英语发展简史
西方翻译简史
西方翻译简史
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus 昆体良 （AD 95-？）《演说术原理》 中提出翻译必须与原作“竞争（媲美）”之说。
Jerome 哲罗姆，约340年－420年，早期西方基督教会四大权威神 学家之一,被认为是罗马神父中最有学问的人
“不能字当句对,而必须采取灵活的意译原则;必须区分《圣经》翻译 和世俗文学翻译;只有正确的理解和博学才能进行正确的翻译。”
他还声称翻译又分真正的翻译和机械的翻译。真正的翻译是指文学作 品和自然科学方面的翻译,这类翻译相对较复杂,要求译者有较高的理 解和阐释能力,并能保持原文的风格等等。机械翻译是指实用性的翻 译,如商业翻译,此类翻译相对容易,而且几乎是一种机械的活动。施氏 认为,笔译属于真正的翻译,口译则属于机械的翻译。他的这一翻译类 型区分后来影响了德国功能派赖斯的翻译类型学理论
只有上完课后他才会如释重负。 [误] An experienced teacher once said that before class he felt as if faced with a
formidable enemy, in class he felt like walking on ice, and only after class would he feel relieved. [正] An experienced teacher once said that before class he felt as if faced with a formidable enemy, in class he felt like walking on eggs, and only after class would he feel relieved.
英语语言的发展史简述
英语语言的发展史简述英语的发展史可以追溯到5世纪，当时为了适应罗马帝国的行政需要，拉丁语作为通用语言传播到不列颠岛。
然而，随着时间的推移，拉丁语在当地的演变和受外界影响逐渐形成了中世纪英语。
以下是英语发展史的简要概述。
中世纪英语（5世纪-1066年）在不列颠岛，拉丁语逐渐与当地的不列颠语融合，形成了一个新的语言，中世纪英语。
这段时期的英语主要是著名的“贝奥武夫”等古英语文学作品的语言。
古英语受到了盎格鲁-撒克逊部落和维京人等外来势力的影响，词汇和语法结构开始发生变化。
中古英语（1066年-1470年）1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉征服了不列颠岛，法语成为统治者和贵族的语言。
这导致了中古英语的出现，它是古英语和法语的混合语言。
尽管法语对英语产生了很大的影响，但人们开始逐渐重新使用英语，并在文字和口语中将它们结合起来。
这个时期的英语词汇扩大了，国家固有的文化和宗教也促进了英语的进一步发展。
早期现代英语（1470年-1800年）这一时期标志着英语的大规模标准化和规范化。
由于印刷术的发展和宗教的推动，英语开始以一种统一的书面形式存在。
著名的英国文豪莎士比亚的作品就是在这个时期产生的。
与此同时，英国的殖民扩张使英语开始传播到其他地区，如北美洲和澳大利亚。
现代英语（1800年至今）工业革命和科技发展在19世纪和20世纪对英语产生了深远的影响。
技术词汇的引入、新的交通和通讯方式以及全球化的发展使英语成为国际语言。
随着时间的推移，英语变得更加多样化，包括美式英语和英式英语等不同的变种。
此外，现代英语也受到媒体的影响，并在音乐、电影、电视等领域中广泛使用。
总结英语的发展史是一个持续不断的过程，从古英语到中古英语，再到早期现代英语和现代英语。
不同历史时期的政治、文化和技术变化都对英语的发展产生了深远的影响。
然而，无论是在古代还是在现代，英语作为一种全球性语言在世界各地都起着重要的作用。
英国文学简史
英国文学简史古英语时期(Old English Period)时间：450-1600背景：盎格鲁撒克逊人（Anglo-Saxon）入侵英国作品种类：史诗(epic)代表作家：不详代表作品：贝奥武夫（Beowulf）中世纪英语时期(Middle English Period)时间：1066-1500背景：诺曼人(Normans)征服英国作品种类：传奇(Romans)代表作家:不详代表作品：高文爵士和绿骑士（Sir Gawain and the Green Knight）文艺复兴时期(The Renaissance)时间：1500-1660背景：新航路开辟，伊丽莎白一世登基，自然科学技术的发展。
作品种类：戏剧（drama），诗歌（poetry）代表作家：莎士比亚（William Shakespeare）代表作品：哈姆雷特（Hamlet）17世纪时期(The 17th Century)时间：1603-1688背景：资产阶级革命与复辟时期作品种类：散文（essay），史诗（epic），寓言故事（allegory），诗歌（poetry）代表作家：弥尔顿（John Milton）代表作品：失乐园(paradise lost)新古典主义时期(The Neoclassical Period)时间：1660-1785背景：启蒙运动作品种类：散文（essay），小说（novel），诗歌（poetry）代表作家：亚历山大.蒲泊(Alexander Pope)代表作品：An Essay on Man浪漫主义时期(The Romantic Period)时间：1798-1832背景：法国大革命，工业革命作品种类：诗歌（poetry）代表作家：雪莱(Percy Bysshe Shelley)代表作品：西风颂（Ode to the West Wind）维多利亚时期(The Victorian Period)时间：1832-1900背景：维多利亚女王统治时期，资本主义经济发展，自然科学的发展作品种类：小说（novel）代表作家：狄更斯（Charles Dickens）代表作品：远大前程（Great Expectations）现代主义时期(The Modern Period)时间：1914-1965背景：第二次世界大战，人们对西方文明的危机感作品种类：诗歌（poetry），小说（poetry）代表作家：艾略特（T.S Eliot）代表作品：荒原（The Waste Land）The Middle English PeriodGeoffrey ChaucerSpecial featuresThe first most significant poet in English literary history to write in Middle English.Help perfect English language as as a literary medium.A first rate story-teller. Reading him can be an immensely enlightening and educational experience.Points of viewEnormous sense of humor.Loyalty to reality. A master of realism.Infinite sense of humanity.Major WorksCanterbury TalesA collection of 20-odd stories.Similar with Boccacio’s Decameron.Including 20 complete stories and 4 fragments---already an amazing number.People come from virtually all walks of life. A picture of 14-century English life.Place women on an equal footing with men.