inquiry, empirical evidence derived from systematic observation and experimentation underpins the formulation and validation of hypotheses. Similarly, in legal contexts, the presentationand interpretation of evidence can sway the verdict infavor of one party or another. Moreover, evidence analysis fosters critical thinking skills by encouraging individuals to evaluate the reliability, relevance, and credibility of information before accepting it as true.Next, it is imperative to delineate the methodologies employed in evidence analysis. One prevalent approach isthe systematic examination of empirical data through quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative analysis involves statistical techniques to discern patterns, trends, and correlations within datasets. Conversely, qualitative analysis entails the interpretation of textual or visual data to extract underlying meanings and themes. Additionally, critical appraisal frameworks, such as the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) system in healthcare, offer structured methodologies for assessing the quality and strength of evidence.Furthermore, evidence analysis engenders far-reaching implications across diverse domains. In the realm of publicpolicy, evidence-based decision-making relies on rigorous analysis to inform interventions and initiatives aimed at addressing societal challenges. For instance, policymakers may rely on cost-benefit analyses and impact evaluations to assess the efficacy of proposed policies. In the legal sphere, forensic experts meticulously analyze physical evidence, such as DNA samples or fingerprints, to reconstruct events and ascertain culpability accurately. Moreover, in academic research, peer review processesentail the scrutiny of evidence by experts in the field to ensure the validity and reliability of scholarly findings.In conclusion, the analysis of evidence serves as a linchpin in rational discourse, critical inquiry, and informed decision-making. By employing rigorous methodologies to evaluate the reliability and relevance of information, individuals can construct robust arguments, draw sound conclusions, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge across various domains. As we navigate an era inundated with information, honing the skill of evidence analysis becomes increasingly indispensable for discerning truth from falsehood and fostering intellectual rigor.Title: 证据分析的重要性。

Memolution

MemolutionMarleen van der WerfOctober 2005AbstractAccording to Dawkins a meme is a unit of cultural transmission. Memetics - the theoretical and empirical science that studies the replication, spread and evolution of memes- is a heavily discussed topic in science where scientists disagree on the scientific content of the concept of ‘meme’. This paper is a literature study exploring the concept of memes and different perspective and theories related to this concept, especially focusing on the problems the science of Biology has by fitting in human behaviour. Three futuristic perspectives on the position of memes are given; memes disappearing, meme and gene coevolution and memes taking over. The last perspective is thought to be metaphysical, but this paper shows that good arguments and even theories for this perspective can be given. It will therefore conclude memetics could be on their scientific way and a ‘memolution’1 must be seen as a realistic futuristic perspective.IntroductionIn 1859 Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" in which he explained evolution as the mechanism of variation by random mutations and natural selection2. Another influential modern evolutionist, Richard Dawkins3, summarizes evolution as follows: “This is the law that all life evolves by the differential survival of replicating entities”. Dawkins in his book "The Selfish Gene"breaks up the connection between evolution and genetics and suggests a common mechanism for evolution, an algorithm. Here, the replication entity, or replicator, the gene, is seen as a piece of information that is able to reproduce itself. Selection on the expression of replicating 1 ‘Memolution is a combination of the concepts ‘meme’, ‘evolution’ and ‘revolution’. Byusing this concept I aim to describe the revolution in evolution memes triggered by changing speed and replicating entity. I’m aware of the critic that by ‘giving it a name’ I miss out on the concept I’m aiming at for that concept can never be approached from a human perspective and therefore will never be a content of language. But maybe leaving out this metaphysical question can have a purpose. You can judge on this point after reading the whole paper.2 Darwin, C.R., 1859. On the Origins of Species. John Murray, London, UK.3 Dawkins, R., 1989, 1976. The Selfish Gene, second edition. Oxford University Press,entities will result in differential in survival. A similar entity could be seen in culture where also pieces of information are passed on in a selective way. Therefore the term ‘meme’ was introduced by Dawkins for the human ability of large-scale imitation of behaviour and their ability to copy things like stories, songs, habits, skills, inventions and ways of transferring these from person to person. These pieces of information, ‘memes’, can be stored in media like brains, cd’s, videos, books and computer files. Memetics asserts that is it is possible to take a meme’s eye view with respect to the diffusion of culture and cultural similarity which are in this respect associated wit cultural evolution through social learning or transmission 4. According to Dawkins the replication process for memes is imitation, and Blackmore5 takes this point further and identifies three complex stages of imitation: deciding what to imitate, transforming one point of view to another and producing a matching bodily action. This process of stages could easily be compared to Kuhn’s paradigms and paradigm shifts. But noticing this mechanism, one can also compare the concept of the meme with the gene.Memes and GenesBy looking at the differences and similarities between memes and genes a good picture of the concept meme can be given.DifferencesBy comparing memes with genes one finds similarities and differences. An important feature is memes not passing on neutral, where genes mostly are doing so. A cultural evolution is less random than biological evolution. But if memes do not pass on neutral, could there be a direction? Henry Plotkin6 explores the fact that human beings frequently replicate cultural ideas that might be "irrational" from a strictly biological perspective, such as the meme ‘smoking is cool’. Memes could be thought of as passing on in a direction that has a negative influence on the genes of human beings. Such an ‘irrational’ factor is not observed in genes; even most altruism seems to be explainable in a ‘genetic rational’ way7.4 Aunger in ‘Darwinizing culture’5 Blackmore, S., 1999. The Meme Machine. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK6 Plotkin in ‘Darwinizing culture’7 As can be seen in different articles on altruism in the journal ‘Animal Behaviour’.Another important difference between genes and memes is that for memes no material can be pointed out to replicate; memes therefore are thought to be only a concept. But Aunger8seems to find material evidence for the existence of memes in neuromemetics. By looking at processes in the brain he tries to materialize the meme. Memes are also thought to be pseudo-scientific. Although Derek Gatherer9 did a scientific study on the Eurovision singing contest and voting behaviour and concluded that through the years a mutual voting between countries arises and that in the last few years the mutual voting has even increased exceptionally. By showing this phenomenon in graphs the meme could be seen as materialized. The study of Gatherer is also an example of how a scientific case study can demonstrate how a memetic process can arise. But material or scientific evidence or not, processes such as replication, selection and change could all be seen as part of the meme as well as the gene concept. SimmularitiesIn respect to the famous distinction between replicators and interactors, memes and genes could both be seen as replicators for both pass on their structure largely intact in successive replications10. Keeping in mind that humans are not able to transfer their thoughts to others, imitated is the phenotypic effect and not the meme itself. The same process can be seen in DNA 11 where DNA only provides the schema, not a copy for a new organism. Aunger12 argues that we should look, not in permanent structures (neurons and their parts), but in evanescent states taken by those permanent structures. The definition of a meme in terms of a state rather than a material substrate could be seen as the key conceptual move in neuromemetics. According to Aunger, this is an important point as it suggests that the qualities of a meme do not depend on unique features of wiring diagrams of 8 As described in: Benzon, W.L., 2002. The Electric Meme: A New Theory of How We Thinkby Robert Aunge. The Free Press.9 Gatherer, D., 2004. Birth of a meme: the Origin and Evolution of Collusive V oting Patterns in the Eurovision Song Contest. Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 2004.10 Hull, D. L. (1988). Science as a process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.11 Vicente, K.,2000. “Is Science an Evolutionary Process? Evidence from Miscitations of the Scientific Literature”, Perspectives on Science V ol.8, no.112 As described in: Benzon, W.L., 2002. The Electric Meme: A New Theory of How We Think by Robert Aunge. The Free Press.an individual brain, which reflects the sequence of local environments experienced during development and learning activity. Here again it is the ‘schema’, not ‘itself’. With his experiments Aunger points out another similarity between genes and memes by showing scientific research can be done on memes.Boyd and Richerson13 do not think natural selection is acting on memes. They propose another process: transformation. Transformation is described as partial misinterpretation of a meme. This misinterpretation could be seen as a genetic mutation. They claim that cultural change can only be understood at combining transformation, natural selection and non-selective processes like attempts of improving ideas. Kendal.& Laland14 reject the argument that meaningful differences exist between memetics and these population genetics methods. They point out the similarities between memetics and cultural evolution and gene-culture co-evolutionary theory and illustrate the utility of the models to memetics. Kendal & Laland’s article shows not only a similarity between genes and memes, it also gives scientific evidence for the memes by putting the mechanism in a model.But also more abstract concepts are similar for memes and genes for memetics could be accused of meme determinism as genes are accused of gene determinism and the term ‘selfish meme’ is already introduced by Dawkins15. And the first papers on ‘the memetic algorithm’ and ‘memetic engineering’ are published.Three perspectivesIn this paper I would like to explore the field of memetics and the possibility of ‘memolution’ by taking different perspectives on the future. According to the literature three perspectives predominate on the future of memes; memes disappear; memes will have coevolution with genes or; memes will take over.Memes disappear13 Boyd,R. and Richardson, P.J., 2000. Meme Theory Oversimplifies How Culture Changes. Scientific American, 2000. 283(4) p58-59.14 Kendal, J. R. and Laland, K. N.,2000. Mathematical Models for Memetics. Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 4.15 Dawkins, R., 1989, 1976. The Selfish Gene, second edition. Oxford University Press.This perspective could be proven to be the outcome of the meme notion if it stays hard to find. In that case, memes won’t be recognized as empirical and therefore will never be taken seriously by science; leaving science through the backdoor. According to Popperians, memes cannot be falsified and therefore are a pseudoscience. Another perspective on why memes will disappear is taking memetics as a meme. In this respect the meme memetics can be ‘selected away’, but this perspectives will not take us any further for it will end in a regresses infinitum for another replicator is required. By linking memes and genes one could also say that, by the time memes disappear, human beings will not exist anymore. And also if genes disappear memes will not be able to exist anymore. The underlying mechanisms for these claims can be described as:1. Genes need memes to exist2. Memes need genes to existA good example of evidence for the first perspective can be seen in the Aboriginal culture. One of the oldest societies in the world would not function without its famous memes. Their paintings and stories give them a history and give them a direction for the future. The organisation of their society, tasks of the members and methods for using the land and organisms living in it; for making fire and who is in charge of making the fire; those are all memes, essential memes. Because Aboriginals live in small communities it is genetically save to have two different genetic lines which can mate with each other. Aboriginals have stories (memes) to organize the society (genes), for example dividing society in ‘Southern wind’ and Northern wind’ making sure close related individuals do not have children together. This keeps the society and the genetic lines of the tribe clean and healthy and is therefore probably one of the most direct examples of genes needing memes. Without the meme of the ‘Winds’ too close related individuals could mate result in a great change of having disabled children which in the end could lead to the distinction of a society and their memes. The second mechanism, memes needing genes to exist, is something we cannot be sure of. Still, evidence for this perspective can be given. Humans can be considered as the only organisms using memes because humans could be considered as the only organisms having ‘culture’. Considering memes as only passing on ‘culture stuff’ could give evidence for the perspective memes needing genes.One could also think of genes providing memes. Then one could say that it was through genes that humans where able to developed and have language and culture. Auger’s neuromemetics would perfectly fit in this perspective for genes providing the casing, although one can think of memes coming into a stage where the genes are no longer essential. This view will be discussed later.So several reasons can be given for how and why memes could disappear and the implications for humans. But what if memes do not disappear? Memes and Genes having coevolutionThis idea of coevolution was introduced by Lumsden & Wilson. Imagine the most successful memes are selecting, forcing genes to create a machine that is very good at copying those memes. In that case, some memes become more successful where others fail. The successful memes will therefore include those that have been copied because they are useful. But replicators which survived were probably also the ones which built the best casings, survival machines, for themselves to live in (Dawkins in selfish memes and selfish genes). People who are best at copying the most successful memes, people who have the best genes for that job, acquire advantages in terms of status and survival, as well as being preferentially selected as mates. Therefore genes that facilitate the imitation of those particular memes are favoured and increase in the gene pool16. This mechanism is comparable with natural selection of course. Although one should keep in mind that it is possible to think of a perspective where memes provide their own survival machines. As an example one can take computers and digital information. For biology, a coevolution of genes and memes would probably be the best answer for this theory will fill up the gap for social behaviour that is not in line with the natural selection theory for genes. Dawkins17himself suggested an interesting point about the state of evolution of memetics. He sees the evolution of memes as still in its primeval soup. And because of this, a clear outlined mechanism for memes has not yet developed, like it has in the evolution of genes. The replication mechanism of memes is not yet completely fine-tuned; about the final state can only be speculated.16 On Meme-Gene Coevolution by Larry Bull, Owen Holland and Susan Blackmore17 Dawkins, R., 1989, 1976. The Selfish Gene, second edition. Oxford University Press,Another example for coevolution is seeing memes as parasitic, symbiotic ones. And even the idea rises that humans exist because of that symbiosis. In this respect you could compare the meme-gene development to the development of the eukaryotes. Relatively simple prokaryotes got invaded by some of their neighbours, and where the resulting endosymbiotic organisms created were fitter, a biological revolution was the fact18. And if we look at humans, their societies offer evidence for this perspective; survival technics for humans are mostly spread by culture and not by nature. In societies nowadays you can have a perfect set of genes, but without memes you are nowhere.So, the theory of coevolution could be seen as a very attractive and convincing one. But is coevolution necessary from the perspective of memes?Memes taking overThis third perspective, memes taking over genes, can be seen as a highly metaphysical one. If the evolution of memes goes faster than evolution of genes; what are the consequences? Henry Plotkin19 explores the fact that human beings frequently replicate cultural ideas that might be "irrational" from a strictly biological perspective. Also Higgs wondered about the fact that memes seem to make us stupid. As example Higgs20 uses teenagers driving too fast and starting to smoke. These examples are maybe hard to interpreted, but the example of a religious suicide bomber is much clearer in demonstrating how memes can be in charge of genes. By destroying genes other memes are destroyed, but also the meme gets spread by all the attention it is getting from the media.Blackmore21 brought in the perspective that humans are primarily designed for memes. She points out that meme-meme competition affects genes. Therefore, maybe, the next step could be to think of meme-meme competition creating genes for the memes own benefit. And if this idea applies we assume that memes can do without genes for they can create 18 Daniel C. Dennett in: Darwinizing Culture; Memes: Myths, Misunderstandings andMisgivings19 Henry Plotkin in Darwinizing Culture20 Higgs (under review)21 in Darwinizing culturesomething else as well; Dennett22 already spoke about ‘Darwins dangerous idea’, the algorithm. The same could be true for memes.Ridley23 points out that memes need a medium to replicate in. For this purpose human society works quite well but according to him, the internet works even better. Computers can therefore be thought of as being more useful for memes than genes.Evidence for this theory can be found in ‘The singularity is near: when humans transcend biology’ by Ray Kurzweil24. His argument is that everything of value (for humans) will become an information technology. According to Kurzweil25 we are in revolution ‘G’ (genetics) at the moment, but biology will not get us where we want to be so revolution ‘N’ (nanotechnology) will follow in the 2020s and will take us beyond biology. In the 2030 the non-biological portion of our intelligence will dominate and by the 2040 this non-biological part will be billions of time more capable than the biological portion. This implies that non-biological intelligence has access to its own design and will be able to improve itself.Fig. 1. According to R. Kurzweil (2005)22Dennett, D.C. Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995; 586 pp.23 Ridley, M. (2003), Nature via Nurture: Genes, Experience and What Makes us Human (London: FourthEstate24 Kurzweil, R., 2005.The singularity is near: When Humans Transcend Biology. Viking Press25 In; Sydney Morning Herald, Next, October 24-28, 2005.The x as shows an exponential scale of the amount of calculations per second. The y as is a time scale from the year 1900 till the year 2100.Blue line= One human brainRed line= all brains togetherBlack line= computersThe question that rises here is whether computers have any meaning without genes. But this could question could be seen as being not relevant for ‘meaning’ comes from a human perspective instead of a memetic perspective. This memetic perspective could lead to transhumanism by taking the perspective that the ‘meme’ can be the aspect of humans that is still available while the genes are gone. (Here must be said that where the concept of transhumanism comes in, already the view of humans is a given.) One could in this respect also take the memes as being responsible for the extended phenotype (introduced by Dawkins26 and explored by Cini27) and even take the extended phenotype as the beginning of the end of the humans for the extension can be seen as the end of the need for genes. Although, following the argument made earlier; the extended phenotype could also be seen as the beginning of memes and therefore the transmitting of humans in the form of ‘memotypes’.The perspective Dawkins provides by saying memes are only at the beginning of their evolution, compared to genes, can also be seen as evidence for the memes taking over. Evolution of memes develops much faster such that, if the trend keeps going, the memes will evolve so much more and maybe won’t match with genes anymore. Therefore memes could have to find or make another medium or machine to replicate.If we go back to the two scenarios sketched for memes disappearing we can convert those to1. Genes do not need memes to exist2. Memes do not need genes to existThe first one is very unlikely. One could say bacteria do not need memes to exist, but in this paper we stick to the organisms that are multicellular and have some sort of culture. Also in the example given above about Aboriginal society provides evidence for the fact that human genes are not able to exist on their own without memes. Imagine a human without a culture and ask yourself whether or not it is still a human.26 Dawkins, R., 1999.The Extended Phenotype. Oxford, UK27 /jason/etc/But if we take a closer look to the second scenario it is from the meme’s point of view hard to find evidence for the claim memes needing genes. Why should memes need genes? The argument that humans are the only organisms having a culture can be seen as truth, but even though it is not said that memes are only aiming for culture. Genes could be providing memes, but the question here is whether genes are (still) necessary for the production of memes.The perspective of memes taking over can therefore be considered highly probable and should definitely be taken serious.DiscussionThe perspective of memes taking over seems to be ‘unnatural’. But if we take the perspective of memes taking over seriously, and I think we should, this could have important implications for our society. The focus will shift from genes to memes.Taking it a step furtherDawkins points out in the ‘Selfish gene’ that "a cultural trait may have evolved in the way it has simply because it is advantageous to itself". This is an interesting point of view and can be a clear explanation for human behaviour not fitting the genetic theory. Religions, in this perspective, can be seen as (successive) memes, easily seen if you remember the suicide bomber. But in these religion-memes, or memoplexes, the body can also be seen as al limitation for our physicality keeps us from being ‘God’. Blackmore already pointed out that memes could be pushing to become a state of ‘Zen’, a state of pure information. Teilhard de Chardin was a French Jesuit, but also a palaeontologist, biologist, and philosopher, who spent his life trying to integrate the religious experience with natural science. He was mostly interested in the integration of Christian theology with theories of evolution. In his book ‘The Phenomenon of Man’ he takes the perspective that the starting point of evolution is “Infinite Disorder”, which can be explained as infinite multiplicity, but disorganized, a state of total chaos, following the theory of entropy (as is explored by my peer D. Maresca28). In this perspective evolution does not proceed haphazardly; it is orthogenetic; it has a direction, a goal, a state of less chaos, Zen, or an axis of development with a peak which Teilhard de Chardin calls “Omega Point”. Every person will fuse with this point and Teilhard de Chardin pushes his 28 /jason/etc/argument further by taking man as the chosen instrument for the fulfilment of this job and therefore man cannot fail.“We must accept what science tells us that man was born from the earth. But more logical than scientists when they lecture to us, we must carry the lesson to its conclusion, that is to say, accept that man was born entirely from the world, not only his flesh and bones, but also his incredible power of thought.”Teilhard de Chardin in ‘The phenomenon of Man’This citation shows why Teilhard de Chardin sees the relation of matter and spirit as a dependant one and also why he is convinced that, with the evolution of man, a new law of nature has come into force that of convergence. Biological evolution created step one, "expansive convergence”. Technology can be seen as the next step: "compressive convergence”. The internet could therefore be seen as a step in the compressive convergence where, according to Teilhard de Chardin,we are not evolution's ultimate product but we are made from the same base products.According to Wolfe29the simple truth about the internet is that it does only one thing; it speeds up the retrieval and dissemination of information, messages and images. Thereby the internet is eliminating such things as going outdoors to the mailbox or picking up the phone. In my opinion these are two things; it speeds up the reproduction of information and selection on the ways/forms I which information is transferred.Applying this to Teilhard de Chardin, by transferring more into memes one can come closer to the state of a ‘God’ for, according to Teilhard de Chardin, the highest aim is not physical in the way genes are. It is more a certain state as Aunger already pointed out. Evidence for this theory can be supported by empirical evidence for birth rates in Japan and Europe; these are lowering every year30. Technological well developed countries do need fewer genes; new meme-machines were introduced trough technology. Here we can even take the argument further following Butler31 and his ideas on consiousness. Memoplexes could have a ‘strategy’ and therefore also having a ‘consciousness’. Genes came in handy to get the replicator ‘meme’ out there; by passing them on from head to paper to head again, the step from29 Wolfe, T., 1999. What do a Jesuit priest, a Canadian communications theorist, and Darwin II all have in common?30 /ipa/A0004395.html31 Butler, S.: 1872, ‘Erewhon: The book of machines’ Wordsworth EditionsLtd.head to waves in eternity was easily made. The simplest example to ‘picture’ this idea is by imagining the world to be destroyed completely. No genes are left, but the matter, the waves, the genes brought out are still around somewhere. Those waves, for example, can be seen as memes. So where genes only have one state of existence, memes can have several and at the same time you could say they have not one state of being because we are not able to point them out yet. And maybe this is only a matter of time; we are only since a few years from being able to point out genes scientifically and are maybe too much convinced about genes being ‘the’ driving and creating elements.fig. 2. llustration by Pat LinseConclusionNot taking the idea of memes serious by saying that they are not scientifically provable is a limitation. Several scientists already provided evidence for memes being able to take part in science. Especially if we look closely at the position of human behaviour, the science of biology clearly shows us a gap which cannot be closed by the genetic perspective. Clearly shown in this paper is that a memetic perspective has several futuristic opportunities to deal with this gap. Also several theories and scientific papers give clear and convincing ideas on the perspective of memes taking over and the possibility of a ‘memolution’. I recommend scientist not tothrow the idea of memes overboard yet and remind them about the fact that the earth was once the flat centre of the universe.AcknowledgmentsThis paper would never have been written without the help and input from my peers and our ‘leader’ George H. Bindon. Thank you.ReferencesAunger, R et all., 2001. Darwinizing Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 205-32Boyd, R. and Richardson, P.J., 2000. Meme Theory Oversimplifies How Culture Changes. Scientific American, 2000. 283(4) p58-59.Butler, S.: 1872, ‘Erewhon: The book of machines’ Wordsworth Editions Ltd.Blackmore, S., 1999. The Meme Machine. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.Blackmore, S., 2001. Evolution and memes; the human brain as a selective imitation device. Cybemetics and Systems, V ol. 32:1 225-255Darwin, C.R., 1859. On the Origins of Species. John Murray, London, UK. Dawkins, R., 1982. The Extended Phenotype. W.H. Freeman, Oxford, UK) Dawkins, R., 1989, 1976. The Selfish Gene, second edition. Oxford University Press.Dawkins, R., 1999.The Extended Phenotype. Oxford, UKDennett, D.C. Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995; 586 pp.Gatherer, D., 2004. Birth of a meme: the Origin and Evolution of Collusive Voting Patterns in the Eurovision Song Contest. Journal of Memetics –。

