What is Philosophy
英语学习人教版高中政治必修4哲学的总结
Life wisdom and the spirit of the times1, what is philosophy?(1) the philosophy is the systematic theory of the world outlook 2) philosophy is the natural, social and thinking knowledge summary and summary2, what is the world outlook and methodology? What is the relationship between the two?(1) the view of the world is the general view and fundamental view of the whole world and the relationship between people and the world. 2) methodology(3) the relationship: Generally speaking, the world outlook determines methodology, methodology embodies the concept of the world, there is what kind of world outlook on the methodology. There is no way to escape from the view of the world, there is no world view of methodology. Philosophy is the unity of the world outlook and methodology.3. What is the relationship between philosophy and concrete science?(1) the concrete science is the foundation of philosophy, and the progress of science and the development of the philosophy.(2) philosophy provides the guidance of world outlook and methodology for concrete science.4. What is the basic problem of philosophy?Is the relationship between thinking and existence problems: one is thinking and existence which is the most important problem. Different answers to this question, is the only standard of idealism and materialism;Two is the problem of thinking and the existence of the same sex, that is, the correct understanding of the problem of thinking. The different answers to this question are divided into the theory of the known and the unknown.5, the philosophy of the two basic factions is what? What are their fundamental differences?Two basic categories: Materialism and idealism;Fundamental differences: around the substance and awareness of who is the foundation of the problem.6, the basic point of view of materialismMaterialism believes that the material is the origin, the first material to have consciousness, thematerial determines consciousness.7, the basic viewpoints of idealismIdealism believes that consciousness is the primitive material depends on the consciousness, not the material determines consciousness, but consciousness decides the matter.The only standard 8 and the division of materialism and idealismThe thinking and existence is the first problem of different answers.9, what is the real philosophy?Is the essence of the spirit of their own times: (1) is the spirit of the times of the summary and sublimation; (2) is the guide of social change10, the generation of Marx's Philosophy(1) the class foundation: the generation and development of the proletariat(2) the Natural Science Foundation: cell theory, energy conservation and transformation law, biological evolution(3) theory source: German classical philosophy, the most important of which is Hagel's dialectics and Feuerbach's materialism.Three, Marx doctrine of China's 11 major theoretical results(1) Mao Zedong thought is the great theoretical achievements in the process of combining Lenin Marx with China's concrete reality. (2) Deng Xiaoping's theory is the inheritance and development of Mao Zedong thought;(3) "Three Represents" important thought is with Marxism Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping theory can be traced to the same origin of scientific system and keep pace with the times, is the latest achievements of the development of Chinese Marxism in.Two, the exploration of the world and the pursuit of truth1, the material concept of dialectical materialismMatter is not dependent on the person's consciousness, and can reflect the objective reality of the human consciousness.2, what is the nature of the world? The essence of the world is matter.3, why is the real unity of the world lies in the material?(1) nature is a matter of;(2) the generation, existence and development of human society and its elements, which have the objective nature;(3) the beginning of human consciousness is the product of society, which is produced in the process of human being and human society.(4) therefore, the world is a matter of the world, the real unity of the world lies in its material nature.4, what is the movement? Refers to all things, phenomena and processes in the universe.5, the relationship between matter and movement(1) there is no movement of the material in the world, movement is the fundamental attribute of matter and the way of existence;(2) there is no movement in the world from the material, the material is the movement of the bear.6, the relationship between exercise and rest(1) the movement is absolute, unconditional and eternal; the stillness is relative, conditional and temporary;(2) the physical world is the unity of absolute motion and relative stillness;(3) only admits stationary and motion denied is invariant theory of metaphysics, only acknowledged the absolute motion denied relatively static leads to relativism and sophistry.7, what is the law?Law is an essential, necessary and stable relation in the course of the movement of things.8, the regularity of the objectivity of the performanceLaw does not take the will of the people as the transfer, can not be created, can not be eliminated.9, the rule of universal performanceNature, human society and human thought, in the process of its movement and development, have to follow its inherent law.10, the regularity of objectivity and universality of the requirements of what?We must abide by the law, and not to violate the law. Once it is against the objective law, people will be punished by the law. But people can understand and use the law.11, what is the relationship between people and the law?(1) the law is the inherent nature of the movement of things, the inevitable and stable connection. Is objective, universal, so people have to respect the law, according to the law.(2) but, in the face of the objective law, the person is not powerless. On the basis of understanding and grasping the law, people can use the law to change the objective world and benefit the people according to the rule of law.12, what is the nature of consciousness?