(“The Wife of Bath’s Tale” What is that women desire most?)Prominence: The holy orders and the middle classThomas MoreSpecial featuresThe wisest and noblest person that lived then.Privy councilor to the king.Beheaded by the king because of he did not go along with the king’s divorce.Points of viewMore was first and foremost a humanist at heart.Major WorksUtopiaLook forward to the future of man.Offer an ideal which has inspired generations of serious social thinkers. An imaginary country where democracy replaces tyranny, commonwealth replaces private property.Its strict adherence to conformity, simplicity and monotony is totally incompatible with human nature, and curbs individual rights and freedom.Its slavery system goes against individual dignity and self-worth.The utopian society is clearly male-dominated.RenaissanceSpenserSpecial featuresOne of the most important English poets.Milton calls him his “poetic father”Points of viewDetermined to revive Chaucer’s poetic legacy and reinvent English poetry.Conformed to morality and Christian dogmas.Major WorksThe Faerie QueenA grand epic poem“The only long poem that a lover of poetry can sincerely wish longer”Picturesque, rhyme, theme, plot.William ShakespeareSpecial featuresMost popular and most widely respected writer in all English literature. Careful rumination over human condition andsupreme understanding of human nature.His poets drew great attention for their grace in form, depth in thought, and vivacity in tone.His dramatic works:Early period:histories and comediesMiddle period:tragicLate period:Romances&serenityPoints of viewHis universe is a veritable microcosm of the human world, where all types of people exist.He has the common life of the common run of mankind in mind in his literary creations.His cosmos is highly moral with a sense of certitude and justice.He sees reflection of life as legitimate job of a playwright.Major WorksBlack comedyIndividual worthA faithful record of the mood and tenor of the timesFrancis BaconSpecial featuresHis inductive method of reasoning and learning; he valued experience and observation.His prose is fresh, vigorous, powerful, and aphoristic so that he was able to dominate English prose for decades.Bacon’s essays was the first of its kind to appear in English literature. Major WorksHuman nature, political concerns and socio-economic ideas.John MiltonSpecial featuresThe third greatest English poet after Chaucer and Shakespeare.The greatest to come out of the 17th century.His experience with the telescope helped him visualize haven, earth and hell.Major WorksParadise Lost made its author the greatest modern epic poet in English literary history.About biblical story of creation.Samson Agonistes was patterned on Greek tragedies.The character of Samson offers an obvious outlet of self-expression for the poet who resembled the biblical hero in more than one way. Lycidas has certainly proved to be a frame of reference for the writing of the genre of pastoral elegies.John BunyanSpecial features“No one can please God more than I do.”He was known as “Bishop Bunyan”.His prose has a striking modern ring. It has paved the way for the rise of the modern English novel.He became a great force in the history of English prose without ever desiring it.Major WorksThe Pilgrim’s Progress is an allegory.A medieval miracle play with vivid and lively personifications of virtues and vices and all the human qualities in between.The Classic AgeThomas GraySpecial featuresA poet of transition form the neoclassic to the Romantic period.A forerunner of the Romantic movement both in subjects and simple language.Gray is famous for his letter writing.Oliver GoldsmithSpecial featuresGoldsmith is prone to a kind of idealizing and sentimentality that is always easy for modern people to comprehend.Points of viewGoldsmith’s poem was written in the fashionable heroic couplet of the time.The author’s sentiments of grief and nostalgia are genuine and convincing.Major WorksShe stoops to conquerAs a satire on the artificial and