托福听力tpo68 lecture1、2、3 原文+题目+答案+译文

托福听力tpo68 lecture1、2、3 原文+题目+答案+译文Lecture1 (2)原文 (2)题目 (4)答案 (6)译文 (6)Lecture2 (7)原文 (8)题目 (10)答案 (12)译文 (12)Lecture3 (14)原文 (14)题目 (17)答案 (19)译文 (19)Lecture1原文Professor: OK, let’s look at two specific ancient cultures of the arctic, both of which lived on the far northern edge of the continent, the Dorset and the Thule. The Dorset culture began around eight hundred BC and ranged to cross most of arctic Canada. The Thule, well, they lived in the same area, but about twelve hundred years later. Both groups left some beautiful art behind, really are best evidence that these folks even existed. And although these two cultures lived in the same region, each group approached their art in very different ways.Alright, so the Dorset culture. Archaeologists have unearthed hundreds of Dorset sculptures mostly carve from ivory or bone and sometimes stone. They were mostly small sculptures of animal or human figures. And our best guess is that they were probably used mainly for religious purposes. The main subject of Dorset animal sculptures is the polar bear. Some of these polar bears are represented in naturalistic or realistic ways, but usually, their abstracted or stylized that is to say less realistic. Here is a typical polar bear sculpture. It's carved from ivory, we call these artifacts flying or floating polar bears, because, because they look like the polar bears doing just that flying or floating. Notice the distinctive markings, they seem to mark out the skeleton or joints of the bear.While polar bears were favorite subject, the Dorset created sculptures of other animals too, like seals and caribou which were represented in a more realistic fashion. We speculate that if the Dorset feared or respected a particular animal, they were more likely to present it in a stylized way, like with the polar bear, which, of course, is a large dangerous predator, maybe, it was a way of dealing with their fear. We also have Dorset’s sculptures whose meaning is more allusive. I'm talking about horns with many human faces carved into them. What's remarkable about these sculptures is the variety of facial types in expressions that appear on the single horn. If only the people represented on these artifacts could answer our questions, it tells us whetherthey are ancestors or residents of villager or what.Okay, let's switch to Thule art, which differs from Dorset art in, in some important ways. Interestingly, Thule artwork wasn't generally influenced by the earlier Dorset culture. It seems it would’ve grown out of a separate tradition that originated in Alaska. Thule artwork was most likely used to decorate common objects such as tools with attractive designs, we can't be entirely sure about this. However, we've tried to interpret the symbolic designs into the art. But of course, it's impossible to confirm the accuracy of such interpretations. What we do know is that the Thule people made extensive use of engravings, they drove the small holes and carve lines into various materials. These engravings, engraved patterns, rather, are found on the diverse group of artifacts, things ranging from weapons to jewelry to cones and boxes. Here's some examples. It's hard to see, but most of these objects do have engravings on them. Thule art was more of a graphic art. Uh, more like drawing. Many of their designs are geometric and abstract. Others containing engravings of human and animal figures.For instance, the long skinny object, among left, has a face at the top. We’ve also found the tool handle with hunting and camp scenes carved into it. As far as Thule’s sculpture goes, there is only a few small objects in wooden dowels like the one in the bottom right-hand corner. These have either no facial features or very rudimentary ones, less detailed, less individualized than the faces of Dorset’s sculpture.One scholar has argued that this difference resulted from the nature of Thule’s society which was built around group hunting expeditions on the ocean. This hunting approach required a great deal of cooperation which may have led to a kind of an overall uniformity in their art. And emphasis on commonality rather than individuality, which probably explains why there’re human figures like the faces or had standardized faces that all look similar. The most famous of the few Thule sculptures are the ones of birds in creatures that are part bird and part woman. While the sculpture is probably had some symbolic purpose, patterns of holes were drilled into them too. So, in general compared with artwork of the Dorset, Thule artprobably had a more decorative or utilitarian function.题目1.What is the main purpose of the lecture?A. To examine the extent to which Thule and Dorset art influenced the artwork of other arctic culturesB. To examine how Thule and Dorset designs changed over timeC. To compare and contrast artwork from two ancient arctic culturesD. To discuss how the natural world is shown in the artwork of two ancient arctic cultures2.What does the professor imply about “flying”or “floating”polar-bear sculptures?[Click on 2 answers.]A. They may have helped the Dorset people cope with their fear of a dangerous animal.B. Art historians consider them to be of little religious importance to the Dorset people.C. The Dorset people created them to demonstrate respect for polar bears.D. They were designed to take advantage of the natural shape of the ivory.3.According to the professor, what can be inferred about Dorset society based on its artwork?A. It placed more emphasis on religious beliefs than Thule society did.B. It relied on hunting large animals to a greater extent than Thule society did.C. It placed an emphasis on the production of jewelry.D. It was structured to support long ocean expeditions.4.According to the professor, what appears to be the main reason that the Thule engraved holes and lines into their artifacts?A. To honor their Alaskan ancestorsB. To illustrate the layout of their campgroundsC. To add realism to their sculpturesD. To add decoration to their sculptures5.Why does the professor mention Thule group-hunting expeditions?A. To explain why the Thule had plenty of time to produce detailed artworkB. To draw a connection between cooperation in finding food and uniformity in artC. To compare Thule hunting practices with Dorset hunting practicesD. To suggest that the majority of Thule sculptures were probably lost at sea6.Why does the professor saythis:If only the people represented on these artifacts could answer our questionsA. To suggest that the students interview descendants of Dorset peopleB. To propose a topic that the students could write aboutC. To ask students who they think the faces representD. To indicate that there is still a lot of missing information答案C AC AD B D译文教授:好的，让我们来看一下北极的两种特定的古代文化，它们都生活在大陆的最北端，Dorset文化和Thule文化。

evidence based method

Evidence-Based Method随着科学技术的不断进步，我们面临的问题和挑战也日益复杂多样。

在这种情况下，依靠科学的证据来解决问题成为了一种十分重要的方法。

Evidence-based method，即基于证据的方法，指的是通过收集、分析和运用科学证据来做出决策和解决问题的一种方法。

在医学、教育、管理、政策制定等领域，Evidence-based method都得到了广泛的应用和推崇。

本文将从以下几个方面来探讨Evidence-based method的意义、特点及应用。

1. 证据的重要性在决策和问题解决过程中，经验和直觉固然重要，但更加可靠和稳健的方法是依据科学的证据来做出决策。

因为证据是客观的、可量化的，能够帮助我们避免主观偏见和错误的判断。

在医疗领域，医生通常会根据临床试验的结果以及大量的研究数据来选择最佳的治疗方案，而不是仅仅依据自己的经验和直觉。

在教育领域，教育工作者也应该依据教育心理学和教育研究的成果来设计课程和教学方法，以提高教学效果。

证据的重要性无论在个人生活还是专业领域都是不可忽视的。

2. Evidence-based method的特点Evidence-based method与传统的经验主义方法有着明显的不同点。

Evidence-based method强调的是基于大量的科学研究和实证数据，而不是基于个人或小范围的经验。

Evidence-based method更加注重系统性和客观性，它需要进行严格的数据收集、分析和评估，以确保所得出的结论是客观和可靠的。

Evidence-based method还要求对证据进行合理的解释和运用，避免片面地使用证据来支持某种观点或立场。

3. Evidence-based method的应用在各个领域，Evidence-based method都有着广泛的应用。

在医学领域，Evidence-based medicine已经成为了临床实践的重要方法之一，它不仅能够帮助医生选择最佳的治疗方案，还能够提高医疗机构的管理效率和医疗资源的利用率。

备战高考英语名校模拟真题速递(江苏专用)专题06 阅读理解之说明文10篇(第六期)(含解析)