(1) consciousness is the product of the long-term development of the material world;(2) consciousness is the function of the human brain;(3) consciousness is the reflection of the objective existence.13, what is the role of consciousness?(1) people can understand the world in a dynamic way: the consciousness activity has the purpose and the plan; the consciousness activity has the initiative and the creativity.(2) people can actively transform the world: the consciousness of the transformation of the objective world has a guiding role; awareness of human physiological activities have the role of regulation and control.14, what is "everything from reality, seeking truth from facts"?Refers to the things we do to respect the objective laws of the motion of matter, starting from the objective existence of things, to find out the inherent in things and not imaginary regularity, use them as the basis for our actions.15, why should adhere to the "everything from the reality, seeking truth from facts"?Is the basic requirement that we do all kinds of things, is also the premise and requirement of theproletarian political party to formulate and implement the correct line, principles and policies.16, how to do "everything from the reality, seeking truth from facts"?(1) to bring into play the subjective initiative and respect for the objective laws of the combination, the high degree of revolutionary enthusiasm with the rigorous practical scientific attitude;(2) to oppose both exaggerated the dynamic role of consciousness of voluntarism, and also against the one-sided emphasis on the objective conditions, complacent and conservative, inaction thought.17, what is the practice? What are the three characteristics?Practice is the transformation of the objective world of the objective world of all material activities. One, the practice is the material activity which takes the human as the main body, takes the objective thing as the object; two, the practice is a kind of direct reality activity, the existence of the idea in the people's mind becomes the existence.Features: (1) the practice of objective material (2) practice has a subjective initiative (3) practice with social history18, why to say that practice is the basis of understanding?(1) practice is the source of knowledge; (2) practice is the motive power of the development of cognition; (3) practice is the only standard of the truth of the test; (4) the practice is the purpose and destination of understanding.19, what is the truth? What is wrong?Truth is the correct understanding of the objective things and their laws; the fallacy is not consistent with the objective object.20. What is the most basic attribute of truth?Objectivity is the most basic attribute.21, the truth is the embodiment of the specific conditions in where?(1) the truth is conditional. Any truth has its own conditions and scope of application, if beyond the conditions and scope, the truth will become a fallacy(2) the truth is concrete. Truth is both subjective and objectiveThe unity of theory and practice.(3) the truth conditional and concrete show that truth and falsehood are often accompanied by. `22, why is the pursuit of truth is a process?(1) with recurrent understanding;(2) the knowledge is infinite;(3) the development process of knowledge is a wave type forward or spiral rise process.23, how to understand and discover the truth?Advancing with the times, pioneering and innovative, in the practice of understanding and discovery of truth, in the practice of testing and development of the truth, is our unremitting pursuit and eternal mission.24, the point of view is a general feature of materialist dialectics.Three, thought method and innovation consciousness1, what is the link? What are the characteristics of the connection?The so-called relationship is the mutual influence, mutual restriction and interaction between things and the internal elements of things.Features: (1) contact with the universal (2) with the objective (3) contact with diversity2, what is the universality of contact?The universal nature of the connection is that everything in the world is connected with the other things around.3, the objectivity of the contact and the requirements of what?(1) the meaning: the objectivity of the connection refers to the inherent nature of the thing itself, and not to the person's will;(2): A, contact objectivity demands that we must grasp things from the inherent connection, avoid by all means is subjective and arbitrary; second, however, the contact is objective, does not mean that the contact of things people helpless. One can change the state of things, adjust the original connection, and establish a new relationship according to the inherent relation of things.(3) according to the relation between the contact and the practice, the connection can be divided into: the contact of the thing in itself and the connection of the human being.4, the diversity of contact and what is the requirement?(1) things in the world differ in thousands of ways, and the links between things are diverse;(2) the diversity of contact requires us to pay attention to the analysis and grasp of the various conditions of the existence and development of things. The favorable conditions for the in the process of recognizing and reforming the world, it is necessary to pay attention to the objective conditions, but also appropriate use their own subjective conditions; it is necessary to grasp the internal conditions of things, must pay attention to the things of the external conditions; it is necessary to understand things, but also pay attention to the things of the adverse conditions. In short, all the time, place and condition for the transfer.5, what is the whole and part? What is the dialectical relationship between them?(1) the meaning of the whole refers to the overall situation and the development of the whole process, from the number of it is a part of the local and the development of the various stages, from the number of it is more.