pretentious behavior of the day, the play exalts the quality of t ruth and honest feeling.The salutary influence the play exercised on the 18th century is considerable.Goldsmith’s dialogues are vivacious and immensely humorous, and the whole performance impressed the audience with its vitality and joyful mood.The Vicar of WakefieldHis wit, humor, his craft of planning ballads and tales within tales, and his philosophical depth, which all make for the fascination it holds for its readers, modern as well as ancient.William BlakeSpecial featuresAn important landmark in between two literary periods, pointing directly to that of Romanticism.His poets: his social events and his mysticism.He is noted or his originality both in theme and form.Points of view“Without contrast and contraries, there is no progression.”Blake was basically a visionary. His fight was a “mental” fight, one that he hoped would restore England to spiritual and social health.Major WorksBy far his most powerful and the most permanent are Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience.Jonathan SwiftSpecial featuresThe literary king of his day. He wrote a lot of powerful satirical essays and books.His lucid and terse prose has contributed not a little toward the development of the best English prose tradition.Points of viewHis satires on human institutions and social ills were all meant tohelp improve the lot of man.Major WorksGulliver’s TravelsGulliver is a man observant to all the 18th century values, while Swift was, on the other hand, a man intensely critical of his time.The author is different from the narrator, and the author would like people to think twice about what Gulliver disapprove of. Gulliver is part of the author’s satire.Daniel DefoeSpecial featuresA firm supporter of the Glorious Revolution.Points of viewHis views on the novel focus on its realism and aesthetic.“Any story failing to deal with the human experience is pure fiction and a lie.”His protagonists are common people with real common names and speak as “I”, telling their own stories in the first-person narrative.As a moralist, he wrote with the conviction that his works wouldbe educational and help people behave.Major WorksRobinson CrusoeA middle class book, offering justifications for the class’forthcoming rise to pre-dominance in national life.A typical show of Puritan individualism.(self-reliance andhard-working)The creation of the world and and self-identity.An ordinary humankind’s self-made success.。
简述我国英语专业发展简史
简述我国英语专业发展简史我国英语专业的发展历程可以追溯到清朝末期，随着西方列强的入侵和文化的渗透，英语逐渐成为我国教育体系中的重要学科。
下面我将简述我国英语专业发展简史。
一、萌芽期在清朝末期，我国开始接触英语，一些开明人士认识到英语的重要性，开始倡导英语教育。
1862年，京师同文馆成立，这是中国历史上第一所正式的英语教学组织，也是中国近代教育的先声。
同文馆的成立标志着我国英语教育的开始，但当时学习英语的人数很少，主要是外交官、翻译等精英人士。
二、发展期在新文化运动时期，我国开始大规模推广英语教育。
1918年，北京大学成立了英文系，这是我国第一个英语专业系。
随着新文化运动的推动，英语教育逐渐普及，学习英语的人数不断增加。
在20世纪20年代至40年代，我国的英语教育得到了较大的发展，一些大学开始设立英语专业，培养英语人才。
三、动荡期在抗日战争和解放战争期间，我国的英语教育经历了较大的动荡。
由于战争的影响，许多英语教育机构被迫关闭或迁移，教师和学生也流离失所。
这个时期我国的英语教育发展受到了很大的影响。
四、繁荣期新中国成立后，我国的英语教育逐渐复苏。
1954年，教育部决定在北京大学设立英语专业，这标志着我国英语教育的新起点。
随后，各省市也相继建立了英语专业，培养了大批英语人才。
这个时期我国的英语教育得到了较大的发展，学习英语的人数逐年增加。
五、改革期改革开放后，我国的英语教育开始了新的改革。
1979年，教育部发布了《关于高等学校开设英语专业的意见》，提出要在全国范围内开设英语专业，并将英语列为高考必考科目。
这一政策的出台推动了我国英语教育的快速发展。
六、多元化期进入21世纪后，我国的英语教育呈现多元化趋势。
随着社会的发展和经济的全球化，英语已经成为各行各业必备的技能之一。
学习英语的人数逐年增加，而且学习者的目的也变得多元化。
从为了应对考试到为了提高自身素质，从为了学习知识到为了交流沟通，学习者的需求不断变化。
Part3商务英语发展史.ppt
15世纪以后，新航线的开辟使大部分西欧 商品运输不再经过地中海，而是取道大西 洋。
16世纪，英国商人从外国商人手里夺回了 海外贸易权，积极发展贸易及保险业务。 1871年，英国的劳埃德咖啡馆演变成“劳 埃德保险社”。
蒙元丝路贸易在我国丝绸之路贸易史上占有 重要的承上启下的地位——上承唐代丝路 贸易高度繁荣后的下降及渐进中断，下启 古代东西方陆路国际贸易的尾声——明代 前期中西陆路通商。
商务英语历史
我国的商务英语历史拟分为四个阶段： 1. 远代 2. 近代 3. 现代 4. 当代
一、 远代
远代（1840年以前） 中国的丝绸早已进入古罗马。根据宋建良 （2006），罗马帝国在公元前开通了一条 通往中国的远洋航道。公元前27年至公元 69年，印度人、安息人将中国的丝绸转卖 给罗马人时，其价格要提高100倍；罗马与 东方（当然包括中国）的贸易量每年达到 近100万英镑。