备战高考英语名校模拟真题速递(江苏专用)第六期专题06 阅读理解之说明文10篇（2024·江苏南通·模拟预测）Mark Temple, a medical molecular (分子的) biologist, used to spend a lot of time in his lab researching new drugs for cancer treatments. He would extract DNA from cells and then add a drug to see where it was binding (结合) along the chemical sequence(序列). Before he introduced the drug, he’d look at DNA combination on a screen to see what might work best for the experiment, but the visual readout of the sequences was often unimaginably large.So Temple wondered if there was an easier way to detect favorable patterns. I realized I wanted to hear the sequence,” says Temple, who is also a musician. He started his own system of assigning notes to the different elements of DNA — human DNA is made of four distinct bases, so it was easy to start off with four notes — and made a little tune out of his materials. This trick indeed helped him better spot patterns in the sequences, which allowed him to make better choices about which DNA combinations to use.Temple isn’t the first person to turn scientific data into sound. In the past 40 years, researchers have gone from exploring this trick as a fun way to spot patterns in their studies tousing it as a guide to discovery. And the scientific community has come to realize that there’s some long-term value in this type of work. Temple, who from that first experiment has created his own algorithmic software to turn data into sound, believes the resulting music can be used to improve research and science communication.So Temple decided to add layers of sound to make the sonification (可听化) into songs. He sees a clear difference between “sonification” and “musification”. Using sound to represent data is scientific, but very different from using creative input to make songs. The musical notes from DNA may be melodic to the human ear, but they don’t sound like a song you’d listen to on the radio. So when he tried to sonify the virus, he added layers of drums and guitar, and had some musician friends add their own music to turn the virus into a full-blown post-rock song.Temple sees this work as an effective communication tool that will help a general audience understand complex systems in biology. He has performed his songs in public at concert halls in Australia.1．What is Mark Temple’s purpose in turning DNA data into sound?A．To help him fight boredom.B．To develop his creative ability.C．To make his drug more powerful.D．To aid the process of his experiments.2．What can we learn about Temple’s system?A．Its effect remains to be seen.B．It failed to work as expected.C．It is too complicated to operate.D．It has produced satisfying results.3．Why did Temple try to make the virus sound like real music when sonifying it?A．To get rid of public fear of the virus.B．To show h1s talent in producing music.C．To facilitate people’s understanding of science.D．To remind people or the roe or Science in art creation.4．What does the text mainly talk about?A．Why scientists are turning molecules into music.B．How scientists help the public understand science.C．Why music can be the best way to present science.D．How music helps scientists conduct their research.（2024·江苏南通·模拟预测）Phonics, which involves sounding out words syllable (音节) by syllable, is the best way to teach children to read. But in many classrooms, this can be a dirty word. So much so that some teachers have had to take phonics teaching materials secretly into the classroom. Most American children are taught to read in a way that study after study has found to be wrong.The consequences of this are striking. Less than half of all American adults were efficient readers in 2017. American fourth graders rank 15th on the Progress in International Literacy Study, an international exam.America is stuck in a debate about teaching children to read that has been going on for decades. Some advocate teaching symbol sound relationships (the sound k can be spelled as c, k, ck, or ch) known as phonics Others support an immersive approach (using pictures of cat to learn the word cat), known as “whole language”. Most teachers today, almost three out of four according to a survey by EdWeek Research Centre in 2019, use a mix of the two methods called “balanced literacy”.“A little phonics is far from enough.” says Tenette Smith, executive director of elementary education and reding at Mississippi’s education department. “It has to be systematic and explicitly taught.”Mississippi, often behind in social policy, has set an example here. In a state once blamed for its low reading scores, the Mississippi state legislature passed new literacy standards in 2013.Since then Mississippi has seen remarkable gains., Its fourth graders have moved from 49th (out of 50 states) to 20th on the National assessment of Educational Progress, a nationwide exam.Mississippi’s success is attributed to application of reading methods supported by a body of research known as the science of reading. In 1997 experts from the Department of Education ended the “reading war” and summed up the evidence. They found that phonics, along with explicit instruction in phonemic (音位的) awareness,fluency and comprehension, worked best.Yet over two decades on, “balanced literacy” is still being taught in classrooms. But advances in statistics and brain imaging have disproved the whole-language method. To the teacher who is an efficient reader, literacy seem like a natural process that requires educated guessing, rather than the deliberate process emphasized by phonics. Teachers can imagine that they learned to read through osmosis(潜移默化) when they were children. Without proper training, they bring this to classrooms.5．What do we learn about phonics in many American classrooms?A．It is ill reputed.B．It is mostly misapplied.C．It is totally ignored.D．It is seemingly contradictory.6．What has America been witnessing?A．A burning passion for improving teaching methods.B．A lasting debate over how to teach children to read.C．An increasing concern with children’s inadequacy in literacy.D．A forceful advocacy of a combined method for teaching reading.7．What’s Tenette Smith’s attitude towards “balanced literacy”?A．Tolerant.B．Enthusiastic.C．Unclear.D．Disapproving.8．According to the author what contributed to Mississippi’s success?A．Focusing on the natural process rather than deliberate training.B．Obtaining support from other states to upgrade teaching methods.C．Adopting scientifically grounded approaches to teaching reading.D．Placing sufficient emphasis upon both fluency and comprehension.（2024·江苏泰州·一模）A satellite is an object in space that orbits around another. It has two kinds — natural satellites and artificial satellites. The moon is a natural satellite that moves around the earth while artificial satellites are those made by man.Despite their widespread impact on daily life, artificial satellites mainly depend on different complicated makeups. On the outside, they may look like a wheel, equipped with solar panels or sails. Inside, the satellites contain mission-specific scientific instruments, which include whatever tools the satellites need to perform their work. Among them, high-resolution cameras and communication electronics are typical ones. Besides, the part that carries the load and holds all the parts together is called the bus.Artificial satellites operate in a systematic way just like humans. Computers function as the satellite’s brain, which receive information, interpret it, and send messages back to the earth. Advanced digital cameras serve asthe satellite’s eyes. Sensors are other important parts that not only recognize light, heat, and gases, but also record changes in what is being observed. Radios on the satellite send information back to the earth. Solar panels provide electrical power for the computers and other equipment, as well as the power to move the satellite forward.Artificial satellites use gravity to stay in their orbits. Earth’s gravity pulls everything toward the center of the planet. To stay in the earth’s orbit, the speed of a satellite must adjust to the tiniest changes in the pull of gravity. The satellite’s speed works against earth’s gravity just enough so that it doesn’t go speeding into space or falling back to the earth.Rockets carry satellites to different types and heights of orbits, based on the tasks they need to perform. Satellites closer to the earth are in low-earth orbit, which can be 200-500 miles high. The closer to the earth, the stronger the gravity is. Therefore, these satellites must travel at about 17,000 miles per hour to keep from falling back to the earth, while higher-orbiting satellites can travel more slowly.9．What is Paragraph 2 of the text mainly about?A．The appearance of artificial satellites.B．The components of artificial satellites.C．The basic function of artificial satellites.D．The specific mission of artificial satellites.10．What is the role of computers in artificial satellites?A．Providing electrical power.B．Recording changes observed.C．Monitoring space environment.D．Processing information received.11．How do artificial satellites stay in their orbits?A．By relying on powerful rockets to get out of gravity.B．By orbiting at a fixed speed regardless of gravity’s pull.C．By changing speed constantly based on the pull of gravity.D．By resisting the pull of gravity with advanced technologies.12．Why do satellites in higher-earth orbit travel more slowly?A．They are more affected by earth’s gravity.B．They take advantage of rockets more effectively.C．They have weaker pull of gravity in higher orbits.D．They are equipped with more advanced instruments.（2024·江苏泰州·一模）The human body possesses an efficient defense system to battle with flu viruses. The immune system protects against the attack of harmful microbes (微生物) by producing chemicals called antibodies, which are programmed to destroy a specific type of microbe. They travel in the blood and search the body for invaders (入侵者). When they find an invasive microbe, antibodies attack and destroy any cell thatcontains the virus. However, flu viruses can be a terrible enemy. Even if your body successfully fights against the viruses, with their ability to evolve rapidly, your body may have no protection or immunity from the new ones.Your body produces white blood cells to protect you against infectious diseases. Your body can detect invading microbes in your bloodstream because they carry antigens in their proteins. White blood cells in your immune system, such as T cells, can sense antigens in the viruses in your cells. Once your body finds an antigen, it takes immediate action in many different ways. For example, T cells produce more antibodies, call in cells that eat microbes, and destroy cells that are infected with a virus.One of the best things about the immune system is that it will always remember a microbe it has fought before and know just how to fight it again in the future. Your body can learn to fight so well that your immune system can completely destroy a virus before you feel sick at all.However, even the most cautious people can become infected. Fortunately, medical scientists have developed vaccines (疫苗), which are weakened or dead flu viruses that enter a person’s body before the person gets sick. These viruses cause the body to produce antibodies to attack and destroy the strong viruses that may invade during flu season.13．Why does flu pose a threat to the immune system?A．Microbes contain large quantities of viruses.B．Antibodies are too weak to attack flu viruses.C．The body has few effective ways to tackle flu.D．It’s hard to keep pace with the evolution of viruses.14．What does the underlined word “antigens” refer to in Paragraph 2?A．The cell protecting your body from viruses.B．The matter serving as the indicator of viruses.C．The antibodies helping to fight against viruses.D．The substance destroying cells infected with viruses.15．How do vaccines defend the body against the flu viruses?A．They strengthen the body’s immune system.B．They battle against weakened or dead viruses.C．They help produce antibodies to wipe out viruses.D．They expose the body to viruses during flu season.16．Which of the following is a suitable title for the text?A．Antibodies Save Our Health.B．Vaccines Are Of Great Necessity.C．Infectious Flu Viruses Are Around.D．Human Body Fights Against Flu Viruses.（23-24高三下·江苏扬州·开学考试）A recent study, led by Professor Andrew Barron, Dr. HaDi MaBouDi, and Professor James Marshall, illustrates how evolution has fine-tuned honey bees to make quick judgments while minimizing danger.“Animal lives are full of decisions,” says Professor Barron. “A honey bee has a brain smaller than a sesame (芝麻) seed. And yet it can make decisions faster and more accurately than’ we can. A robot programmed to do a bee’s job would need the backup of a supercomputer.”Bees need to work quickly and efficiently. They need to make decisions. Which flower will have a sweet liquid? While they’re flying, they face threats from the air. While landing, they’re vulnerable to potential hunter, some of which pretend to look like flowers.Researchers trained 20 bees to associate each of the five different colored “flower disks” with their visit history of reward and punishment. Blue flowers always had sugar juice. Green flowers always had a type of liquid with a bitter taste for bees. Other colors sometimes had glucose (葡萄糖). “Then we introduced each bee to a ‘garden’ with artificial ‘flowers’. We filmed each bee and timed their decision-making process,” says Dr. MaBouDi. “If the bees were confident that a flower would have food, they quickly decided to land on it, taking an average of 0.6 seconds. If they were confident that a flower wouldn’t have food, they made a decision just as quickly. If unsure, they took on average 1.4 seconds, and the time reflected the probability that a flower had food.”The team then built a computer model mirroring the bees’ decision-making process. They found the structure of the model looked very similar to the physical layout of a bee brain. “AI researchers can learn much from bees and other ‘simple’ animals. Millions of years of evolution has led to incredibly efficient brains with very low power requirements,” says Professor Marshall who co-founded a company that uses insect brain patterns to enable machines to move autonomously, like nature.17．Why does Professor Andrew Barron mention “a supercomputer”?A．To illustrate how a honey bee’s brain resemble each other.B．To explain how animals arrive at informed decisions fast.C．To demonstrate how a robot could finish a honey bee’s job.D．To emphasize how honey bees make decisions remarkably.18．Which of the following can best replace “vulnerable to” underlined in paragraph 3?A．Easily harmed by.B．Highly sensitive to.C．Deeply critical to.D．Closely followed by.19．What influenced the speed of trained bees in making decisions?A．Their judgments about reward and punishment.B．Their preference for the colors of flower disks.C．Their confirmation of food’s presence and absence.D．Their ability to tell real flowers from artificial ones.20．What message does Professor James Marshall want to give us?A．The power of bee brains is underestimated.B．Biology can inspire future AI.C．Autonomous machines are changing nature.D．AI should be far more efficient.（23-24高三下·江苏扬州·开学考试）Are you frequently overwhelmed by the feeling that life is leaving you behind, particularly when you look through social media sites and see all the exciting things your friends are up to? If so, you are not alone.FOMO, or Fear of Missing Out, refers to the perception that other people’s lives are superior to our own, whether this concerns socializing, accomplishing professional goals or generally having a more deeply fulfilling life. It shows itself as a deep sense of envy, and constant exposure to it can have a weakening effect on our self-respect. The feeling that we are always being left out of fundamentally important events, or that our lives are not living up to the image pictured by others, can have long-term damaging psychological consequences.While feelings of envy and inadequacy seem to be naturally human, social media seems to have added fuel to the fire in several ways. The reason why social media has such a triggering effect is tied to the appeal of social media in the first place: these are platforms which allow us to share only the most glowing presentations of our accomplishments, while leaving out the boring aspects of life. While this kind of misrepresentation could be characterized as dishonest, it is what the polished atmosphere of social media seems to demand.So how do we avoid falling into the trap of our own insecurities? Firstly, consider your own social media posts. Have you ever chosen photos or quotes which lead others to the rosiest conclusions about your life? Well, so have others and what they’ve left hidden is the fact that loneliness and boredom are unavoidably a part of everyone’s day-to-day life, and you are not the only one feeling left out. Secondly, learn to appreciate the positives. You may not be a regular at exciting parties or a climber of dizzying peaks, but you have your health, a place to live, and real friends who appreciate your presence in their lives. Last of all, learn to shake things off. We are all bombarded daily with images of other people’s perfection, but really, what does it matter? They are probably no more real than the most ridiculous reality TV shows.21．What can frequently experiencing FOMO lead to?A．Harm to one’s feeling of self-value.B．A more satisfying and fulfilling social life.C．Damage to one’s work productivity.D．Less likelihood of professional success.22．What does the author suggest in the third paragraph?A．The primary reason for FOMO is deeply rooted in social media.B．Our own social media posts help us feel much more confident.C．People who don’t share posts on social media are more bored.D．Social media’s nature enhances envious feelings and self-doubt.23．Why does the author mention reality TV shows in the last paragraph?A．To emphasize how false what we see on social media can be.B．To indicate how complicated social media has turned to.C．To figure out how popular and useful social media has been.D．To point out how educational value reality TV shows reflect.24．Which is the best title for the text?A．Myths and misconceptions about FOMO B．FOMO: what it is and how to overcome itC．How FOMO is changing human relationships D．We’re now all in the power of “FOMO addiction”（23-24高三上·江苏泰州·阶段练习）While Huawei’s official website does not call Mate 60 Pro a 5G smartphone, the phone’s wideband capabilities are on par with other 5G smartphones, raising a related question: As a leader in 5G technology, has Huawei managed to develop a 5G smartphone on its own?The answer is not simple. Huawei, as a pioneer in global 5G communication equipment, has played a leading role in the commercialization of 5G technology, with its strong system design and fields such as baseband chips (基带芯片), baseband processors and 5G modems.However, basebands and modems are not the only aspects that define 5G wireless communication. The stability and high-quality signals of a 5G smartphone also depend on other critical components such as RF transceivers (射频收发器) and RF front ends and antennas (天线) . These components are largely dominated by four US high-tech giants—Qualcomm, Avago Technologies, Ansem and Qorvo—which account for a surprising global market share.Huawei has faced significant challenges in getting critical components because of the sanctions imposed by the United States which are primarily responsible for the inability of the Chinese company to launch 5G smartphones in the past three years. However, Mate 60 Pro, despite not being labeled a 5G device, exhibits mobile network speeds comparable to Apple’s latest 5G-enabled devices, offering a stable communication experience. This suggests Huawei has, over the past three years, overcome the 5G development and production limits due to the US sanctions by cooperating with domestic partners, and establishing an independent and controllable stable supply chain.Considering that Huawei has not explicitly marketed this device as a 5G smartphone, it is possible that it isyet to fully overcome some key core technological and componential shortcomings. For the time being, we can consider Huawei’s Mate 60 Pro as 4.99G. But when combined with the satellite communication capabilities of Mate 60 Pro, it is clear Huawei has been trying to find more advanced wireless communication solutions for smartphones and making significant progress in this attempt. This should be recognized as a remarkable endeavor, even a breakthrough.25．What do the underlined words “on par with” mean in Paragraph 1?A．as poor as.B．as good as.C．worse than.D．better than.26．Why was it tough for Huawei to develop a 5G smartphone three years ago?A．Its system design and fields needed to be updated.B．It only focused on the commercialization of 5G technology.C．It was unwilling to cooperate with high-tech giants in America.D．It lacked critical components mainly controlled by US high-tech giants.27．What does Paragraph 4 centre on?A．The US sanctions.B．Critical components.C．Apple’s latest 5G-enabled devices.D．Progress in Mate 60 Pro.28．What is the text mainly about?A．Huawei faced with significant challengesB．Huawei’s Mate 60 Pro—a 5G smartphoneC．Huawei’s Mate 60 Pro—a remarkable breakthroughD．Huawei leading in global 5G communication equipment（23-24高三上·江苏无锡·期末）Blue-light-filtering glasses (滤蓝光眼镜) have become an increasingly popular solution for protecting our eyes from electronic screens’ near-inescapable glow — light that is commonly associated with eyestrain (眼疲劳). In recent years they’ve even become fashion statements that are recognized by celebrities and ranked in style guides. But a recent review paper shows such glasses might not be as effective as people think.The paper, published last week in Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, analyzed data from previous trials that studied how blue-light-filtering glasses affect vision tiredness and eye health. The study’s authors found that wearing blue-light-filtering glasses does not reduce the eyestrain people feel after using computers.“It’s an excellent review,” says Mark Rosenfield, a professor at the State University of New York College of Optometry, who was not involved in the study. “The conclusions are no surprise at all. There have been a number of studies that have found exactly the same thing, that there’s just no evidence that blue-blocking glasses have anyeffect on eyestrain.” He adds that the new review reinforces the fact that there is virtually no evidence that blue-blocking glasses affect eyestrain despite them being specifically marketed for that purpose. As for using blue-light-filtering eyeglasses for eye health, for now, Rosenfield says, “there’s nothing to support people buying them”.The strain we may feel while staring at our phone or computer screen too long is likely to be caused by multiple factors, such as bad habits or underlying conditions, an associate professor of vision science at the University of Melbourne, Downie says. She argues that how we interact with digital devices contributes more to eyestrain than screens’ blue light does. Changing the frequency and duration of screen usage and distancing one’s eyes from the screens might be more important in reducing discomfort, Downie says. She adds that people who experience eyestrain should see a doctor to assess whether they have an underlying health issue such as far-sightedness or dry eye disease.29．What can we know about blue-light-filtering glasses from the text?A．They can improve eyesight.B．They may not reduce eyestrain.C．They can promote eye health.D．They can help to cure eye diseases.30．What can we infer from paragraph 2?A．A great many professors were involved in the study.B．Blue-blocking glasses on the market are harmful to eyes.C．The finding of the study comes as a surprise to the public.D．Data from previous trials help the study a lot.31．What does the underlined word “reinforces” mean in paragraph 3?A．Denies.B．Opposes.C．Strengthens.D．Evaluates.32．What should we do if we suffer from eyestrain according to Downie?A．Wear blue-light-filtering glasses.B．Have an examination in the hospital.C．Stop staring at the screen for ever.D．Focus on the frequency of phone usage.（2024·江苏连云港·一模）Not all birds sing, but several thousand species do. They sing to defend their territory and croon (柔声唱) to impress potential mates. “Why birds sing is relatively well-answered,” says Iris Adam, a behavioral neuroscientist. However, the big question for her was why birds sing so much.“As soon as you sing, you reveal yourself,” Adam says. “Like, where you are and where your territory is.” In a new study published in the journal Nature Communications, Adam and her co-workers offer a new explanation for why birds take that risk. They may have to sing a lot every day to give their vocal (发声的) muscles the regular exercise they need to produce top-quality songs. To figure out whether the muscles that produce birdsongsrequire daily exercise, Adam designed an experiment on zebra finches-the little Australian songbirds.She prevented them from singing for a week by keeping them in the dark cage almost around the clock. Light is what galvanizes the birds to sing, so she had to work to keep them from warbling (鸣叫). “The first two or three days, it’s quite easy,” she says. “But the longer the experiment goes, the more they are like, ‘I need to sing.’” At that point, she’d tap the cage and tell them to stop singing.After a week, the birds’ singing muscles lost half their strength. But Adam wondered whether that impacted the quality of songs. When she played a male’s song before and after the seven days of darkness, she couldn’t hear a difference. But when Adam played it to a group of female birds, six out of nine preferred the song that came from a male who’d been using his singing muscles daily.Adam’s conclusion shows that “songbirds need to exercise their vocal muscles to produce top-performance songs. If they don’t sing, they lose performance, and their songs get less attractive to females.” This may help explain songbirds’ continuous singing.It’s a good rule to live by, whether you’re a bird or a human-practice makes perfect, at least when it comes to singing one’s heart out.33．According to Iris Adam, birds sing so much to ______.A．warn other birds of risks B．produce more songsC．perform perfectly in singing D．defend their territory34．What does the underlined word “galvanizes” in Paragraph 3 mean?A．Prepares.B．Stimulates.C．Forbids.D．Frightens.35．What do we know about the caged birds in the experiment?A．They lost the ability to sing.B．They strengthened their muscles.C．Their songs showed no difference.D．Their songs became less appealing.36．What may Iris Adam agree with?A．The songbirds live on music.B．The songbirds are born singers.C．Daily exercise keeps birds healthy.D．Practice makes birds perfect singers.（23-24高三上·江苏扬州·期末）Sometimes called “Earth’s twin,” Venus is similar to our world in size and composition. The two rocky planets are also roughly the same distance from the sun, and both have an atmosphere. While Venus’s cold and unpleasant landscape does make it seem far less like Earth, scientists recently detected another striking similarity between the two, the presence of active volcanoes.When NASA’s Magellan mission mapped much of the planet with radar in the 1990sit revealed an。