(2): (1) it is different: the overall living in a dominant position, the overall commander of the part, with part does not have the function; part in the existence and development of the process of things in position of being dominated and the part is subordinate to and serve the overall;(2) contact: the whole is made up of parts, leaving the part, the whole will not exist. Part of the function and its changes will affect the overall function, the key part of the function and its changes and even the overall function of the decision;Part is part of the whole, leaving the whole, part of it is not part of it. The overall functional status and changes also affect the part.6, to grasp the overall and part of the relationship is of great significance?(1) should establish the overall concept, based on the whole, overall planning, select the best program to achieve the overall goal of the best, so as to achieve the overall function of more than part of the function and;(2) we must pay attention to the role of the part, do a good job in part, with the local development to promote the overall development.7, the development of universal is what?(1) the development of nature. The whole of nature experienced a from inorganic to organic matter, from nonliving matter to life material, from the material life to the people of long forward and rising.(2) the development of human society. The replacement of social form indicates that human society is a process of continuous development;(3) people's understanding of the development of. Understanding is not the end, any theory is constantly developing. The accumulation of people's knowledge will experience a process from knowing to know, from not knowing much to knowing more, and also have a process from shallow to deep.8, what is the essence of development?The essence of development is the progress and rise of things, the production of new things and the destruction of old things.9, what is the standard to judge the old and new things?The basic symbol is whether the inevitable trend of the development of colleagues in accordance with the.10, why is it that the development of the future is bright?(1) new things accord with objective law, have strong vitality and broad development prospects, and old things against the inevitable trend of historical development, thus, will eventually die;(2) new things to overcome old things negative, decay, and outdated things, learn the positive and reasonable factors, and add the old things cannot accommodate the new content and therefore has some old things are incomparable superiority.(3) in the field of social history, the new things in line with the historical development of the inevitable trend, reflecting the basic requirements of social progress, in line with the fundamental interests of the people and the requirements of the people's support and support;(4) as a result, new things must be in place of the old ones.11, why is the development of the road is tortuous?(1) the development of new things to experience a small to large, from imperfection to perfection;(2) the new things have their own weaknesses and imperfections;(3) there is also a process of recognition of new things;(4) the old things are often more powerful at the beginning, always stubborn resistance and tryto kill the new things;(5) it is a long and tortuous process for new things to overcome the old.12, what is the direction of the development of things?The direction of development is forward and up, but the road is tortuous.13, what is the status of the development of things?Quantitative and qualitative change is two kinds of state of development of things.14, what is the change?(1) quantitative: refers to the number of things or places change is a gradual, no significant change; (unified, the stalemate and the static balance, are presented in the process of quantitative change of state)Qualitative change (2): refers to the change of the basic nature of things, things by a state to another germplasm state leap is a fundamental and significant changes. (Unified decomposition, balance and static destruction are showing a qualitative change in the process of the state)What is the dialectical relationship between the 15, quantitative and qualitative changes? Ask us how to do?(1) the relationship between the development of things always starts from quantitative, quantitative change is the necessary preparation for the qualitative change and qualitative change is the inevitable result of quantitative; second, qualitative and quantitative to pave the way, make things on the basis of new start new quantitative.(2): things, do anything should start from the little things bit by bit, and actively do a good job in the amount of accumulation, to achieve a qualitative change to create conditions; second, equivalent change has reached a certain level, to seize the opportunity, facilitating the qualitative change, realize the leap and development.16, what is the source of the development of things and power?The source and motive force of the development of things are contradictory.17, the view of contradiction is the basic point of materialist dialectics.18, what is the contradiction? What are the two basic properties?(1) contradiction is a philosophical category which reflects the internal opposition and unity ofthings. In short, the contradiction is the unity of opposites.(2) basic properties: the struggle and the identity.19, what is the universality of contradiction? What are the requirements?The universality of contradiction is refers to: (1) the contradiction that exists in all things, that there are contradictions; (2) conflicts throughout every process of the development of things always, instant when there are contradictions.Requirements: (1) to recognize the contradiction of universality is to adhere to the premise of materialist dialectics; (2) for any thing, we have to admit contradiction, contradiction analysis, and the courage to expose contradictions, and actively looking for the right way to resolve contradictions.20, what is the particularity of contradiction? What does it show?The particularity of contradiction refers to: the contradictory thing and each side has its characteristic.Performance:?Different things have different contradictions, different contradictions constitute a thing that distinguishes him from the special nature of things; (2) the same thing in different processes and different stages of development have different contradictions;(3) the two different aspects of the same thing, the same thing, have their own particularity.21, the contradiction between universality and particularity of the relationship?