1769年英国人威廉·希克感叹珠江上船舶运行忙碌 的情景就像伦敦桥下的泰晤士河。广州是当时中 国对外贸易第一大港口、国际贸易大港、大都会。
到1820年左右，广州是世界贸易非常重要的市场。 在这一切国际商贸活动中，英语是不可或缺的重 要商务交际语言。
（根据《广州简史》主编、原广东历史学会副会长 杨万秀研究员。）
三、现代
商务英语的现代历史时期（1949---1978）
上个世纪50—70年代，我国有三次历史性的对外 经济引进历程，可以用156—43—78三个数字作 为代表。
“重点工程，简称“156项”；
“43”指70年代初期我国向西方国家引进预定43亿 美元的成套技术设备，简称“43方案”；
我国的翻译史也可折射出商务英语历史。 叶瀚（1861—1933）在其《论译书之弊》 中说：“自中外通商以来，译事始起，京 师有同文馆，江南有制造局，广州有医士 所译各书，……”（马祖毅.中国翻译史（上 卷）[M].汉口：湖北教育出版社，1999.）
英语发展简史
英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前﹐来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人(Celts﹕属于今天苏格兰﹐爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先)已经在英伦列岛居住多年。
罗马人自公元前55年代开始﹐发动对英格兰的入侵﹐但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰﹐自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰﹐罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。
在罗马人离开后﹐来自欧洲西日耳曼部落‘Angelen’ 地区的盎格鲁人(Angles) ﹑其它部落的撒克逊人(Saxon) ﹑朱特人(Jutes) 和弗里斯兰人(Frisian)开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区(英语中的‘English’就是出自古词‘englisc ’﹐‘englise’中的‘ Engle’表示‘ the Angles ’﹐即是‘盎格鲁人’的意思)﹐并与当地的凯尔特人(Celts) 为争寻土地发生了长期的战争﹐经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。
凯尔特人(Celts)的国王 Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中﹐虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战﹐但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰﹑威尔士和马恩(Man)岛地区﹐日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为‘wealas’意即外国人﹐‘ Welsh ’和‘Wales’亦因此而得名。
英语作为最初期日耳曼人使用的语言﹐自从在英伦半岛生根成长到今天﹐整个语言的演进基本上可以划分为以下4个时期﹕1. Pre-old English. 前古英语时期(从日耳曼人入侵开始至公元500年罗马人撤出英格兰)2. Old English. 古英语时期(公元500-1100)3. Middle English. 中古英语时期(公元1100-1500)4. Modern English. 现代英语时期(公元1500-现在)古英语时期在前古英语时期﹐表记文字只有凯尔特人和日耳曼人受罗马字母影响而产生的RUNES字母。
但是从597年后开始﹐St. Augustine 主持了Kent国王Ethelberht 的受洗仪式﹐令他皈依了基督教。
研究生综合英语 第二版 曾建彬主编 课文翻译Unit1
Unit one英语简史保罗·罗伯茨想要掌握英语这门语言就必须了解英语的历史，然而对此我们只能做到略有所知。
因为英语的历史漫长而复杂，我们只能抓住其发展过程中的几个关键时期。
英语的历史起源于公元600年之后，而对于公元600年之前的英语史前阶段，我们只能揣测而无法证实。
公元前1000年左右，英语民族的祖先(盎格鲁一撒克逊人)生活在北欧森林之中，他们的语言属于印欧语系中的日耳曼语支。
这些盎格鲁撤克逊人是如何迁移到英格兰的，对此我们知之甚少。
然而据我们所知，在很长一段时间内盎格鲁人、撒克逊人、朱特人一直在为巩固他们在英格兰的定居地而战。
他们与凯尔特人的战争持续了100多年，直到英格兰境内的凯尔特人不是被杀，就是被迫流亡到威尔士或沦为奴隶。
这就是亚瑟王时期。
亚瑟王不完全是一个传说人物，他是个受过罗马文明影响的凯尔特人，是一位将领，或许不是一位国王。
他也曾打败过盎格鲁撤克逊人，但只是一时的胜利。
到了公元550年前后，盎格鲁一撤克逊人才最终定居下来。
英语从此也在英格兰落脚。
我们习惯上把英语的历史分为三个阶段：古英语时期，中世纪英语时期和现代英语时期。
古英语时期从最早的历史记载即公元7世纪到大约1100年；中世纪英语时期从1100年到1450或1500年；现代英语时期从1500年至今。
现代英语也可以再分为早期现代英语(1500年到1700年)和后期现代英语(1700年至今)。
根据最早的历史记戴，当时的英格兰分裂为几个相对自治的王国。
在一定时期，其中的某一个王国对其他王国实行一定程度的统治。
公元6世纪，实力最强大的诺森伯里亚王国取得了令人瞩目的发展，达到了全欧洲最发达的文明程度。
也是在这一时期产生了包括贝奥武夫史诗这样的古英语时期最杰出的文学作品。
到公元8世纪，诺森伯里亚王国衰落了，势力中心向南转移到英格兰中部的麦西亚王国。
一个世纪后，势力中心又转移到位于西撒克逊的威萨克斯，威萨克斯成为实力最强的王国。
中西翻译简史第8章(课堂PPT)
6
三、中古英语时期
• 1、法语对英语产生影响的原因
• 1066年诺曼征服之后，诺曼底公爵成为不列颠的统治者。朝廷为只会讲法语的人所把 持，上层社会的交流也只用法语。从此，法语对英语产生巨大影响。
• 2、诺曼底统治期间存在的三种语言及英语地位的恢复
里夫翻译的《圣经》和乔叟的作品。卡克斯顿处于伊丽莎白统治期间。在伊 丽莎白统治期间英国文化得到了繁荣发展。在她统治的十年间翻译出版的作 品的数量是之前50年的4倍。 • 3）16世纪和17世纪初英国翻译出现两个不同方向：一是对用拉丁语写成的 作品的翻译，包括古希腊、罗马的经典作品以及同时代以拉丁语写成的学术 作品；另一是对各个国家用民族语写成的作品的翻译，包括对其他语言的古 希腊、罗马经典作品的转译以及对各国世俗文学的翻译。
8
三、中古英语时期
• 2）杰弗里. 乔叟
• 出生贵族之家。当过外交使节，是一位能力出众的廷臣和艺术造诣高的作家。精通至少拉丁 语、意大利语和法语等外语。率先采用伦敦方言写作，创作英雄双韵体。对英国民族语言和 文学的发展有很大影响。
• 翻译并仿效法国诗人的作品，如用伦敦方言翻译法国中世纪长篇叙事诗《玫瑰传奇》；翻译 意大利作品《特罗伊勒斯和克丽西达》。
二、古英语时期
• 1. 古英语形成
• 公元410年随着罗马军队从不列颠岛撤出，居于欧洲西北部的三个日耳曼民族朱特人、 盎格鲁、撒克逊部落相继入侵。三个部落逐渐融合成成一个民族，并形成一门统一的 语言---盎格鲁-撒克逊语。这就是古英语。
• 2. 拉丁语对英语的影响
• 597年教皇派传教士到不列颠传教。从此，拉丁语开始大量进入英语，成为英语的重要 构成部分；
英语简史-A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLISH
RUNES: Anglo-Saxon alphabet/OLD ENGLISH. Runes were probably brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, and were used until about the 11th century. Runic inscription are mostly found on jewelry, weapons, stones and other objects. Very few examples of Runic writing on manuscripts have survived.