Non-equilibrium Superconductivity and Quasiparticle Dynamics studied by Photo Induced Activ

a r X i v :c o n d -m a t /9709005v 1 [c o n d -m a t .s u p r -c o n ] 1 S e p 1997Non-equilibrium Superconductivity and Quasiparticle Dynamics studied by PhotoInduced Activation of Mm-Wave Absorption (PIAMA).B.J.Feenstra a,∗,J.Sch¨u tzmann a ,and D.van der Marel a ,R.P´e rez Pinaya b ,and M.Decroux baMaterials Science Centre,Rijksuniversiteit Groningen,Nijenborgh 4,9747AG Groningen,The NetherlandsbDept.de Physique de la mati`e re condens´e e,Universit´e de Gen`e ve,24quai Ernest-Ansermet,CH-1211Gen`e ve 4,Switzerland(February 1,2008)We present a study of non-equilibrium superconductivity in DyBa 2Cu 3O 7−δusing photo induced activation of mm-wave absorption (PIAMA).We monitor the time evolution of the thin ﬁlm trans-missivity at 5cm −1subject to pulsed infrared radiation.In addition to a positive bolometric signal we observe a second,faster,decay with a sign opposite to the bolometric signal for T >40K.We at-tribute this to the unusual properties of quasi-particles residing near the nodes of an unconventional superconductor,resulting in a strong enhancement of the recombination time.The occurrence of zero’s in the superconducting gapfor certain values of the momentum ¯h k at the Fermi sur-face of high T c superconductors has a number of intrigu-ing consequences for the dynamical behavior and life-time of the quasi-particles at low temperatures,which has only recently begun to attract the attention of re-searchers in the ﬁeld.Due to the presence of these zero’s (or nodes)the reduction in the superﬂuid fraction (ρs )[1,2]and speciﬁc heat [3]is proportional to H 1/2,where H is the magnetic ﬁeld.Also,a strong reduction of the quasi-particle scattering rate (1/τ)below T c [4–6]pro-vides evidence that the dominant scattering mechanism has an electronic signature.In this Letter we present a study of the quasi-particle dynamics using Photo Induced Activation of Mm-wave Absorption (PIAMA).In this pump/probe experiment we use a free electron laser [7](FELIX)which is con-tinuously tunable from 100to 2000cm −1as a pump to create a temporary excited state of a superconductor.FELIX produces macro-pulses with a stepwise oﬀ-on-oﬀintensity proﬁle (’on’for 3<t <7µs in Fig.1),consisting of 5000micropulses (1-5ps).The step-response of the complex dielectric constant is monitored at 5cm −1using the combination of a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO)and a fast waveguide diode detector as a probe to mea-sure the transmission through a superconducting ﬁlm as a function of time.The mm-wave detector-circuit was selected as a compromise between sensitivity and speed of detection,resulting in an overall time resolution of 1µs.This choice of experimental parameters is optimal for the detection of small changes induced in the dielectric function by the infrared (IR)pulse at,as we will see,the scale of the lifetime of nonequilibrium superconductivity in high T c ’s.We used ﬁlms of DyBa 2Cu 3O 7−δwhich were prepared by RF sputtering on LaAlO 3substrates.The ﬁlm thick-ness was 20nm and T c was 88K.Optimal surface quality was obtained by using Dy instead of Y.This substitu-tion does not aﬀect the superconducting properties.A detailed description of the preparation,characterization and the mm-wave dielectric properties of these ﬁlms hasbeen given elsewhere [8,9].The LaAlO 3substrate supporting the ﬁlm is plan-parallel,with a thickness D =0.054cm and a refrac-tive index n =4.70.At k/2π≈5cm −1,which is our probe frequency,the dielectric function of the ﬁlm |ǫ|ranges from 104to 106depending on temperature,while (kd )−2≈3·108.Hence the ﬁlms are optically thin and (kd )−2≫|ǫ|≫1.In that limit the Fresnel expression for transmission through the ﬁlm/substrate system is I t =(2−ikdǫ)cos ψ2n−2(1)where ψ=nkD .The eﬀect of increasing the tempera-ture is to transfer spectral weight from the condensate to the quasi-particles,while at the same time reducing the quasi-particle lifetime.The net result is,that both |ǫ′|and ǫ′′are reduced as the temperature increases,and the thin ﬁlm transmission increases.In the inset of Fig.1the mm-wave transmission through a DyBa 2Cu 3O 7−δﬁlm of 20nm thickness on a LaAlO 3substrate is displayed for k/2π=5cm −1and for k/2π=4cm −1.The former corresponds to a larger sensitivity to the quasi-particles (represented by ǫ′′)as compared to the latter frequency.A detailed analysis has been given elsewhere [9].Most signiﬁcant for the identiﬁcation of a possible bolometric response is the monotonic temperature dependence of the transmission over the entire temperature interval.In Fig.1the photo induced change in transmission (δI t )of the same ﬁlm is shown between 5and 65K.The probe frequency is 5cm −1.The pump frequency is k/2π=800cm −1,with a power of ≃10mJ/pulse.Here and in Fig.2the curves have been calibrated against vari-ations in the incident power of FELIX.We see that for temperatures lower than 40K,the IR-pulse enhances the transmissivity of the thin ﬁlm.However,around 40K the situation changes and the transmission after the IR-pulse is reduced instead.δI t is smaller at higher temperatures and becomes undetectable above 75K.The ordinary monotonic behavior seen in the temperature dependence of the unperturbed mm-wave transmission indicates thata simple heating of the sample can not account forthefact thatδI t<0above40K.Theﬁts shown in Fig.1correspond to a linear combination of a slow(τB)and afast(τR)decay:δI t=i B e−t/τB+i R e−t/τR.The slowcomponent i B has a weak time dependence(τB≫45µs)on the interval displayed in Fig.1and is reduced fromi R/3at5K to zero for T>40K.The prefactor of thefast component(4µs<τR<25µs)changes sign at40K.FIG.1.Change in transmission,δI t for DyBa2Cu3O7−δonLaAlO3,shown for several temperatures.The FIR-pulse en-hances transmission at low temperatures,while it reduces itat temperatures higher than40K.The exponentialﬁts areshown as the solid lines.Inset,upper right corner:tempera-ture dependence of the unperturbed transmission at4and5cm−1.Inset,lower right corner:Temperature dependence ofthe faster relaxation time,τR.The changes in transmission as a function of pump fre-quency show a rather non-monotonic behavior and havebeen summarized in Fig.2for several temperatures rang-ing from5to60K.Plotted are the maxima(minima)of the positive(negative)peak intensities obtained aftercalibrating against the changes in incident power.Forcomparison we display in the sameﬁgure the absorptioncoeﬃcient in the superconductingﬁlm A f=1−R f−T f ofthe IR-light,where R f is the reﬂectivity of the substrate-supportedﬁlm,and T f is the transmission through theﬁlm into the substrate.We calculated A f without ad-justable parameters from the experimentally determineda-and c-axis dielectric function of YBaCuO[10,11]andLaAlO3[12]using the Fresnel equations for light of mixedpolarization incident at an angle of45◦on a20nm thick,c-axis oriented YBaCuOﬁlm on a LaAlO3substrate,identical to the experimental situation.Optical absorp-tion in the substrate occurs at185,427and651cm−1.For theﬁlm A f has minima at these frequencies and max-ima at290,600and760cm−1,which is due to resonantreﬂection at the substrate/ﬁlm interface for frequenciesmatched to the longitudinal phonons of the substrate.FIG.2.NormalizedδI t as a function of frequency,shownfor temperatures ranging from5to60K.Also shown is theabsorptivity within theﬁlm(solid line).The main conclusion from Fig.2is,thatδI t tracks thelaser power deposited in theﬁlm,not in the substrate.This demonstrates that PIAMA probes changes in thephysical state of the superconductor,while secondary ef-fects due to substrate heating can be excluded.The amplitude of the slow component,τB,in Fig.1corresponds to an increase in temperature of13and0.2K for the5K and40K curves respectively.A crude es-timate of the increase in temperature based on the inputlaser-power and the speciﬁc heat of theﬁlm/substratesystem gives∆T=9and0.2K respectively.We there-fore attribute the slow response to bolometric heating oftheﬁlm/substrate system.At higher temperatures thespeciﬁc heat is too large,and∆T is insigniﬁcant.We ob-served a similar bolometric response for MgO supportedNbN thin superconductingﬁlms,in which case the fasterdecay was absent within the limitations of the time res-olution of our detector.A more extensive discussion ofthis work is presented elsewhere[13].Let us now consider the faster decay,τR.For suﬃ-ciently low frequencies(ωτ≪1)the inductive responseis proportional to the condensate amplitude(ǫ′∝ρs),and will be reduced during and following the IR-pulse,so thatδρs<0.Here we are interested in the behaviorof the quasi-particle response,which is represented by theﬁnite value ofǫ′′.The latter is proportional to the den-sity of quasi-particles and their lifetime(ǫ′′∝ρqpτ).Dueto transfer of spectral weight from the condensate to thequasi-particle peak we expect thatδρqp>0in the non-equilibrium state following the IR-pulse.With PIAMAwe attempt to probe the time-evolution of variations inthe volume density of quasi-particles(δρqp).The highestsensitivity to the latter variations relative to those of thecondensate is obtained for cosψ=0,which is also theexperimental situation in Figs.1and2.In that case the transmission coeﬃcient varies as:2n2ρs −kdǫ′′[1+n2+kdǫ′′]δρqpττR= k,k′g2|M kk′|2Im f k f k′(1+n q)δq−k k′τi= k,k′g2|L kk′|2δq+k k′Imf k(1−f k′)n q+f k′(1−f k)(1+n q)Einstein distribution functions of quasi-particles and phonons respectively,and L kk ′=u k ′v k −v k ′u k .We adopted a d x 2−y 2order parameter with ∆max =25meV.The resulting temperature dependence of τR and τi is displayed in Fig.3.FIG.3.Calculated temperature dependence of the quasi-particle-phonon scattering time (τin ,triangles)and the quasi-particle recombination time (τR ,squares).Most importantly we notice that τR ≫τi at all tem-peratures.The same calculation assuming an isotropic s -wave gap conﬁrms the earlier result that τR and τi are equal for T →T c in s -wave superconductors [21].A small admixture of s-wave symmetry of the type ’d +s ’merely breaks the 4-fold rotation symmetry of the quasi-particle dispersion,without aﬀecting the physical pic-ture.With an admixture of the type ’d +i s ’the en-ergy of the quasi particles near the nodes is increasedto E 2k =(∂k ∆)2k 2t +¯h 2v 2F k 2l +∆2s ,causing a further sup-pression of the available phase space for recombination processes,while |M kk ′|increases near the nodes.The net eﬀect on τR depends on ∂k ∆,v F and ∆s .Finally we discuss our observations in relation to time-scales obtained with other experimental -ing micro-wave experiments the scattering time is found to change from 100fs at 90K to less than 10ps at 40K.With pump/probe experiments using visible light a decay of 0.2ps has been observed,which was associated with the life-time of quasiparticles near the Fermi energy,along with a second slow decay of at least 20ns [22].A re-laxation of the resistivity within a few ns [23]has been at-tributed to non-equilibrium quasiparticle-generation by hot phonons.Based on an analysis of the critical ﬂux-ﬂow velocity Doettinger et al.[24]determined an inelastic scattering time ranging from 10ps at 80K to 0.1µs at 40K.The timescale of several µs reported in this Let-ter is much longer.We attribute this to the fact that the quasi-particle recombination time is always longer than the inelastic scattering time,which is the sum of all electron-electron and electron-phonon scattering pro-cesses,as is demonstrated by the numerical calculation of the two electron-phonon time constants τR and τi pre-sented above.In conclusion,we have observed a non-equilibrium state with a life-time of several µs in DyBa 2Cu 3O 7−δusing photo induced activation of mm-wave absorption (PIAMA).The non-equilibrium state is clearly distinct from bolometric heating of the superconductor.The long time-constant seems to reveal an unusually long quasi-particle recombination time,which can be understood as a consequence of the highly peculiar nature of quasi-particles near the nodes in these materials.Along with other factors,such as the amplitude of the gap,the pres-ence of nodes distinguishes these materials from conven-tional superconductors.Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the as-sistance by the FELIX staﬀ,in particular A.F.G.van der Meer.Furthermore we thank W.N.Hardy,D.I.Khomskii and O.Fisher for their stimulating comments during the preparation of this manuscript and A.Wittlin for fruitfull discussions at the initial stage of this project.。