(1) the relationship between universality and particularity, which is the common and individual character, the individual and the general relations, is the essence of the contradiction;(2) generally resides in particularity, and through a special performance, no particularity is not universal;(3) particularity cannot be separated from universality, one thing is always in common with other things of the same kind.(4) in a certain occasion for the universality of things, in another occasion is special, and vice versa.22, the contradiction between universality and particularity of the dialectical relationship between the guiding significanceContradiction between universality and particularity of the dialectical relation principle is theessence of the things about the problem,, is philosophical foundation of the combination of the universal principles of Marxism and the concrete practice of China, we are building socialism with Chinese characteristics. The theoretical basis. Efforts to explore the process of China's socialist construction and reform of the special law, it reflects the universality and particularity of the unity of contradictions.23, what is the primary and secondary contradictions? How is the relationship between them?(1) the main contradiction refers to: in the process of the development of things in a dominant position, the development of things play a decisive role in the conflict;(2) the secondary contradiction refers to the contradiction that is in a subordinate position and can not play a decisive role in the development of things;(3) the relation: the primary and secondary contradictions are interdependent and influence each other, and under certain conditions.24, what is the primary and secondary aspects of contradiction? What is the dialectical relationship between them?In the two aspects of a contradiction, there must be a party in a dominant position, leading role, this is the main aspect of contradiction; while the other side is in a dominant position, this is the main aspect of the contradiction. The nature of things is mainly determined by the main aspects of the principal contradiction.The main aspects of the contradiction and the secondary aspects of mutual exclusion, and mutual dependence, and under certain conditions of mutual transformation.25, adhere to the two sides of the contradiction analysis, two points on the unity of understanding and focus on Methods(1) to adhere to the two sides of the contradiction analysis law, adhere to the two points and the unity of the focus;(2) insist on the theory of two points is in the understanding of complex things, both to see the principal contradiction, but also see the secondary contradiction; in the understanding of a contradiction, it is necessary to see the contradictions, but also to see the contradictions of secondary aspect;(3) to insist on the point of view, that is, to understand the complex things, to grasp the main contradiction; in the understanding of a contradiction should focus on grasping the main aspects of the contradiction, to seize the mainstream.(4) the two points of dialectics are two points, which are two important points. It is not balancedtheory; the key point is the key point of two points.26, what is the specific analysis of specific issues?Under the guidance of the universal principle of contradiction, the specific analysis of the particularity of the contradiction, and find out the correct way to solve the contradiction. It's the living soul of Marx.27, why specific issues specific analysis?(1) the concrete analysis of concrete problems is the basis of our correct understanding of things. The internal contradictions of things have their own particularity, the specific analysis of the particularity of contradictions, in order to distinguish the things that are not homogeneous;(2) the concrete analysis of concrete problems is the key to solve the problem correctly. Only by grasping the particularity of contradiction, can we find the correct way to solve the contradiction.28, the meaning and essence of dialectical negation?(1) the meaning of the dialectical negation is the negation of the thing itself, that is, they deny themselves, their own development.(2) the essence of dialectical negation is "discard", to overcome the negative content of old things, and to keep the positive and reasonable factors in the old things.29. What is the fundamental way to achieve the creation of new things and to promote the demise of the old things?The basic approach is the dialectical negation.30. What is the requirement of dialectical negation?(1) must establish a sense of innovation, do not only, not only book, only the truth;(2) not only to respect the book knowledge, respect for authority, but also based on practice, emancipate the mind, seek truth from facts, with the times, and constantly realize the theory and practice of innovation and development.31, according to the essence of the dialectical method is what? Why?Dialectics, in its essence, is a revolutionary and innovative.Because (1) the dialectics in the understanding of existing things certainly contains the understanding of the negation of existing things, that of existing things inevitable demise ofunderstanding; (2 dialectics of every kind of the form are from constantly in motion, and from its temporary aspects to understand; (3) dialectic do not worship anything.32. What is the requirement of the revolutionary spirit and critical thinking of dialectics?(1) the dialectical method of the revolutionary critical spirit requires us to break through and not match the actual into Chen said, get rid of the backward ideas.