Anglo-Saxon Period 407 A.D. - 787 A.D.
Viking Invቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱsions 787 A.D. - 1066 A.D.
Noman Conquest begins in 1066 A.D.
“The Common Source”
Sir William Jones- a British judge stationed in India in 现方式做保护处理对用户上传分享的文档内容本身不做任何修改或编辑并不能对任何下载内容负责
英语简史 A Brief History of English
…或者 为什么它那么难以掌握… ...or why this language is so difficult to master...
Importance of the Viking Invasions
Politically and Culturally- there was no central government or church* BUT The Anglo-Saxon Code is evident in Beowulf.
英语简史(English Version)
A Brief Look at the History of EnglishThe history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome:Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, "Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon."A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spelling with their modern equivalents -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, wære to were, wæs to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbað (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," ðeode "people, nation," cwæð"said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, þ, called "thorn," and ð, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb -- þa cwæð he "Then said he" -- a phenomenonnot unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: þe hi of comon "which they from came," for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað"because they angels' beauty have."Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: ðære ðeode "(of) the people" is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine, accusative, and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbað "have" ends with the -að suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."In þat lond ben trees þat beren wolle, as þogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þing þat may ben made of wolle. In þat contree ben many ipotaynes, þat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þei eten men, whan þei may take hem. And þere ben ryueres and watres þat ben fulle byttere, þree sithes more þan is the water of the see. In þat contrében many griffounes, more plentee þan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þat þei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þei seyn soth þat þei ben of þat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as þei gon at the plowgh.The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock.The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon, phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly during the last century. Similarly, because ancientand modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.。
英语发展简史 History of the English Language
英语发展简史作为英语的爱好者或憎恶者，你到底对其了解多少呢？让我们从它的出身一探其面吧标签： 英语 起源 美式英语 拉丁语A brief chronology of EnglishBC 55 Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. Local inhabitants speakCeltishBC 43Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain.436 Roman withdrawal from Britain complete. 449 Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins 450-480 Earliest known Old English inscriptions. Old English1066William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England.c1150 Earliest surviving manuscripts in Middle English. Middle English1348English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools.1362English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time.c1388 Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales . c1400 The Great Vowel Shift begins.1476 William Caxton establishes the first English printing press. Early Modern English1564 Shakespeare is born.Part of Beowulf , a poem written in Old English.An example of Middle English by Chaucer.Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare.英语发展历史英语起源与发展的简短介绍英语真正的历史应该从公元5世纪时入侵英国的三个日耳曼部落说起. 这几个部落分别是：盎格鲁人，撒克逊人和朱特人，他们从今天的德国北部和丹麦出发，然后横渡北海。