翻译硕士英语阅读理解专项强化真题试卷34_真题-无答案

翻译硕士英语阅读理解专项强化真题试卷34(总分100,考试时间60分钟)阅读理解Traditionally, the study of history has had fixed boundaries and focal points-periods, countries, dramatic events, and great leaders. It also has had clear and firm notions of scholarly procedure; how one inquires into a historical problem, how one presents and documents one's findings, what constitutes admissible and adequate proof.Anyone who has followed recent historical literature can testify to the revolution that is taking place in historical studies. The currently fashionable **e directly from the sociology catalog: childhood, work, leisure. The new subjects are accompanied by new methods. Where history once was primarily narrative, it is now entirely analytic. The old questions "What happened?" and "How did it happen?" have given way to the question "Why did it happen?". Prominent among the methods used to answer the question "Why" is psychoanalysis, and its use has given rise to psy-chohistory.Psychohistory does not merely use psychological explanations in historical contexts. Historians have always used such explanations when they were appropriate and when there was sufficient evidence for them. But this pragmatic use of psychology is not what psycho-historians intend. They **mitted, not just to psychology in general, but to Freudian psychoanalysis. **mitment excludes a commitment to history as historians have always understood it. Psychohistory derives its "facts" not from history, the detailed records of events and their consequences, but from psychoanalysis of the individuals who made history, and produces its theories not from this or that instance in their lives, but from a view of human nature that transcends history. It denies the basic criterion of historical evidence; that evidence be publicly accessible to, and therefore assessable by, all historians. And it violates the basic principle of historical methods; that historians be alert to the negative instances that would refute their views. Psycho-historians, convinced of the absolute rightness of their own theories are also convinced that theirs is the "deepest" explanation of any event, that other explanations fall short of the truth.Psychohistory is not content to violate the discipline of history(in the sense of the proper mode of studying and writing about the past); it also violates the past itself. It denies to the past an integrity and will of its own, in which people acted out of a variety of motives and in which events had multiplicity of causes and effects. It imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the present, thus robbing people and events of their individuality and of **plexity. Instead of respecting the particularity of the past, it assimilates all events, past and present, into a single deterministic schema that is presumed to be true at all times and in all circumstances.1. 1.Which of the following best states the main point of the passage?A. The approach of psycho-historians to historical study is currently in vogue even though it lacksthe rigor and verifiability of traditional historical method.B. Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techniques and findings of psycho-historians.C. History is composed of unique and non-repeating events that must be individually analyzed on the basis of publicly verifiable evidence.D. The psychological assessment of an individual's behavior and attitudes is more informative than the details of his or her daily life.2. 2.It can be inferred from the passage that one way in which traditional history can be distinguished from psychohistory is that traditionally history usually______.A. views past events as complex and having their own individualityB. relies on a single interpretation of human behavior to explain historical eventsC. interprets historical events in such a way that their specific nature is transcendedD. turns to psychological explanations in historical contexts to account for events3. 3.The passage supplies information for answering which of the following questions?A. What are some specific examples of the use of psychohistory in historical interpretation?B. What is the basic criterion of historical evidence required by traditional historians?C. When do traditional historians consider psychological explanations of historical developments appropriate?D. What sort of historical figure is best suited for psycho-historical analysis?4. 4.The author mentions which of the following as a characteristic of the practice of psycho-historians?A. The lives of historical figures are presented in episodic rather than narrative form.B. Archives used by psycho-historians to gather material are not accessible to other scholars.C. Past and current events are all placed within the same deterministic schema.D. Events in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more consequential than are those in the childhood of the figure.5. 5.The author of the passage puts the word "deepest" in quotation marks most probably in order toA. signal her reservations about the accuracy of psycho-historians' claims for their workB. draw attention to a contradiction in the psycho-historians' methodC. emphasize the major difference between the traditional historians' claims from her opinion of their methodD. disassociate her opinion of the psycho-historians' claims from her opinion of their methodMany literary detectives have pored over a great puzzle concerning the writer Marcel Proust: what happened in 1909? How did Contre Saint-Beuve, an essay attacking the methods of the critic Saint Beuve, turn into the start of the novel Remembrance of Things Pasty A recently published letter from Proust to the editor Vallette confirms that Fallois, the editor of the 1954 edition of Contre Saint-Beuve, made an essentially correct guess about the relationship of the essay to the novel. Fallois proposed that Proust had tried to begin a novel in 1908, abandoned it for what was to be a long demonstration of Saint-Beuve's blindness to the real nature of great writing, found the essay giving rise to personal memories and fictional developments, and allowed these to take over in a steadily developing novel.Draft passages in Proust's 1909 notebooks indicate that the transition from essay to novel began in Contre Saint-Beuve, when Proust introduced several examples to show the powerfulinfluence that involuntary memory exerts over the creative imagination. In effect, in trying to demonstrate that the imagination is more profound and less submissive to the intellect than Saint-Beuve assumed, Proust elicited vital memories of his own and, finding subtle connections between them, began to amass the material for Remembrance. By August, Proust was writing to Vallette, informing him of his intention to develop the material as a novel. Maurice Bardeche, in Marcel Proust, romancier, has shown the importance in the drafts of Remembrance of spontaneous and apparently random associations of Proust's subconscious. As incidents and reflections occurred to Proust, he continually inserted new passages altering and expanding his narrative. But he found it difficult to control the drift of his inspiration. The very richness **plexity of the meaningful relationships that kept presenting and rearranging themselves on all levels, from abstract intelligence to profound dreamy feelings, made it difficult for Proust to set them out coherently. The beginning of control came when he saw how to connect the beginning and the end of his novel.Intrigued by Proust's claim that he had "begun and finished" Remembrance at the same time, Henri Bonnet discovered that parts of Remembrance's last book were actually started in 1909. Already in that year, Proust had drafted descriptions of his novel's characters in their old age that would appear in the final book of Remembrance, where the permanence of art is set against the ravages of time. The letter to Vallette, drafts of the essay and novel, and Bonnet's researches establish in broad outline the process by which Proust generated his novel out of the ruins of his essay. But those of us who hoped, with Kolb, that Kolb's newly **plete edition of Proust's correspondence for 1909 would document the process in greater detail are disappointed. For until Proust was confident that he was at last in sight of a viable structure for Remembrance, he told few correspondents that he was producing anything more ambitious than Contre Saint-Beuve.6. 6.The passage is primarily concerned with______.A. the role of involuntary memory in Proust's writingB. evidence concerning the genesis of Proust's novel Remembrance of Things PastC. the influence of Saint-Beuve's criticism on Proust's novel Remembrance of Things PastD. Proust's correspondence and what it reveals about Remembrance of Things Past7. 7.It can be inferred from the passage that all of the following are literary detectives who have tried, by means of either scholarship or criticism, to help solve the " great puzzle" mentioned in the 1st line EXCEPT______.A. BardecheB. ValletteC. FalloisD. Kolb8. 8.Which of the following best states the author's attitude toward the information that scholars have gathered about Proust's writing in 1909?A. The author is disappointed that no new documents **e to light since Fallois' speculations.B. The author is dissatisfied because there are too many gaps and inconsistencies in the drafts.C. The author is confident that Fallois's 1954 guess has been proved largely correct, but regrets that still more detailed documentation concerning Proust's transition from the essay to the novel has not emerged.D. The author is satisfied that the facts of Proust's life in 1909 have been thoroughly established , but believes such documents as drafts and correspondence are only of limited value in a criticalassessment of Proust's writing.9. 9.The passage offers information to answer which of the following questions?A. What is a theme concerning art that appears in the final book of Remembrance of Things Past?B. Precisely when in 1909 did Proust decide to connect the beginning and the end of Remembrance of Things Past?C. What was the subject of the novel that Proust attempted in 1908?D. What specific criticisms of Saint-Beuve appear, in fictional form, in Remembrance of Things Past?10. 10.Which of the following best describes the relationship between Contre Saint-Beuve and Remembrance of Things Past as it is explained in the passage?A. Immediately after abandoning Contre Saint-Beuve, at Vallette's suggestion, Proust started Remembrance as a fictional demonstration that Saint-Beuve was wrong about the imagination.B. Immediately after abandoning Contre Saint-Beuve, at Vallette's suggestion, Proust turned his attention to Remembrance, starting with incidents that had occurred to him while planning the essay.C. Despondent that he could not find a coherent structure for Contre Saint-Beuve, an essay about the role of memory in fiction, Proust began instead to write Remembrance, a novel devoted to important early memories.D. While developing his argument about the imagination in Contre Saint-Beuve, Proust described and began to link together personal memories that became a foundation for Remembrance. DeconstructionInnovations in language are **pletely new. When the words used for familiar things change, or words for new things enter the language, they are usually borrowed or adapted from stock. Assuming new roles, they drag their old meanings along behind them like flickering shadow. This seems especially true of the language of the contemporary school of literary criticism that now prefers to describe its work simply and rather presumptuously as theory but is still popularly referred to as poststructuralism of deconstruction.The first neologisms adopted by this movement were signifier and signified, employed to distinguish arbitrariness of the term we choose. The use of these particular terms(rather than, respectively, words and thing)underlined the seriousness of the naming process and its claim on our attention. Since in English "to signify" can also mean "to portend," these terms also suggest that words **ing events.With the use of the term deconstruction we move into another and **plex realm of meaning. The **mon use of the terms construction and deconstruction is in the building trades, and their borrowing by literary theorists for a new type of criticism cannot help but have certain overtones to the outsider. First, the usage suggests that the creation and critical interpretation of literature are not organic but mechanical processes; that the author of any piece of writing is not an inspired, intuitive artist, but merely a laborer who cobbles existing materials(words)into more or less conventional structures. The term deconstruction implies that the text has been put together like a building or a piece of machinery, and that it is in need of being taken apart, not so much in order to repair it as to demonstrate underlying inadequacies, false assumptions, and inherent contradictions. This process can supposedly be repeated many times and by many literary hard hats; it is expected that each deconstruction will reveal additional flaws and expose the illusions or bad faith of the builder. The fact that deconstructionists prefer to describe their activities asdeconstruction rather than criticism is also revealing. Criticism and critic derive from the Greek Kritikos, "skillful in judging, decisive. " Deconstruction, on the other hand, has no overtones of skill or wisdom; it merely suggests demolition of an existing building. In popular usage criticism suggests censure but not change. If we find fault with a building, we may condemn it, but we do not carry out the demolition ourselves. The deconstructionist, by implication, is both judge and executioner who leaves a text totally dismantled, if not reduced to a pile of rubble.Questions:11. 11.What do you think is the author's view of deconstructionist thought?(3 points)12. 12.According to the author, with the use of the term "deconstruction" , what is suggested? Please make a brief summary.(4 points)13. 13.How is "deconstruction" different from "criticism" as a literary term?(3 points)In eighteenth-century France and England, reformers rallied around egalitarian ideals, but few reformers advocated higher education for women. Although the public decried women's lack of education , it did not encourage learning for its own sake for women. In spite of the general prejudice against learned women, there was one place where women could exhibit their erudition: the literary salon. Many writers have defined the woman's role in the salon as that of an intelligent hostess, but the salon had more than a social function for women. It was an informal university, too, where women exchanged ideas with educated persons, read their own works and heard those of others, and received and gave criticism.In the 1750s, when salons were firmly established in France, some English women, who called themselves " Bluestocking," followed the example of the salonnieres(French salon hostesses)and formed their own salons. Most Bluestockings did not wish to mirror the salonnieres; they simply desired to adapt a proven formula to their own purpose—the elevation of women's status through moral and intellectual training. Differences in social orientation and background can account perhaps for differences in the nature of French and English salons. The French salon incorporated aristocratic attitudes that exalted courtly pleasure and emphasized artistic accomplishments. The English Bluestockings , originating from a more modest background, emphasized learning and work over pleasure. Accustomed to the regimented life of court circles, salonnieres tended toward formality in their salons. The English women, though somewhat puritanical, were more casual in their approach.At first, the Bluestockings did imitate the salonnieres by including men in their circles. However , as they gained cohesion, the Bluestockings came to regard themselves as a women's group and to possess a sense of female solidarity lacking in the salonnieres, who remained isolated from one another by the primacy each held in her own salon. In an atmosphere of mutual support, the Bluestockings went beyond the salon experience. They traveled, studied, worked, wrote for publication, and by their activities challenged the stereotype of the passive woman. Although the salonnieres were aware of sexual inequality, the narrow boundaries of their world kept their intellectual pursuits within conventional limits. Many salonnieres, in fact, camouflaged their nontraditional activities behind the role of hostess and deferred to men in public Though the Bluestockings were trailblazers **pared with the salonnieres, they were not feminists. They were too traditional, too hemmed in by their generation to demand social and political rights. Nonetheless, in their desire for education, their willingness to go beyond the confines of the salon in pursuing their interests, and their championing of unity among women, the Bluestockings began the process of questioning women's role in society.14. 14.Which of the following best states the central idea of the passage?A. The establishment of literary salons was a response to reformers' demands for social rights for women.B. Literary salons were originally intended to be a meeting ground for intellectuals of both sexes, but eventually became social gatherings with little educational value.C. In England, as in France, the general prejudice against higher education for women limited women's function in literary salons to a primarily social one.D. For women, who did not have access to higher education as men did, literary salons provided an alternate route to learning and a challenge to some of society's basic assumptions about women.15. 15.According to the passage, a significant distinction between the salonnieres and Bluestockings was in the way each group regarded which of the following?A. The value of acquiring knowledge.B. The role of pleasure in the activities of the literary salon.C. The desirability of a complete break with societal traditions.D. The inclusion of women of different backgrounds in the salons.16. 16.Which of the following statements is **patible with the principles of the salonnieres as described in the passage?A. Women should aspire to be not only educated but independent as well.B. The duty of the educated women is to provide an active political model for less educated women.C. Devotion to pleasure and art is justified in itself.D. Substance, rather than form, is the most important consideration in holding a literary salon.17. 17.Which of the following could best be considered a twentieth-century counterpart of an eighteenth century literary salon as it is described in the passage?A. A social sororityB. A community centerC. A lecture course on artD. A humanities study group18. 18.To an assertion that Bluestockings were feminists, the author would most probably respond with which of the following?A. Admitted uncertaintyB. Qualified disagreementC. Unquestioning approvalD. Complete indifferenceGene therapy and gene-based drugs are two ways we could benefit from our growing mastery of genetic science. But there will be others as well. Here is one of the remarkable therapies on the cutting edge of genetic research that could make their way into mainstream medicine in **ing years.While it's true that just about every cell in the body has the instructions to make a complete human , most of those instructions are inactivated, and with good reason: the last thing you want for your brain cells is to start churning out stomach acid or your nose to turn into a kidney. The only time cells truly have the potential to turn into any and all body parts is very early in a pregnancy, when so-called stem cells haven't begun to specialize.Yet this untapped potential could be a terrific boon to medicine. Most diseases involve thedeath of healthy cells—brain cells in Alzheimer's, cardiac cells in heart disease, pancreatic cells in diabetes, to name a few; if doctors could isolate stem cells, then direct their growth, they might be able to furnish patients with healthy replacement tissue.It was incredibly difficult, but last fall scientists at the University of Wisconsin managed to isolate stem cells and get them to grow into neural, gut, muscle and bone cells. The process still can't be controlled, and may have unforeseen limitations; but if efforts to understand and master stem cell development prove successful, doctors will have a therapeutic tool of incredible power.The same applies to cloning, which is really just the other side of the coin; true cloning, as first shown with the sheep Dolly two years ago, involves taking a developed cell and reactivating the genome within, resetting its developmental instructions to a pristine state. Once that happens, the rejuvenated cell can develop into a full fledged animal, genetically identical to its parent.For agriculture, in which purely physical characteristics like milk production in a cow or low fat in a hog have real market value, biological carbon copies could become routine within a few years. This past year scientists have done for mice and cows what Ian Wilmut did for Dolly, and other creatures are bound to join the cloned menagerie in **ing year.Human cloning, on the other hand, may be technically feasible but legally and emotionally more difficult. Still, one day it will happen. The ability to reset body cells to a pristine, undeveloped state could give doctors exactly the same advantages they would get from stem cells: the potential to make healthy body tissues of all sorts, and thus to cure disease. That could prove to be a true "miracle cure. "19. 19.The writer holds that the potential to make healthy body tissues will______.A. aggravate moral issues of human cloningB. bring great benefits to human beingsC. help scientists decode body instructionsD. involve employing surgical instruments20. 20.The word "rejuvenated"(Para. 5)most probably means______.A. modifiedB. re-collectedC. classifiedD. reactivated21. 21.The research at the University of Wisconsin is mentioned to show______.A. the isolation of stem cellsB. the effects of gene therapiesC. the advantages of human cloningD. the limitations of tissue replacements22. 22.Which of the following is true according to the text?A. The principle of gene therapy is applicable to that of cloning.B. The isolation of stem cells is too difficult to be feasible.C. It is reasonable for all body instructions to be activated.D. Cloned animals will eventually take control of the world.23. 23.Towards the genetic research, the author's attitude can best be said to be that of______.A. FrustrationB. IndifferenceC. AmazementD. Opposition。