(2) the revolutionary critical spirit of dialectics requires us to pay attention to the new situation, to be good at raising new questions, to find new ways of thinking, and to establish new ideas.33. What is the difference between the materialist dialectics and the school? What is the fundamental difference?(1) differences: the dialectical method to use the contact, development, comprehensive point of view to see the problem; the line and school with isolated, static, one-sided view of the point of view2 basic differences: whether to admit the contradiction, whether to admit the contradiction is the source and power of the development of things.Four, the understanding of society and the value of choice1, what is social existence and social consciousness?(1) social existence refers to the material aspect of social life, and its most important and fundamental content is the mode of production of material information;(2) social consciousness refers to the spiritual aspect of social life, which is the general name of all kinds of spiritual life phenomena in human society.2. What is the dialectical relationship between social consciousness and social existence?(1) social existence determines social consciousness. Including distortion of false social consciousness in the final analysis is the reflection of social existence. What kind of social existence there is a kind of social consciousness, social existence of changes in the development of social awareness of the changes in the development of social consciousness(2) social consciousness reaction on social existence: behind the social awareness of social development obstacle, advanced social consciousness can be correctly predicted the direction and trend of social development, the positive role of social development.3. What is the basis of the existence and development of human society?The mode of production is the basis of the existence and development of human society, which determines the nature and appearance of society, and determines the change and replacement of social form.4, what is the basic contradiction of human society?(1) the contradiction between productive forces and production relations, the economic basis and superstructure, is the basic contradiction that runs through the human society.(2) production relations must adapt to the laws of the state of the productive forces, the superstructure must adapt to the laws of economic conditions, is the universal law in any society.5, the basic contradiction of the socialist society is what?It is the contradiction of productive relations.6, production relations must be suitable for the law of the situation of productive forces(1) productivity determines production relations, changes in productivity development, sooner or later will cause the change of production relations;(2) production relations have counter productive forces. When the productive relations adapt to the development of productive forces, the development of the productive forces plays a role in promoting the development of productive forces, when the productive relations are not adapted to the development of the productive forces, the development of the productive forces can hinder the development of productive forces.7. What is the general trend of social and historical development? Through what way to achieve?(1) the general trend of social and historical development is progressive, rising, and the development process is tortuous.(2) in the class society, the solution of the social basic contradiction is realized through the class struggle; the basic contradiction of the socialist society is completed through the reform. Reform is the self perfection and development of socialism.8, to promote the development of human society, the driving force, the fundamental driving force, a strong force, the direct power of what is?(1) the driving force for social development is innovation;(2) social developmentThe fundamental motive force of the development is the basic contradiction movement of human society, namely, the contradiction between productive forces and production relations.。
英文哲学入门知识点总结
英文哲学入门知识点总结1. What is philosophy?Philosophy is derived from the Greek words "philo," meaning love, and "sophia," meaning wisdom. Therefore, it can be understood as the love of wisdom. As a discipline, philosophy seeks to answer fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and approaches, including ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and aesthetics.2. Branches of philosophy- Metaphysics: This branch of philosophy deals with the nature of reality and existence. It explores questions about the nature of being, the structure of the universe, and the concept of causality. Metaphysical questions include the nature of time, space, and the self.- Epistemology: Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It examines the nature of knowledge, the sources of knowledge, and the criteria for knowledge. It explores questions about belief, truth, justification, and skepticism.- Ethics: Ethics is concerned with questions about right and wrong, good and bad, and moral obligation. It considers the nature of ethical principles, the foundations of morality, and the concept of justice. It also explores the relationship between ethics and human behavior.- Logic: Logic is the study of reasoning and argumentation. It deals with questions about the structure of valid arguments, the principles of inference, and the nature of truth. It also examines the foundations of mathematics and the philosophy of language.- Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the study of beauty, art, and taste. It explores questions about the nature of beauty, the perception of art, and the role of aesthetic experience in human life. It also considers the relationship between art and society.3. Methods of philosophy- Analysis: Philosophical analysis involves the careful examination and clarification of concepts, arguments, and problems. It aims to uncover hidden assumptions, identify inconsistencies, and explore the implications of ideas. Analysis is often used in logical and linguistic philosophy.- Argumentation: Philosophical argumentation involves the construction and evaluation of arguments. It aims to establish the validity and soundness of reasoning, challenge assumptions, and support claims with evidence. Argumentation is often used in ethics and epistemology.