英语的起源与发展简史
英语的起源与发展简史The Origin and Evolution of English: A Brief History.English, a language that has captivated the world, has a rich and fascinating history. Its origin can be traced back to the 5th century when the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic tribe, settled in Britain. Over the centuries, English has evolved and transformed,吸收 influence from various languages and cultures, 最终 becoming the global language of communication.The Early Stages: Anglo-Saxon England.The earliest form of English, known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon, was brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. This language, which was closely related to other Germanic languages such as German and Dutch, was the predominant language in England until the Norman Conquest of 1066. During this period, English was primarily used for religious, legal, and administrative purposes.The Norman Conquest and the Influence of French.The Norman Conquest brought significant changes to English. The Normans, who were French-speaking, introduceda large number of French words and phrases into the language. This influx of French vocabulary and grammar hada profound impact on English, resulting in the developmentof Middle English. Middle English, which emerged in the11th century, was a hybrid language that combined Anglo-Saxon vocabulary with French grammar and syntax.The Renaissance and the Standardization of English.The Renaissance period, which began in the 14th century, marked a significant turning point in the history of English. During this time, there was a renewed interest in classical literature and languages, which led to the widespread adoption of Latin and Greek words into English. Additionally, the printing press, invented in the 15th century, allowed for the widespread dissemination of books and literature, further promoting the standardization anddevelopment of English.The 16th and 17th centuries saw further changes in English. The Protestant Reformation led to the translation of the Bible into English, making the language more accessible to the common people. Shakespeare, a renowned playwright and poet, used a rich vocabulary and innovative grammar in his works, which significantly contributed to the development and refinement of Modern English.The Global Spread of English.The global spread of English can be attributed to the British Empire's colonial expansion. As the British Empire expanded throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, English became the lingua franca of the Empire, serving as the common language of communication between the colonizers and the colonized. This led to the widespread adoption of English in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and India.The 20th and 21st centuries saw the further ascendancyof English as the global language of communication. The