托福听力tpo68全套对话讲座原文+题目+答案+译文

托福听力tpo68全套对话讲座原文+题目+答案+译文Section 1 (2)Conversation1 (2)原文 (2)题目 (4)答案 (7)译文 (7)Lecture1 (9)原文 (9)题目 (12)答案 (15)译文 (15)Lecture2 (18)原文 (18)题目 (21)答案 (24)译文 (25)Section 2 (27)Conversation2 (27)原文 (27)题目 (30)答案 (33)译文 (33)Lecture3 (35)原文 (35)题目 (39)答案 (41)译文 (42)Section 1Conversation1原文Student: Hi i'm i'm, i'm, Randy Beecham. I really need to speak with professor Clark right away. Could you get me into see her?Assistant: Well, she is conducting oral exams right now, I can't interrupt her. The exams began at 8:00 this morning and are scheduled to go on all day.Student: But I was supposed to take my oral at 9 this morning, and well I don't know what happened, my alarm clock didn't go off for some reason and I overslept.Assistant: Oh dear!Student: I know it's like, really embarrassing, when I open my eyes and saw with already 9:30 I just got here as fast as I could.Assistant: Well，since you didn’t show up your schedule time. The professor would probably consider it an unauthorized absence. I’m afraid that it will translate into an automatic failing grade for that portion of the exam.Student: Oh no, and I was so prepared, I stayed up all night studying. Is there any way I can maybe reschedule it？Assistant: I don't know what to tell you Randy. As I said professor Clark will be examining students to four o'clock today and all day tomorrow, then it’s the weekend.Student: What about like, first thing Monday morning？Assistant: No, Monday is not possible, exam week ends tomorrow when the dean, it's the dean who says the university’s rules on these matters, you know, not the professors. The dean is very strict about granting extensions except under extraordinary circumstances.Student: Um, so, I guess the defect of alarm clock wouldn’t account as extraordinary, huh.Assistant: I'm afraid we’re talking something more on the order of illness or if you had an unavoidable conflict, like an exam in another class schedule for the same time. But you know, since exam week isn't over yet, it probably would be worthwhile trying to speak with professor Clark, she might be able to find a solution.Student: You now, the oral part of the exams only an half hour long, do you think she’d be willing to stay later this afternoon or coming a littleearly tomorrow ?Assistant: I'm sure should do her best. But I can't speak for her of course. Student: But I can't just stick around all day waiting for her. Do you think she will be breaking for a lunch.Assistant: Well, I hope so for her sake, let me check her schedule again. Well, she's got student’s schedules to noon, then she has one hour break before the afternoon exams schedule begins. So yes, she apparently does plan to break for lunch.Student: Noon, ha.Assistant: That's what it says.Student: Okay, why don't I come back at noon then, but if you happen to see her in the meantime, would you please say I was here and that I'm really sorry I was late for my exam.Assistant: Of course, good luck!题目1.What problem does the student have?A. He is unsure about the material he needs to study for an exam.B. He missed the deadline for submitting a paper.C. He does not know when the exam period starts.D. He needs to reschedule an exam.2.What reason does the student give for missing an appointment with his professor?A. His alarm clock did not work properly.B. He was confused about the time of the appointment.C. He felt ill when he woke up that day.D. He had an exam in another class.3.Why does the woman mention the dean?A. To indicate that the dean will probably accept the student’s excuseB. To point out that the professor is not able to extend the exam periodC. To explain that extensions are not granted under any circumstancesD. To indicate that the student needs to report to the dean4.Why do the speakers think that the professor might be able to help the student?[Click on 2 answers.]A. The exam period has not ended.B. The professor may excuse the student from taking the exam.C. The professor may grant an extension of the exam.D. The oral exam takes only half an hour.5.What does the woman imply when she says this:Student: But I can't just stick around all day waiting for her. Do you think she will be breaking for a lunch.Assistant: Well, I hope so for her sake.A. The professor usually breaks for lunch during exams.B. The students enjoy eating lunch with the professor.C. The professor will get tired unless she takes a break.D. The exams will end early in the afternoon.答案D A B AD C译文1.学生：嗨！我是Randy Beecham，我真的需要和Clark教授马上谈一下。

英语作文科学证据材料

英语作文科学证据材料Title: The Importance of Scientific Evidence。

In an era marked by technological advancements and an ever-growing wealth of information, the significance of scientific evidence cannot be overstated. Scientific evidence forms the cornerstone of our understanding of the world around us, guiding decision-making processes, shaping policies, and driving innovation. Through rigorous experimentation, meticulous observation, and critical analysis, scientists uncover truths that serve as the bedrock of human progress. In this essay, we will explore the pivotal role of scientific evidence across various domains, from healthcare to environmental conservation, and discuss its implications for society.Healthcare Advancements:Scientific evidence plays a pivotal role in advancing healthcare by informing medical practices, treatments, anddrug development. Clinical trials, for instance, provide empirical evidence regarding the efficacy and safety of new medications and medical procedures. Without robustscientific evidence, healthcare providers would lack the necessary guidance to make informed decisions about patient care, leading to potential harm and inefficiency.Moreover, evidence-based medicine relies on scientific research to identify the most effective interventions for treating various ailments. By synthesizing data from numerous studies, healthcare professionals can determine the best course of action based on objective evidence rather than anecdotal experience. This approach not only improves patient outcomes but also fosters a culture of accountability and continuous improvement within the healthcare system.Environmental Conservation:In the realm of environmental conservation, scientific evidence serves as a compass guiding efforts to preserve fragile ecosystems and mitigate the impact of humanactivities on the planet. Through methods such as climate modeling, satellite imagery, and field research, scientists gather data to assess the health of ecosystems, track changes over time, and predict future trends. This evidence forms the basis for environmental policies aimed at reducing pollution, conserving biodiversity, and promoting sustainable resource management.For example, studies on the effects of deforestation on biodiversity provide compelling evidence of the need for conservation measures to protect endangered species and maintain ecological balance. Similarly, research on the impact of carbon emissions on climate change informs international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, which seeks to limit global warming and mitigate its adverse effects.Educational Practices:In the field of education, scientific evidence informs instructional strategies, curriculum development, and educational policies designed to enhance learning outcomes.Educational researchers conduct studies to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching methods, assess student performance, and identify factors that influence academic achievement. By applying rigorous scientific methods, educators can determine which approaches yield the most significant gains in student learning and adjust their practices accordingly.For instance, studies comparing traditional lecture-based instruction with active learning techniques have shown that the latter leads to better retention of knowledge and higher levels of student engagement. Armed with this evidence, educators can adopt pedagogical approaches that promote deeper learning and critical thinking skills, ultimately preparing students for success in an increasingly complex and dynamic world.Conclusion:In conclusion, scientific evidence serves as a beacon of truth in a world fraught with misinformation and uncertainty. Whether in healthcare, environmentalconservation, education, or any other field, the reliance on empirical data ensures that decisions are based on objective reality rather than subjective opinion. As we navigate the challenges of the 21st century, the importance of scientific evidence cannot be overstated. It is incumbent upon us as individuals and as a society to uphold the principles of scientific inquiry, promote evidence-based practices, and harness the power of knowledge to drive positive change for the betterment of humanity and the planet.。

准实验设计

人格研究、临床心理的研究、社会心理以及教育心理研究常常采用准实验设计。
Generally speaking, quasi-experiments include some type of intervention or treatment and they provide a comparison, but they lack the degree of control found in true experiments.
In the nonequivalent control group design, a treatment group and a comparison group are compared using pretest and posttest measure.
Because a comparison group is selected on bases other than random assignment, we cannot assume that individuals in the treatment and control groups are equivalent on all important characteristics (a selection threat arises).
Just as randomization is the hallmark of true experiments, so lack of randomization is the hallmark of quasi-experiments.
Quasi-experiments provide an important alternative when true experiments are not possible.

采用电磁波偏振方法探测极高频残余引力波

∗ †
supported by the CNSF, SRFDP, and CAS. yzh@
1ct GWs of very high frequencies from MHz to GHz, employing various techniques, such as laser beam [8]. One interesting method proposed by Cruise uses linearly polarized electromagnetic waves (EWs) [9, 10]. When GWs pass through the region of waveguide, the direction of polarization vector (PV) of EWs will generally experience a rotation [9]. A prototype gravitational waves detector has been built by Cruise’s group [10], which consists mainly of one, or several, annular waveguide of a shape of torus. As a merit of this method, depending upon the size of the waveguide, GWs in a very high frequency range ν (106 , 109 ) Hz can be detected, which is not covered by the laser interferometer method. Note that the GWs in the frequency range (106 , 109 ) Hz are generally not generated by usual astrophysical processes, such as binary neutron stars, binary black holes, merging of neutron stars or black holes, and collapse of stars [11] [12]. However, the background of relic gravitational waves (RGWs) has a spectrum stretching over a whole range of (10−18 , 1011 ) Hz [13] [14]. Depending on the frequency ranges, its diﬀerent portions can be detected by diﬀerent method. For instance, the very low frequency range (10−18 , 10−16 ) Hz can be detected by the curl type of polarization in CMB [7], the low frequency range (10−3 , 10−2 ) Hz can be detected by LISA, the mediate frequency range (102 , 103 ) Hz is covered by LIGO, and the very high frequency range (106 , 109 ) Hz can be the detection object of Cruise’s EWs polarization method. Therefore, one of the main object of detection by the annular waveguide is the very high frequency RGWs. The detection of high frequency RGWs from MHz to GHz is in complimentary to the usual detectors working in the range of (10−4 , 104 ) Hz. RGWs is a stochastic background that are generated by the inﬂationary expansion of the early Universe [13, 14, 15, 16, 17], and its spectrum depends sensitively on the inﬂationary and the subsequent reheating stages. Besides, the currently accelerating expansion also aﬀects both the shape and the amplitude of the RGW spectrum [13, 14, 17]. RGWs carry take a valuable information about the Universe, therefore, their detection is much desired and will provide a new window of astronomy. In this paper we give a comprehensive study of the rotations of PV of EWs in a conducting torus caused by incident GWs, and explore the feasibility and limitation of Cruise’s method of detecting GWs by polarized EWs in the annular waveguide. Firstly, we brieﬂy review the RGWs in the currently accelerating universe. Secondly, we shall present detailed calculations of rotations of the PV of EWs in the waveguide caused by the incoming GWs from from various directions and in various polarization states, thereby we analyze the multiple-cycling accumulating eﬀect and the resonance when the circling frequency of EWs is nearly equal to that of GWs. Thirdly, we shall examine the possible detection of the RGWs by the annular waveguide system around 100 MHz, comparing the predicted spectrum of RGWs in the accelerating Universe with the sensitivity of the detector [10]. Finally, we give the conclusions and possible ways of improvements for detection.