- Thought experiments: Philosophical thought experiments involve the imaginative exploration of hypothetical scenarios. They aim to test intuitions, challenge assumptions,and explore the consequences of ideas. Thought experiments are often used in metaphysics and ethics.4. Historical development of philosophy- Ancient philosophy: The ancient Greeks, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, made significant contributions to the development of philosophy. They explored questions about the nature of reality, the basis of ethics, and the foundations of knowledge. Their work laid the foundation for subsequent philosophical inquiry.- Medieval philosophy: In the Middle Ages, philosophers such as Augustine and Aquinas integrated classical philosophy with Christian theology. They sought to reconcile faith and reason, explore questions about the nature of God, and develop ethical principles based on religious teachings.- Modern philosophy: The Renaissance and the Enlightenment marked a period of renewed interest in philosophy. Philosophers such as Descartes, Spinoza, and Kant focused on questions about the nature of the mind, the limits of human knowledge, and the moral implications of reason.- Contemporary philosophy: In the 20th and 21st centuries, philosophy has continued to evolve and diversify. Philosophers such as Wittgenstein, Heidegger, and Rawls have made significant contributions to the study of language, existentialism, and social justice.5. Key philosophical concepts- Dualism: Dualism is the philosophical view that reality consists of two distinct substances, such as mind and body, or good and evil. It explores questions about the relationship between these substances, their interaction, and their ultimate nature.- Determinism: Determinism is the philosophical view that every event, including human actions, is determined by prior causes. It raises questions about free will, moral responsibility, and the nature of causation.- Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that holds that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility. It raises questions about the nature of happiness, the measurement of utility, and the implications for moral decision-making.- Existentialism: Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes the individual's freedom, responsibility, and authentic existence. It explores questions about the nature of anxiety, the search for meaning, and the experience of absurdity in human life.6. Importance of philosophy- Critical thinking: Philosophy encourages critical thinking, rational argumentation, and analytical reasoning. It teaches individuals to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and make informed judgments.- Ethical reflection: Philosophy promotes ethical reflection, moral deliberation, and the exploration of ethical principles. It encourages individuals to consider the consequences of their actions, reflect on their values, and engage in ethical decision-making.- Cultural enrichment: Philosophy provides cultural enrichment, intellectual stimulation, and a deeper understanding of human experience. It offers insights into different worldviews, historical periods, and philosophical traditions.- Personal development: Philosophy contributes to personal development, self-awareness, and the cultivation of wisdom. It fosters a sense of wonder, curiosity, and appreciation for the complexities of life.In conclusion, philosophy is a rich and diverse discipline that encompasses a wide range of topics and approaches. It explores fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. By studying philosophy, individuals can develop their critical thinking skills, engage in ethical reflection, enrich their cultural understanding, and promote their personal development. Whether you are interested in metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, or aesthetics, philosophy offers a wealth of knowledge and wisdom to explore.。
Philosophy 中西哲学比较ppt
• Pre-Socrates era
• Socrates era
• Belief age
• The discovery of man and nature
• United Kingdom modern philosophy; French
• 中国史学界比较一致断定：商(殷)代是中国历史上的奴隶制时代，
《尚书?商书?盘庚》以后各篇和殷墟小屯发掘出来的甲骨文片， 是中国最早的成文史料。，《诗经?商颂》说：“帝立子生商。” 商代统治者自认为是上天的子孙，是代表上天来管理臣民的。周 灭商时，周统治者宣称：“丕显文王，受天有(佑)大命。”(《大 盂鼎》)意即文王创立了灭商事业，是受天命保佑的，周天子是 上天在天上的投影。《庄子?天下篇》也指出：这时期的哲学思 想是“以天为宗，以德为本”。这道出了哲学同宗教、伦理的结 合。但是这时的哲学思想，只是处在萌芽状态，尚未形成哲学学 派，还没有建立真正的哲学体系，因而没有什么著名的哲学家。’
The development of Chinese philosophy
The development of Western philosophy
• Spring and Autumn and the Warring Stases periods: A
hundred schools of thought contend; Philosophical origin.
• Taoist thought day is natural, the person is a part of nature.
So \"this is the unity of nature and man\" because of so many rules and regulations of unfettered, makes people were separated from the nature of natural, get away from the nature. Therefore, to achieve harmony, must abandon those terms, will be released all their own human nature, fully integrated into the nature Reach the state with everything in the world.
第一讲-西方哲学(英语)
that are central to our thought.
branches of philosophy
metaphysics epistemology ethics
rationalism
empiricism
ontology
morality
aesthetics
Metaphysics: the study of the nature of being and the world. Traditional branches are cosmology and ontology. Epistemology: concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, and whether knowledge is possible. Among it central concerns has been the challenge posed by skepticism and the relationships between truth, belief, and justification. Ethics, or "moral philosophy": concerned with questions of how persons ought to act or if such questions are answerable. The main branches of ethics: natural ethics, relative ethics, and Meta-ethics. Meta-ethics concerns the nature of ethical thought, comparison of various ethical systems, whether there are absolute ethical truths, and how such truths could be known. Ethics is also associated with the idea of morality. Plato's early dialogues include a search for definitions of virtue.