advent of the internet and globalization has accelerated the spread of English, making it the most widely spoken language in the world. English is now used in international business, politics, education, and culture, and it is the official language of numerous countries and international organizations.In conclusion, the history of English is a fascinating tapestry of cultural exchange and linguistic evolution. From its humble beginnings as a Germanic tribal language to its current status as the global language of communication, English has transformed and adapted, drawing influence from various sources and reflecting the rich diversity of human history and culture.。
中西翻译简史第8章
《奥德赛》，大受欢迎。1755年约翰逊编纂《英语词典》，第一次把英语
作为全民语言记录下来 • 5）现在英语成为世界上词汇量最大、适用范围最广的语言，同时也是最接 近人类共同语的语言。
第二节
马丁. 路德的圣经翻译与德语的形成
一、德语的历史发展 • 1. 公元5世纪至8世纪日耳曼语中发生的音变使德语从共同日耳曼语中分离 出来，逐渐成为独立的语言； 中世纪初期德语(Deutsch)这个词首次出现。 但是，中世纪时期，德国境内诸侯割据，在当时德语只是许多德国境内方言
德语唯一的规则作品。
一、德语的历史发展 • 3. 翻译在德语发展史上一直是重要因素。
• 《圣经》和文学文本的翻译传统可以追溯到公元8世纪，当时出现了第一部 《圣经》术语汇编，接着出现隔行对照版和较自由的诗体翻译版。中世纪德语
《圣经》译本是根据哲罗姆的《通俗拉丁文本圣经》翻译过来的。可以说高地
德语成为书面语是通过《圣经》的民族语译本发展起来的。受拉丁文的影响， 德语发展成为一种文学语言。中世纪晚期，德语最终代替拉丁文成为文学和科 学语言
对英国民族语言和文学的发展有很大影响。
• 翻译并仿效法国诗人的作品，如用伦敦方言翻译法国中世纪长篇叙事诗《玫瑰传 奇》；翻译意大利作品《特罗伊勒斯和克丽西达》。
• 创作有《坎特伯雷故事集》，艺术成就很高，远远超出了之前和同时代的英国文学
作品，英国文学史上第一部现实主义作品； • 《论星盘》乔叟的创作标志着英语作为民族语言的重新确立
• 1380年至1382年与几位译者将《圣经》译成英文，结束了拉丁语宗教语言的地位，
英语自此成为英国全民语言；1385年又进一步成为官方教育语言
三、中古英语时期
• 2）杰弗里. 乔叟
• 出生贵族之家。当过外交使节，是一位能力出众的廷臣和艺术造诣高的作家。精通 至少拉丁语、意大利语和法语等外语。率先采用伦敦方言写作，创作英雄双韵体。
中学英语教学简史
我国中学英语教学简史我国中学外语教学近代历史大致可分为以下几个时期：一、新中国成立前时期（1902—1949）我国学生学习外语，始于清朝同治元年（1862）的京师同文馆．同文馆内设英文馆、俄文馆、法文馆、东文馆等，聘请外国人教习外语，培养外语人才；于光绪二十七年（1901）并于京师大学堂。
外语（主要是英语）正式列为中学必修课程，始于光绪二十八年（1902），当年，清政府仿效日本，废科举、兴学堂，制定并颁布《钦定中学堂章程》，正式规定中学堂均开设外语课。
1911年，孙中山先生领导的辛亥革命成功，废除了封建帝制，于1912年在南京成立中华民国临时政府，随之颁布了《中学校令施行规则》，又于1913年颁发了《中学校课程标准》，规定中学学制为四年，外语为中学必修课程。
此后一直延续到192 2年。
在这整整二十年间，就外语教学来说，大致有以下一些特点：1．课时比较多。
《钦定中学堂章程》规定，中学五年间外语课总学时为1，444课时，每周课时为8—8—8—6—6，《中学校令施行规则》规定，中学四年间外语课总学时为1，056课时，周学时为7—8—8—8。
2．教学目的比较侧重培养阅读和翻译的能力，不重视培养口语能力。
3．教学方法以语法翻译法为主，比较重视语法教学，多采用传统的由词类而句法，注重定义解说的教学方式。
语音方面主要教字母和拼音，绝少涉及语音语调。
4．教材最初采用外国课本或教会人士所编的书籍。
后来才逐渐出现一些中国人自编的课本。
一般地说，这些课本程度较深，古典文学片断占较大比重，词汇量大，学生很难学习。
1922年，南京政府实行“新学制”，中学从学制、学科、教材到教法，由仿效日本为主改变为效法英美为主。
学制实行三三制，即初中三年，高中三年。
外语作为必修课，由初中起开始设置。
此后，直到1949年新中国成立，始终没有重大改变。
这一时期，中学外语教学的主要特点有：1．课时趋向减少。
1933年规定外语课每周5学时，六年间共1，080学时; 1936年规定初中每周4学时，高中每周5学时，六年间共972学时，1948年减为3—3—4—5—5—5，六年间约800多学时。
简述我国英语教育发展简史
简述我国英语教育发展简史我国英语教育的发展历程是一个充满挑战和机遇的旅程。
下面简要概括了我国英语教育的发展简史：20世纪初- 1949年：早期阶段在20世纪初，中国的英语教育主要集中在一些大城市的外国传教士学校和私立学校中。
这一时期，英语被视为一种重要的外语，但并没有被广泛推广。
1949年- 1960年代：新中国成立后随着中华人民共和国的成立，英语教育开始经历了重大的变革。
英语作为外语被引入学校教育，英语教材开始编写，英语学习变得更加系统化。
这一时期，中国的英语教育主要集中在学校，强调语法和基础知识。
1970年代- 1980年代：改革开放时期改革开放政策的实施为中国的英语教育带来了变革。
中国开始与外界更紧密地接触，对外国语言的需求增加。
这一时期，英语教育经历了重大改革，教育体系变得更加多元化，包括了初、高中和大学等不同层次。
1990年代- 21世纪初：英语教育的蓬勃发展中国的英语教育开始蓬勃发展，学校数量迅速增加，英语学习的普及率不断提高。
英语考试，如托福和雅思，成为学生升学和就业的重要因素。
外语学习机构也在这一时期迅速兴起。
21世纪初- 至今：互联网和全球化时代随着互联网的普及，英语教育进入了全新的时代。
学生可以通过在线课程、应用程序和各种教育资源来学习英语。
同时，中国的国际交流与合作不断增加，英语成为一种国际通用语言。
总的来说，我国英语教育发展历程经历了从初期的有限资源到现在的广泛推广和全球化的阶段。
随着中国的不断崛起，英语教育将继续扮演重要的角色，促进国际交流和合作。
在未来，英语教育将继续适应社会需求和技术进步，以满足学生和专业人士的要求。
关于英语的发展史的书籍
关于英语的发展史的书籍
关于英语的发展史，有以下几本书籍可供参考：
* 《英语发展史》：张勇先编写的这本书通俗易懂，内容全面，可以作为了解英语发展史的入门读物。
* 《英语语言文化概览——英语发展史研究》：这本书由中国人民大学出版社出版，作者张勇先。
该书从英语语言文化角度入手，对英语发展史进行了全面梳理。
* 《剑桥英语史》：这部6卷本的巨著内容极其丰富，堪称英语发展史研究的权威之作。
对于希望深入了解英语发展历程和背景的朋友来说，这部作品无疑具有很高的参考价值。