社区获得型肺炎英国指南

347Downloaded from at Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/348Bartlett et al.CID2000;31(August)is not available initially but is subsequently reported,changing to the antimicrobial agent that is most cost-effective,least toxic, and most narrow in spectrum is encouraged.Recommendations for treating patients who require empirical antibiotic selection are based on severity of illness,pathogen probabilities,resis-tance patterns of S.pneumoniae(the most commonly implicated etiologic agent),and comorbid conditions.The recommendation for outpatients is administration of a macrolide,doxycycline,orﬂuoroquinolone with enhanced ac-tivity against S.pneumoniae.For patients who are hospitalized, the recommendation is administration of aﬂuoroquinolone alone or an extended-spectrum cephalosporin(cefotaxime or ceftriaxone)plus a macrolide.Patients hospitalized in the in-tensive care unit(ICU)should receive ceftriaxone,cefotaxime, ampicillin-sulbactam,or piperacillin-tazobactam in combina-tion with aﬂuoroquinolone or macrolide.b-lactams,other than those noted,are not recommended.Intravenous antibiotics may be switched to oral agents when the patient is improving clin-ically,is hemodynamically stable,and is able to ingest drugs. Most patients show a clinical response within3–5days. Changes evident on chest radiographs usually lag behind the clinical response,and repeated chest radiography is generally not indicated for patients who respond.The failure to respond usually indicates an incorrect diagnosis;host failure;inappro-priate antibiotic;inappropriate dose or route of administration; unusual or unanticipated pathogen;adverse drug reaction;or complication,such as pulmonary superinfection or empyema. Prognosis.The most frequent causes of lethal community-acquired pneumonia are S.pneumoniae and Legionella.The most frequent reason for failure to respond is progression of pathophysiological changes,despite appropriate antibiotic treatment.Pneumococcal pneumonia.S.pneumoniae,the most com-mon identiﬁable etiologic agent of pneumonia in virtually all studies,accounts for about two-thirds of bacteremic pneumonia cases,and pneumococci are the most frequent cause of lethal community-acquired pneumonia.Management has been com-plicated in recent years by the evolution of multidrug resistance. b-lactams(amoxicillin,cefotaxime,and ceftriaxone)are gen-erally regarded as the drugs of choice,although pneumonia caused by resistant strains(MIC,у2m g/mL)may not respond as readily as pneumonia caused by more susceptible strains. The activity of macrolides and doxycycline or other b-lactams, including cefuroxime,is good against penicillin-susceptible strains but less predictable with strains that show reduced pen-icillin-susceptibility.Vancomycin,linezolid,and quinupristin/ dalfopristin are the only drugs with predictable in vitro activity. Fluoroquinolones are generally active against strains that are susceptible or resistant to penicillin,but recent reports indicate increasing resistance in selective locations that correlate with excessiveﬂuoroquinolone use.Prevention.The major preventive measures are use of in-ﬂuenza vaccine and use of pneumococcal vaccine,according to guidelines of the Advisory Council on Immunization Practicesof the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC). Performance indicators.Recommendations for perform-ance indicators include the collection of blood culture speci-mens before antibiotic treatment and the institution of anti-biotic treatment within8h of hospitalization,since both aresupported on the basis of evidence-based trials.Additional per-formance indicators recommended are laboratory tests for Le-gionella in patients hospitalized in the ICU,demonstration ofan inﬁltrate on chest radiographs of patients with an ICD-9 (International Classiﬁcation of Diseases,9th edition)code for pneumonia,and measurement of blood gases or pulse oximetrywithin24h of admission.IntroductionLower respiratory tract infections are the major cause ofdeath in the world and the major cause of death due to infec-tious diseases in the United States.Recent advances in theﬁeldinclude the identiﬁcation of new pathogens(Chlamydia pneu-moniae and hantavirus),new methods of microbial detection (PCR),and new antimicrobial agents(macrolides,b-lactamagents,ﬂuoroquinolones,oxazolidinones,and streptogramins).Despite extensive studies,there are few conditions in medicinethat are so controversial in terms of management.Guidelinesfor management were published in1993by the American Tho-racic Society[1],the British Thoracic Society[2],and the Ca-nadian Infectious Disease Society[3],as well as the InfectiousDiseases Society of America(IDSA)in1998[4].The presentguidelines represent revised recommendations of the IDSA. Compared with previous guidelines,these guidelines are in-tended to reﬂect updated information,provide more extensive recommendations in selected areas,and indicate an evolutionof opinion.These therapeutic guidelines are restricted to com-munity-acquired pneumonia(CAP)in immunocompetentadults.Recommendations are given alphabetical ranking to reﬂecttheir strength and a Roman numeral ranking to reﬂect thequality of supporting evidence(table1).This is customary forquality standards from the IDSA[5].It should be acknowledgedthat no set of standards can be constructed to deal with themultitude of variables that inﬂuence decisions regarding site ofcare,diagnostic evaluation,and selection of antibiotics.Thus,these standards should not supplant good clinical judgement.EpidemiologyMagnitudeCAP is commonly deﬁned as an acute infection of the pul-monary parenchyma that is associated with at least some symp-toms of acute infection,accompanied by the presence of anacute inﬁltrate on a chest radiograph or auscultatoryﬁndingsconsistent with pneumonia(such as altered breath sounds and/at Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/Downloaded fromCID2000;31(August)IDSA Guidelines for CAP in Adults349Table1.Categories for ranking recommendations in the therapeutic guidelines.Category DescriptionStrength of recommendationA Good evidence to support a recommendation for useB Moderate evidence to support a recommendation for useC Poor evidence to support a recommendationD Moderate evidence to support a recommendation against useE Good evidence to support a recommendation against useQuality of evidenceI Evidence from at least1randomized,controlled trialII Evidence from at least1well-designed clinical trial without randomizationIII Evidence from opinions of respected authorities,based on clinical experi-ence,descriptive studies,or reports of expert committeesor localized rales),in a patient not hospitalized or residing in a long-term-care facility forу14days before onset of symp-toms.Symptoms of acute lower respiratory infection may in-clude several(in most studies,at least2)of the following:fever or hypothermia,rigors,sweats,new cough with or without sputum production or change in color of respiratory secretions in a patient with chronic cough,chest discomfort,or the onset of dyspnea.Most patients also have nonspeciﬁc symptoms, such as fatigue,myalgias,abdominal pain,anorexia,and headache.Pneumonia is the sixth most common cause of death in the United States.From1979through1994,the overall rates of death due to pneumonia and inﬂuenza increased by59%(on the basis of ICD-9codes on death certiﬁcates)in the United States[6].Much of this increase is due to a greater proportion of persons agedу65years;however,age-adjusted rates also increased by22%,which suggests that other factors may have contributed to a changing epidemiology of pneumonia,includ-ing a greater proportion of the population with underlying med-ical conditions at increased risk of respiratory infection. Annually,2–3million cases of CAP result in∼10million physician visits,500,000hospitalizations,and45,000deaths in the United States[7,8].The incidence of CAP that requires hospitalization is estimated to be258persons per100,000pop-ulation and962per100,000persons agedу65years[8].Al-though mortality has ranged from2%to30%among hospi-talized patients in a variety of studies,the average is∼14%[9]. Mortality is estimated to be!1%for patients not hospitalized [9,10].The incidence of CAP is heavily weighted toward the winter months.Prognosis,Risk Stratiﬁcation,and the Initial Site-of-Treatment DecisionKnowledge about the prognosis of a disease allows physi-cians to inform their patients about the expected natural history of an illness,the likelihood of potential complications,and the probability of successful treatment.Understanding the prog-nosis of CAP is of particular clinical relevance,since it ranges from rapid recovery from symptoms without functional im-pairment to serious morbid complications and death.The abil-ity to accurately predict medical outcomes in cases of CAP hasa major impact on management.The decision to hospitalize apatient or to treat him or her as an outpatient(ﬁgure1)isperhaps the single most important clinical decision made by physicians during the entire course of illness,which has directbearing on the location and intensity of laboratory evaluation,antibiotic therapy,and costs.The estimated total treatment costfor an episode of CAP managed in the hospital is$7500(USdollars)[11],120-fold higher than the cost of outpatient treatment.Numerous studies have identiﬁed risk factors for death incases of CAP[9,10,12].These factors were well-deﬁned in thepre–penicillin era;studies of adults showed an increased riskwith alcohol consumption,increasing age,the presence of leu-kopenia,the presence of bacteremia,and radiographic changes[12].More recent studies have conﬁrmed theseﬁndings[2,13–18].Independent associations with increased mortality havealso been demonstrated for a variety of comorbid illnesses,suchas active malignancies[10,16,19],immunosuppression[20,21], neurological disease[19,22,23],congestive heart failure[10,17,19],coronary artery disease[19],and diabetes mellitus[10,19,24].Signs and symptoms independently associated with in-creased mortality consist of dyspnea[10],chills[25],alteredmental status[10,19,23,26],hypothermia or hyperthermia[10,16,17,20],tachypnea[10,19,23,27],and hypotension(diastolic and systolic)[10,19,26–28].Laboratory and radiographicﬁndings independently asso-ciated with increased mortality are hyponatremia[10,19],hy-perglycemia[10,19],azotemia[10,19,27,28],hypoalbumi-nemia[16,19,22,25],hypoxemia[10,19],liver function test abnormalities[19],and pleural effusion[29].Infections due togram-negative bacilli or S.aureus,postobstructive pneumonia,and aspiration pneumonia are also independently associatedwith higher mortality[30].Despite our knowledge regarding the associations of clinical, laboratory,and radiographic factors and patient mortality,there is wide geographic variation in hospital admission ratesfor CAP[31,32].This variation suggests that physicians donot use a uniform strategy to relate the decision to hospitalizeto the prognosis.In fact,physicians often overestimate the riskof death for patients with CAP,and the degree of overesti-at Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/Downloaded from350Bartlett et al.CID2000;31(August)Figure1.Evaluation for diagnosis and management of community-acquired pneumonia,including site,duration,and type of treatment. b-Lactam:cefotaxime,ceftriaxone,or a b-lactam/b-lactamase inhibitor.Fluoroquinolone:levoﬂoxacin,moxiﬂoxacin,or gatiﬂoxacin or another ﬂuoroquinolone with enhanced antipneumococcal activity.Macrolide:erythromycin,clarithromycin,or azithromycin.CBC,complete blood cell count;ICU,intensive care unit.*Other tests for selected patients:see text,Diagnostic Evaluation:Etiology.**See table15for special considerations.mation is independently associated with the decision to hos-pitalize[30].Over the past10years,at least13studies have used multi-variate analysis to identify predictors of prognosis for patients with CAP[10,16–20,25–27,33–35].The Pneumonia PORT developed a methodologically sound clinical prediction rule that quantiﬁes short-term mortality for patients with this illness [10].Used as a guideline,this rule may help physicians make decisions about the initial location and intensity of treatment for patients with this illness(table2).The Pneumonia PORT prediction rule was derived with 14,199inpatients with CAP;it was independently validated with 38,039inpatients with CAP and2287inpatients and outpatients prospectively enrolled in the Pneumonia PORT cohort study. With this rule,patients are stratiﬁed into5severity classes by means of a2-step process.In step1,patients are classiﬁed as risk class I(the lowest severity level)if they are agedр50years,have none of5important comorbid conditions(neoplastic dis-ease,liver disease,congestive heart failure,cerebrovascular dis-ease,or renal disease),and have normal or only mildly derangedvital signs and normal mental status.In step2,all patients whoare not assigned to risk class I on the basis of the initial historyand physical examinationﬁndings alone are stratiﬁed into clas-ses II–V,on the basis of points assigned for3demographicvariables(age,sex,and nursing home residence),5comorbidconditions(listed above),5physical examinationﬁndings(al-tered mental status,tachypnea,tachycardia,systolic hypoten-sion,hypothermia,or hyperthermia),and7laboratory or ra-diographicﬁndings(acidemia,elevated blood urea nitrogen, hyponatremia,hyperglycemia,anemia,hypoxemia,or pleuraleffusion;table3).Point assignments correspond with the fol-lowing classes:р70,class II;71–90,class III;91–130,class IV;and1130,class V.In the derivation and validation of this rule,mortality wasat Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/Downloaded fromCID2000;31(August)IDSA Guidelines for CAP in Adults351 parison of risk class–speciﬁc mortality rates in the derivation and validation cohorts.Risk class a (total points)MedisGroups MedisGroupsPneumonia PORT validation cohortderivation cohort validation cohort Inpatients Outpatients All patientsn Mortality,%n Mortality,%n Mortality,%n Mortality,%n Mortality,%I13720.430340.11850.55870.07720.1II(р70)24120.757780.62330.92440.44770.6III(71–90)2632 2.86790 2.8254 1.2720.03260.9IV(91–130)46978.513,1048.24469.04012.54869.3V(1130)308631.1933329.222527.110.022627.0 Total14,19910.238,03910.613438.09440.62287 5.2 NOTE.No statistically signiﬁcant differences in overall mortality or mortality within risk class existed among patients in the MedisGroups derivation,MedisGroups validation,and overall Pneumonia Patient Outcome Research Team(PORT)validation cohorts(n denotes the no.of patients within each risk class in the derivation and validation cohorts).P values for the comparisons of mortality across risk classes are as follows:class I,;class II,;class III,;class IV,;and class V,.P p.22P p.67P p.12P p.69P p.09a Risk class I was determined by the absence of all predictors identiﬁed in step1of the prediction rule.Risk classes II–V were determined by a patient’s total risk score,which is computed by use of the point scoring system shown in table3.low for risk classes I–III(0.1%–2.8%),intermediate for class IV(8.2%–9.3%),and high for class V(27.0%–31.1%).Increases in risk class were also associated with subsequent hospitaliza-tion and delayed return to usual activities for outpatients and with rates of admission to the ICU and length of stay for inpatients in the Pneumonia PORT validation cohort.On the basis of these observations,Pneumonia PORT investigators suggest that patients in risk classes I or II generally are can-didates for outpatient treatment,risk class III patients are po-tential candidates for outpatient treatment or brief inpatient observation,and patients in classes IV and V should be hos-pitalized(table4).Estimates from the Pneumonia PORT cohort study suggest that these recommendations would reduce the proportion of patients receiving traditional inpatient care by 31%and that there would be a brief observational inpatient stay for an additional19%.The effectiveness and safety of applying the Pneumonia PORT prediction rule to the initial site of care for an indepen-dent population of patients with CAP have been examined with use of a modiﬁed version of the Pneumonia PORT prediction rule[36].Emergency room physicians were educated about the rule and were encouraged to treat those in risk classes I–III as outpatients,with close,structured follow-up and provision of oral clarithromycin at no cost to the patient,if desired.The outcomes for those treated at home during this intervention phase were compared with the outcomes for historical control subjects from the time period immediately preceding the intervention.During the intervention period,there were166eligible pa-tients classiﬁed as“low risk”for short-term mortality(risk classes I–III)for comparison with147control subjects.The percentage treated initially as outpatients was higher during the intervention period than during the control period(57%vs. 42%;relative increase of36%;).When initial plus sub-P p.01sequent hospitalization was used as the outcome measure,there was a trend toward more outpatient care during the interven-tion period,but the difference was no longer statistically sig-niﬁcant(52%vs.42%;).None of those initially treatedP p.07in the outpatient setting during the intervention period diedwithin4weeks of presentation.A second multicenter controlled trial subsequently assessedthe effectiveness and safety of using the Pneumonia PORT pre-diction rule for the initial site-of-treatment decision[37].In thistrial,19emergency departments were randomly assigned eitherto continue conventional management of CAP or to implementa critical pathway that included the Pneumonia PORT predic-tion rule to guide the admission decision.Emergency room physicians were educated about the rule and were encouragedto treat those in risk classes I–III as outpatients with oral levo-ﬂoxacin.Overall,1743patients with CAP were enrolled in this6-month e of the prediction rule resulted in an18%reduction in the admission of low-risk patients(31%vs.49%;).Use of the rule did not result in an increase in mor-P p.013tality or morbidity and did not compromise patients’30-dayfunctional status.These studies support use of the PneumoniaPORT prediction rule to help physicians identify low-risk pa-tients who can be safely treated in the outpatient setting.The IDSA panel endorses theﬁndings of the PneumoniaPORT prediction rule,which identiﬁes valid predictors for mor-tality and provides a rational foundation for the decision re-garding hospitalization.However,it should be emphasized thatthe PORT prediction rule is validated as a mortality predictionmodel and not as a method to triage patients with CAP.Newstudies are required to test the basic premise underlying the useof this rule in the initial site-of-treatment decision,so that pa-tients classiﬁed as“low risk”and treated in the outpatient set-ting will have outcomes equivalent to or better than those ofsimilar“low-risk”patients who are hospitalized.It is important to note that prediction rules are meant tocontribute to rather than to supersede physicians’judgment.Another limitation is that factors other than severity of illnessmust also be considered in determining whether an individualpatient is a candidate for outpatient care.Patients designatedas“low risk”may have important medical and psychosocial contraindications to outpatient care,including expected com-pliance problems with medical treatment or poor social supportat Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/Downloaded from352Bartlett et al.CID 2000;31(August)Table 3.Scoring system for step 2of the prediction rule:assignment to risk classes II–V .Patient characteristicPoints assignedaDemographic factor Age Male No.of years of age FemaleNo.of years of age Ϫ10Nursing home resident ϩ10Comorbid illnessesNeoplastic diseasebϩ30Liver diseasecϩ20Congestive heart failuredϩ10Cerebrovascular diseaseeϩ10Renal diseasefϩ10Physical examination ﬁndingAltered mental statusgϩ20Respiratory rate 130breaths/min ϩ20Systolic blood pressure !90mm Hg ϩ20Temperature !35ЊC or 140ЊC ϩ15Pulse 1125beats/minϩ10Laboratory or radiographic ﬁnding Arterial pH !7.35ϩ30Blood urea nitrogen 130mg/dL ϩ20Sodium !130mEq/L ϩ20Glucose 1250mg/dL ϩ10Hematocrit !30%ϩ10Arterial partial pressure of oxygen !60mm Hg hϩ10Pleural effusionϩ10aA total point score for a given patient is obtained by adding the patient’s age in years (age Ϫ10,for females)and the points for each applicable patient char-acteristic.Points assigned to each predictor variable were based on coefﬁcients obtained from the logistic regression model used in step 2of the prediction rule.bAny cancer except basal or squamous cell cancer of the skin that was active at the time of presentation or diagnosed within 1year of presentation.cA clinical or histologic diagnosis of cirrhosis or other form of chronic liver disease such as chronic active hepatitis.dSystolic or diastolic ventricular dysfunction documented by history and physical examination,as well as chest radiography,echocardiography,Muga scanning,or left ventriculography.eA clinical diagnosis of stroke,transient ischemic attack,or stroke docu-mented by MRI or computed axial tomography.fA history of chronic renal disease or abnormal blood urea nitrogen and creatinine values documented in the medical record.gDisorientation (to person,place,or time,not known to be chronic),stupor,or coma.hIn the Pneumonia Patient Outcome Research Team cohort study,an oxygen saturation value !90%on pulse oximetry or intubation before admission was also considered abnormal.Table 4.Risk-class mortality rates.Risk class No.of points Validation cohortRecommended site of care No.of patientsMortality,%I —a30340.1Outpatient II р7057780.6Outpatient III 71–906790 2.8Outpatient or brief inpatient IV 91–13013,1048.2Inpatient V1130933329.2InpatientNOTE.Table is adapted from [10].aAbsence of predictors.at home.Ability to maintain oral intake,history of substance abuse,cognitive impairment,and ability to perform activities of daily living must be considered.In addition,patients may have rare conditions,such as severe neuromuscular disease or immunosuppression,which are not included as predictors in these prediction rules but increase the likelihood of a poor prognosis.Prediction rules may also oversimplify the way physicians interpret important predictor variables.For example,extreme alterations in any one variable have the same effect on risk stratiﬁcation as lesser changes,despite obvious differences in clinical import (e.g.,a systolic blood pressure of 40mm Hg vs.one of 88mm Hg).Furthermore,such rules discount the cu-mulative importance of multiple simultaneous physiological de-rangements,especially if each derangement alone does not reach the threshold that deﬁnes an abnormal value (e.g.,systolicblood pressure of 90/40mm Hg,respiratory rate of 28breaths/min,and pulse of 120beats/min).Finally,prediction rules often neglect the importance of patients’preferences in clinical de-cision-making.This point is highlighted by the observation that the vast majority of low-risk patients with CAP do not have their preferences for site of care solicited,despite strong pref-erences for outpatient care [38].Role of Speciﬁc Pathogens in CAPProspective studies evaluating the causes of CAP in adults have failed to identify the cause of 40%–60%of cases of CAP and have detected у2etiologies in 2%–5%[2,7,26,39,40].The most common etiologic agent identiﬁed in virtually all studies of CAP is S.pneumoniae,which accounts for about two-thirds of all cases of bacteremic pneumonia cases [9].Other pathogens implicated less frequently include H.inﬂuenzae (most strains of which are nontypeable),Mycoplasma pneumoniae,C.pneumoniae,S.aureus,Streptococcus pyogenes,N.meningitidis,Moraxella catarrhalis,Klebsiella pneumoniae and other gram-negative rods,Legionella species,inﬂuenza virus (depending on the season),respiratory syncytial virus,adenovirus,parainﬂu-enza virus,and other microbes.The frequency of other etiol-ogies is dependent on speciﬁc epidemiological factors,as with Chlamydia psittaci (psittacosis),Coxiella burnetii (Q fever),Francisella tularensis (tularemia),and endemic fungi (histo-plasmosis,blastomycosis,and coccidioidomycosis).Comparisons of relative frequency of each of the etiologies of pneumonia are hampered by the varying levels of sensitivity and speciﬁcity of the tests used for each of the pathogens that they detect;for example,in some studies,tests used for legi-onella infections provide a much higher degree of sensitivity and possibly speciﬁcity than do tests used for pneumococcal infections.Thus,the relative contribution of many causes to the incidence of CAP is undoubtedly either exaggerated or un-derestimated,depending on the sensitivity and speciﬁcity of tests used in each of the studies.Etiology-Speciﬁc Diagnoses and the Clinical SettingNo convincing association has been demonstrated between individual symptoms,physical ﬁndings,or laboratory test re-sults and speciﬁc etiology [39].Even time-honored beliefs,suchat Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/Downloaded fromCID2000;31(August)IDSA Guidelines for CAP in Adults353Table5.Diagnostic studies for evaluation of community-acquired pneumonia.Baseline assessmentChest radiography to substantiate diagnosis of pneumonia,to detect associated lung diseases,to gain insightinto causative agent(in some cases),to assess severity,and as baseline to assess responseOutpatientsSputum Gram stain and culture for conventional bacteria are optionalInpatientsDetermination of complete blood cell and differential countsSerum creatinine,urea nitrogen,glucose,electrolyte,bilirubin,and liver enzyme valuesHIV serological status for persons aged15–54yearsO2saturation arterial blood gas values for selected patientsBlood cultures(ϫ2;before treatment)Gram stain and culture of sputum aTest for Mycobacterium tuberculosis,with acid-fast bacilli staining and culture for selected patients,especiallythose with cough for11mo,other common symptoms,or suggestive radiographic changesTest for Legionella in selected patients,including all seriously ill patients without an alternative diagnosis,es-pecially if aged140years,immunocompromised,or nonresponsive to b-lactam antibiotics,if clinicalfeatures are suggestive of this diagnosis,or in outbreak settingsThoracentesis with stain,culture,and determination of pH and leukocyte count differential(pleuralﬂuid)Alternative specimens to expectorated sputumAspirates of intubated patients,tracheostomy aspirates,and nasotracheal aspirates:manage as with expec-torated sputumInduced sputum:recommended for detection of M.tuberculosis or Pneumocystis cariniiBronchoscopy(see text under Special Considerations:Pnemococcal Pneumonia)Transtracheal aspiration:recommended only in cases of enigmatic pneumonia,to be done by personsskilled in the technique,preferably before antibiotic treatmentOptionalAdditional cytological or microbiological tests,as listed in table8,depending on clinical features,availableresources,underlying conditions,and/or epidemiological associations of the patientSerum:to be frozen and saved for serological analysis,if needed ba Should be deep-cough specimen obtained before antibiotic therapy.Gram stain should be interpreted by trainedpersonnel and culture done only if specimen is adequate by cytological criteria,except for Legionella and myco-bacteria.Consider diagnostic studies for endemic fungi and mycobacteria when clinical features suggest infectionwith these.For hospitalized patients with severe pneumonia or clinical features that suggest legionnaires’disease,perform culture and urinary antigen testing for Legionella.Inability to obtain specimens for diagnostic studiesshould not delay antibiotic treatment of acutely ill patients.b Serological tests would include those for Mycoplasma pneumoniae,Legionella pneumophila,Chlamydia pneu-moniae,or others(i.e.,viruses,Chlamydia psittaci,or Coxiella burnetii),depending on the circumstances.as the absence of productive cough or inﬂammatory sputum in pneumonia due to Mycoplasma,Legionella,or Chlamydia species,have not withstood close inspection.On the other hand, most comparisons have involved relatively small numbers of patients and have not evaluated the potential for separating causes by use of constellations of symptoms and physical ﬁndings.In one study,as yet unconﬁrmed,that compared patients identiﬁed in a prospective standardized fashion,a scoring sys-tem using5symptoms and laboratory abnormalities was able to differentiate most patients with legionnaires’disease from the other patients[41].A similar type of system has been devised for identifying patients with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS)[42].If validated,such scoring systems may be useful for identifying patients who should undergo speciﬁc diagnostic tests(which are too expensive to use routinely for all patients with CAP)and be empirically treated with speciﬁc antimicrobial drugs while test results are pending.Certain pathogens cause pneumonia more commonly among persons with speciﬁc risk factors.For instance,pneumococcal pneumonia is especially likely to occur in the elderly and in patients with a variety of medical conditions,including alco-holism,chronic cardiovascular disease,chronic obstructed air-way disease,immunoglobulin deﬁciency,hematologic malig-nancy,and HIV infection.However,outbreaks occur amongyoung adults under conditions of crowding,such as in armycamps or prisons.S.pneumoniae is second only to Pneumocystiscarinii as the most common identiﬁable cause of acute pneu-monia in patients with AIDS[43–45].Legionella is an oppor-tunistic pathogen;legionella pneumonia is rarely recognized inhealthy young children and young adults.It is an importantcause of pneumonia in organ transplant recipients and in pa-tients with renal failure and occurs with increased frequency inpatients with chronic lung disease,smokers,and possibly thosewith AIDS[46].Although M.pneumoniae historically has beenthought primarily to involve children and young adults,someevidence suggests that it causes pneumonia in healthy adultsof any age[8].There are seasonal differences in incidence of many of thecauses of CAP.Pneumonia due to S.pneumoniae,H.inﬂuenzae,and inﬂuenza occurs predominantly in winter months,whereasC.pneumoniae appears to cause pneumonia year-round.Al-though there is a summer prevalence of outbreaks of legion-naires’disease,sporadic cases occur with similar frequency dur-ing all seasons[8,46].Some studies suggest that there is noseasonal variation in mycoplasma infection;however,otherdata suggest that its incidence is greatest during the fall andwinter months[47].at Library of Medical Center of Fudan University on April 21, 2014/Downloaded from。