Philosophy
一.Philosophy is the scientific knowledge that summarizes the nature and society.哲学是关于自然和社会知识总结，概括的一门学科。
Philosophy=philo+sophyOriginal meaning：love of wisdom爱智慧In today，it can be defined as “ultimate reality”在今天可被定义为哲学是研究终极真相的学科。
柏拉图他们为“爱智慧者”，也就是“哲学家”Plato calls them“lovers of wisdom,”i.e.,“philosopher”（过渡，引出中西方哲学家。
）二.（VIEWS观点，主张）时期：百家争鸣和古希腊的繁荣。
1.孔子（Confucius）Confucius is the famous thinker and educator in ancient china，He is the founder of Confucian School and the core of Chinese culture.中国著名思想家和教育家，儒家学派创始人，中华文化中的核心. Never impose your beliefs on anyone else.“己所不欲，勿施于人”2.孟子（Menci）Humanity ,justice ,propriety ,wisdom“仁义礼智”The people are more important than the ruler.民贵君亲Theory of original goodness of human nature性善论3.泰勒斯（Thales）“The fathe r of the western philosophy”Water is the source of all things.水是万物的本源Thales，a thinker, scientist, philosopher in ancient Greek. During the period of the earliest Greek, he is the founder of the “Milesian School” .He is also one of Greek QiXian. He is honored as “the father of science and philosophy”泰勒斯，古希腊时期的思想家、科学家、哲学家, 希腊最早的哲学学派“米利都学派”的创始人，希腊七贤之一, 科学和哲学之祖。
英语阅读理解 philosophy
英语阅读理解 philosophy
目录
1.哲学与英语阅读理解
2.哲学的基本问题
3.哲学的分支
4.哲学对英语阅读理解的影响
5.如何通过哲学提高英语阅读理解能力
正文
英语阅读理解中，哲学是一个重要的领域。
它关乎人类的思维方式，对世界和自我的认知，以及如何看待生活和宇宙等大问题。
哲学，简单来说，就是对智慧的热爱。
在英语阅读理解中，哲学类的文章和题目常常出现，因此了解哲学的基本问题、分支以及如何通过哲学提高英语阅读理解能力是十分必要的。
哲学的基本问题主要围绕着三个方面：存在、知识和价值。
存在问题主要探讨的是物体和世界的存在，以及它们是如何存在的。
知识问题则关注我们如何获取知识，知识的真实性、范围和限制等。
价值问题则主要讨论道德、美学和伦理等问题，关乎人类的行为准则和价值取向。
哲学有很多分支，如形而上学（探讨存在和实体的本质）、伦理学（探讨道德和行为准则）、逻辑学（探讨推理和证明的规则）、认识论（探讨知识的来源、性质和限制）等。
这些分支在英语阅读理解中都可能涉及到，因此我们需要对它们有一定的了解。
哲学对英语阅读理解的影响主要体现在两方面：一是提高阅读理解的深度，让我们能够更好地理解文章中的观点和论证；二是提高阅读理解的广度，让我们能够接触到更多的哲学概念和思想。
那么，如何通过哲学提高英语阅读理解能力呢？首先，我们需要了解一些基本的哲学概念和思想，这样才能更好地理解文章。
其次，我们需要学会阅读和分析哲学类的文章，理解其论点和论证方式。
最后，我们需要通过大量的阅读和练习，不断提高我们的阅读理解和思维能力。
乔布斯经典语录：活着就是为了改变世界英文版
乔布斯经典语录：活着就是为了改变世界英文版他的成就和人格魅力影响了一代人和整个世界，他就是拥有梦幻般传奇经历的苹果电脑公司的创始人斯蒂夫·乔布斯。
这个个人电脑领域的梦想家引领并改变了整个计算机硬件和软件产业。
这个精力充沛魅力无限的家伙同时也是一个很会鼓动人心的激励大师，甚至在他的平常对话中，经典的语句也常常脱口而出。
这里摘取了一些经典的乔氏语录，希望对你有所帮助。
Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower.领袖和跟风者的区别就在于创新。
Innovation has no limits. The only limit is your imagination. It's time for you to begin thinking out of the box. If you are involved in a growing industry, think of ways to become more efficient; more customer friendly; and easier to do business with. If you are involved in a shrinking industry – get out of it quick and change before you become obsolete; out of work; or out of business. And remember that procrastination is not an option here. Start innovating now!创新无极限！只要敢想，没有什么不可能，立即跳出思维的框框吧。
如果你正处于一个上升的朝阳行业，那么尝试去寻找更有效的解决方案：更招消费者喜爱、更简洁的商业模式。
中英文 哲学
中英文对照：哲学中文：哲学英文：Philosophy中文解释：哲学是一门探究世界、人类存在和知识本质的学科，涉及形而上学、伦理学、美学等多个领域。
通过对这些根本性问题的深入探讨，哲学试图解答人类存在的意义和价值，以及我们如何认识世界和如何行动等问题。
英文解释：Philosophy is the discipline that explores the nature of the world, human existence, and the essence of knowledge, encompassing fields such as metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, and others. Through in-depth examination of these fundamental questions, philosophy aims to provide answers to the meaning and value of human existence, as well as how we can understand the world and act accordingly.中文对照经典哲学书籍：《论语》、《道德经》、《庄子》等。
英文对照经典哲学书籍：Plato's "Dialogues", Aristotle's "Metaphysics", Descartes' "Meditations", Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason", Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" 等。
中文对照经典哲学问题：“我是谁”、“我从哪里来”、“我要到哪里去”等。