此外，还有一些相关书籍如《英语简史》、《英语词汇史》、《英语词源学》等，这些书籍可以从不同角度帮助你了解英语的发展历程。
介绍英语简史作文
介绍英语简史作文
英语，作为世界上使用最广泛的语言之一，有着悠久而迷人的历史。
它的起源可以追溯到公元5世纪，当时盎格鲁-撒克逊人入侵了不列颠群岛，并带来了他们的语言。
这种语言逐渐演变成了古英语，这是英语的早期形式。
在1066年，诺曼征服英格兰后，法语对英语产生了深远的影响。
这个时期，英语吸收了大量的法语词汇，形成了中古英语。
这种语言在14世纪末到15世纪初的乔叟时代得到了进一步的发展，他的《坎特伯雷故事集》是中古英语文学的代表作。
到了16世纪，英语经历了一次重大的转变，被称为早期现代英语。
这是由于文艺复兴时期对古典文化的兴趣，以及印刷机的发明，这使得书籍的传播变得更加广泛。
莎士比亚的作品就是这个时期英语的杰出代表。
18世纪的启蒙时代，英语继续发展，形成了现代英语。
这个时期，语言变得更加规范化，词汇量也大大增加。
到了19世纪，随着大英帝国的扩张，英语传播到了世界各地，成为了国际交流的重要语言。
20世纪，随着全球化的发展，英语的地位得到了进一步的巩固。
它成为了国际商务、科学、技术、文化和政治交流的主要语言。
如今，英语是联合国的官方语言之一，也是许多国际组织的官方语言。
英语的发展史是一个不断演变和适应的过程，它吸收了多种语言的影响，形成了今天我们所使用的丰富多样的语言。
学习英语的历史，不仅能够帮助我们更好地理解这门语言，还能够让我们对文化交流和语言发展有更深的认识。
英语词汇发展简史
英语词汇发展简史
英语词汇的发展经历了几个重要的阶段，以下是一个简要的概述：1.古英语时期（450-1150年）：在这个时期，英语词汇的起源可以追溯
到日耳曼语族，特别是西日耳曼语支。
这个时期的词汇大多与农业、战争、家庭、工具等有关，例如：land（土地）、swine（猪）、kin （家族）等。
2.中古英语时期（1150-1500年）：在这个时期，由于法语和拉丁语的
入侵，英语词汇得到了极大的丰富和发展。
许多新词被引入到英语中，这些新词涵盖了政治、宗教、法律、医学等领域。
例如：confess（忏悔）、parish（教区）、charity（慈善）等。
3.现代英语时期（1500年至今）：在这个时期，英语词汇经历了更大
的变革。
文艺复兴、科学革命、工业革命等事件都对英语词汇的发展产生了深远的影响。
许多新词被创造出来，例如：telephone（电话）、radio（收音机）、robot（机器人）等。
同时，一些旧的词汇被赋予了新的含义，例如：menu（菜单）、mouse（鼠标）等。
总的来说，英语词汇的发展是一个长期的过程，受到了多种语言和文化的影响。
了解英语词汇的发展历史有助于更好地理解英语语言的演变和特点。
英语发展简史
精心整理英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前﹐来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人(Celts﹕属于今天苏格兰﹐爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先)已经在英伦列岛居住多年。
罗马人自公元前55年代开始﹐发动对英格兰的入侵﹐但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰﹐自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰﹐罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。
在罗马人离开后﹐来自欧洲西日耳曼部落‘Angelen’地区的盎格鲁人(Angles)﹑其它部落的撒克逊人(Saxon)﹑朱特人(Jutes)和弗里斯兰人(Frisian)开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区(英语中的‘English’就是出自古词‘englisc’﹐‘englise’中的‘Engle’表示‘theAngles’﹐即是‘盎格鲁人’的意思)﹐并与当地的凯尔特人(Celts)为争寻土地发生了长期的战争﹐经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。
凯尔特人(Celts)的国王Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中﹐虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战﹐但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰﹑威尔士和马恩(Man)岛地区﹐日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为‘wealas’意即外国人﹐‘Welsh’因此除此之外﹐如以-by作为地区名称的字尾﹕-by:表示‘城填’town﹐例如‘Derby,Rugby’-thorp:表示‘村庄’village﹐例如‘Althorp’-thwaite:表示‘孤立的土地’-toft:表示‘一块土地’从公元750-1050年间,来自北欧日耳曼部落的维京人(Virkings)(也属于丹麦娜威人)一直攻击英格兰﹐并在公元1016年﹐丹麦国王KingSvein还加冕成为了英格兰国王。
到了1042﹐英国人EwardtheConfessor才把王位从丹麦人手中夺回来。
以上是古英语时期的英格兰历史﹐在这段时期中﹐英格兰主要遭到了北方日耳曼人的不断入侵并定居下来成为了英国人的一部份。
之后的日耳曼人的入侵﹐主要分为Danes和Nores两个时期。
秦秀白英语简史
秦秀白英语简史篇一：秦秀白是一位著名的英语教育家和翻译家，他在中国的英语教学领域有着广泛的影响力。
秦秀白生于 1898 年，卒于 1986 年，享年 88 岁。
他是中国英语教学事业的奠基人之一，曾在清华大学、北京大学等著名高校担任英语教授。
秦秀白在英语教育方面的成就主要表现在以下几个方面:1. 提出了“语音是英语入门的基本功”的观点。
他认为，英语语音是学习英语的基础，要想学好英语，必须先打好语音基础。
因此，他在教学中非常注重语音教学，教授学生正确的发音技巧和方法。
2. 开创了英语口语教学的先河。
秦秀白认为，英语口语是英语学习的重要组成部分，要想学好英语，必须注重口语练习。
因此，他在教学生涯中非常注重英语口语教学，鼓励学生多练习口语，提高英语口语水平。
3. 翻译了大量的英语经典著作。
秦秀白是一位杰出的翻译家，他翻译了大量的英语经典著作，如《傲慢与偏见》、《茶花女》等。
他的翻译作品语言优美，准确度高，为英语学习者提供了宝贵的帮助。
秦秀白是中国英语教学事业的奠基人之一，他的英语教学思想和教学方法对中国英语教学的发展产生了深远的影响。
他提出的“语音是英语入门的基本功”的观点和英语口语教学的方法，对当今的英语教学仍然具有重要的指导意义。
篇二：秦秀白是一位著名的英语教育家和翻译家，他在中国的英语教学领域有着广泛的影响力。
秦秀白出生于 1898 年，逝世于 1983 年，享年 85 岁。
秦秀白在年轻时就开始学习英语，并在英国留学期间深入学习了英语语言和文学。
回国后，他开始在中国教授英语，并一直致力于推广英语教学。
他在英语教学领域的研究成果和贡献被广泛认可，被誉为“中国英语教学之父”。
除了英语教学，秦秀白还致力于翻译工作。
他翻译了许多英语经典文学作品，如《汤姆·索亚历险记》、《雾都孤儿》等。
他的翻译风格准确、自然，深受读者喜爱。
秦秀白的教育和翻译工作对中国英语教学和翻译事业产生了深远的影响。
他的教育理念和方法影响了几代中国英语学习者，为中国的英语教学事业做出了重要贡献。