Superconducting Quantum Point contacts and Maxwell Potential

1970s starting by the studies of the dc Josephson eﬀect in long superconductor-normal metal-superconductor junctions [2]. In general, a quantum point contact is a short constriction of variable width, comparable to the Fermi wavelength, deﬁned using a split-gate technique in a high-mobility 2DEG. Quantum point contacts [3] are best known for their quantized conductance at an integer multiples of e2 /h. Thus, a ballistic theory leads to predicting a steplike structure with the conductor having an amplitude e2 /h as a function of Fermi energy or width and the current shows a steplike variation as a function of the width of the constriction. It was found that the Josephson current increases stepwise as a function of the constriction width [4, 5], while this current shows oscillations [4, 6] as a function of the carrier concentration of the 2DEG in the semiconductor layer. This oscillation is due to the interference eﬀects of the quasiparticles that undergo Andreev as well as normal reﬂection. These results are a characteristic of the transport across a junction with high probability of Andreev reﬂections. The transmission of quasi-particles through superconductor-normal metal (SN) interfaces requires conversion between dissipative currents and dissipationless supercurrents and is made possible by a two-particle process known as Andreev reﬂection (AR) (Figure 1) [7]. An electron injected from the normal metal with energy lower than the superconductor gap is reﬂected as a phase-matched hole, while a cooper pair is transmitted in the superconductor. Due to its two-particle nature, AR is strongly aﬀected by the transmissivity at the SN interface and much eﬀort has to be devoted to the optimizing of this parameter [8]. In the presence of scattering centers in the normal region, the phase relationship between incoming and retroreﬂected particles can give rise to marked coherent-transport phenomena such as reﬂectionless tunneling [9]. In this paper, we consider non-zero temperature for the dc Josephson eﬀect of SQPC’s by suggesting a constant potential in the semiconductor in subsection 2.1, then a Maxwell potential which could be gotten from a contact of the system with a photon’s source in subsection 2.2. We deal with the inﬂuence of the presence of photons on the SQPC. Theoretically, we make use the pure Maxwell theory which assures the anyonic properties of 2

甲古文研究报告作文

甲古文研究报告作文英文回答：The Significance of Oracle Bone Script Research for Understanding Early Chinese Civilization.Oracle bone script, an ancient writing system used in China from the late Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) to the early Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1046-771 BCE), has played a crucial role in our understanding of early Chinese civilization. Through its meticulous study, scholars have gained invaluable insights into the linguistic, cultural, and historical aspects of this formative period.Firstly, oracle bone script provides direct evidence of the Chinese language during its earliest known stages. By deciphering the thousands of inscriptions found on oracle bones, researchers have been able to reconstruct the phonological, grammatical, and lexical features of Old Chinese, the ancestor of all modern Sinitic languages. Thishas not only shed light on the evolution of the Chinese language but also on the broader linguistic history of East Asia.Secondly, oracle bone inscriptions offer a glimpse into the religious and divinatory practices of the Shang dynasty. The vast majority of oracle bones were used for divination, a ritual process in which animal bones or turtle shellswere inscribed with questions and then heated to produce cracks. The patterns of these cracks were then interpreted by diviners, who provided guidance to the king and other elites on matters ranging from warfare to weather conditions. Through the study of these inscriptions, scholars have gained a deeper understanding of Shang beliefs, rituals, and social hierarchy.Thirdly, oracle bone script provides historical information about the Shang dynasty and its neighbors. The inscriptions record events such as military campaigns, diplomatic relations, and royal lineage. They also provide valuable insights into the political, economic, andcultural interactions between the Shang state and othercontemporary societies in the region. By combining archaeological evidence with the information gleaned from oracle bones, historians have been able to reconstruct a more comprehensive picture of the early Chinese Bronze Age.In conclusion, oracle bone script research has been of immense significance in advancing our knowledge of early Chinese civilization. Through the analysis of these ancient inscriptions, scholars have gained insights into the linguistic, cultural, and historical aspects of this formative period. The study of oracle bones continues to provide new discoveries and challenges, enriching our understanding of the roots of Chinese civilization.中文回答：甲骨文研究对早期中华文明的意义。

综c质疑与科学进步作文

综c质疑与科学进步作文英文回答：Question: The relationship between skepticism and scientific progress.Skepticism plays a crucial role in scientific progress. It encourages scientists to question existing theories, methods, and results, leading to a deeper understanding of the natural world. By challenging established beliefs and assumptions, skepticism drives scientific inquiry forward and promotes the development of new ideas and discoveries.One example of skepticism driving scientific progress is the case of the theory of relativity. When Albert Einstein first proposed his theory in the early 20th century, it was met with skepticism and resistance from many physicists. However, through rigorous testing and experimentation, Einstein's theory was eventually validated and revolutionized our understanding of space, time, andgravity.Another example is the field of medicine. Skepticism towards traditional remedies and practices has led to the development of evidence-based medicine. By demanding scientific evidence and rigorous testing, skeptics have helped to improve medical treatments and save countless lives.However, skepticism can also hinder scientific progress if taken to an extreme. When skepticism turns into denialism, it can lead to the rejection of well-established scientific principles and impede the advancement of knowledge. For example, the anti-vaccine movement, fueled by skepticism towards vaccines, has resulted in the resurgence of preventable diseases and put public health at risk.In conclusion, skepticism is a key driver of scientific progress. It challenges existing knowledge, encourages critical thinking, and promotes the development of new ideas. However, it is important to strike a balance betweenskepticism and acceptance of scientific evidence in order to ensure that progress is not hindered by unfounded skepticism.中文回答：问题，怀疑论与科学进步的关系。