TheHistoryofWesternPhilosophy：西方哲学史
The History of Western Philosophy3 Courses Taught at Christ CollegeDr. Greg L. BahnsenI.ANCIENT AND MEDIEVALA.Introduction.1.History... of Western... Philosophy.2.What is Philosophy?a)How it arises.b)Marks of a philosophical question.c)The task of philosophy.d)Key concerns (divisions) of philosophy.3.When did philosophy begin?4.Meaning of History.a)The Biblical worldview.b)Where is meaning found?c)Biblical principles for interpreting history.5.The Enduring Questions.a)Ideas have consequences.b)Antithesis (in principle).c)Unregenerate answers lead to dialectical tension.d)The major questions.B.Ancient Cultures.1.Egypt.2.Mediterranean Powers.3.Assyria and Babylon.4.Persia.5.Greece.6.Rome.C.Greek Poets and History.1.Homer.2.Hesiod.3.Aeschylus.4.Sophocles.5.Peloponnesian War.6.Euripides.esian Problem of Matter.1.Thales.2.Anaximander.3.Anaximenes.E.Pythagoreans and the Wonder of Order.F.Heraclitus vs. the Eleatics: the Problem of Identity and Change1.Heraclitus.2.Xenophanes.3.Parmenides.4.Zeno.G.Pluralists (Atomism): The Philosophy of the Natural World1.Empedocles.2.Anaxagoras.3.Democritus and Atomism (Materialism).4.Anticipation of Modern Physics.H.Philosophies of Life (Attitude/Ethics).1.Sophism.2.Cynicism.3.Skepticism.4.Hedonism.5.Epicureanism.6.Stoicism.7.EclecticismI.Plato.1.Troubled context.2.Life and relation to Socrates.3.Idealistic Metaphysics and Rational Epistemology.4.Normative Ethics and Utopian Politics.J.Aristotle.1.Life and relation to Plato.2.Metaphysic of nature.3.Empirical Epistemology.4.Teleological Ethics and Politics of Moderation.K.The Roman Period.1.Evaluation of Plato and Aristotle.2.Five Major Schools of Philosophy.3.Christian Commentary.4.Rise of the Roman Empire.5.Review of Stoicism.6.Review of Epicureanism.7.Review of Skepticism.L.The Advent of Christ.1.Jesus the Messiah: the Way, the Truth, and the Life.2.Philosophical Antithesis.3.Political Antithesis.4.Interaction with the Roman Empire.M.Early Christian Era1.Gnosticism and Mystery Cults2.Neo Platonism and Plotinus3.Ante Nicene Fathers (Patristics)N.Augustine1.Life and Two fold Struggle with Evil.2.Correcting Plato’s Dualism.3.God’s Providence and Rationale for Science.4.Man’s Free Will and Necessity of Grace (vs. Pelagius).5.Philosophy of History.6.Faith and Reason.7.Ethical Observations.8.Assessment and retractions.O.Medieval Period1.The Culture of the Middle Ages.2.Philosophical Overview of Periods and Problems.3.Boethius.4.Erigena.5.Avicenna.6.Anselm.7.Roscellinus.8.Abelard.9.Averroes.10.Bernard.P.Aquinas and After1.Thomas Aquinas.2.Robert Bacon.3.Duns Scotus.4.William of Occam.5.Nicholas of Cusa.6.Apologetical Assessment.7.Key Characteristic: Synthesis.II.RENAISSANCE AND ENLIGHTENMENT (1400-1800)A.Recap and Review.1.The ancient period.2.Paganism—antithesis—synthesis.3.The medieval period.4.End of Middles ages and seeds of the Renaissance.B.The Renaissance of Humanism.1.Revival of Classical man-centeredness.2.Cultural characteristics.3.Political theorizing.4.The scientific spirit.5.Assessment and summary.C.The Reformation of Christianity.1.Contrast between renaissance and reformation.2.Revival of N.T. faith & reaction against humanism.3.Cultural effects.4.Scientific advance.5.Political reform.D.Two Kinds of Enlightenment.1.Calvin: revelation and regeneration.2.Hobbes: materialism.E.Continental Rationalism.1.Descartes and dualism.2.Spinoza and monism.3.Leibniz and atomism.F.British Empiricism.1.Locke and psychologism.2.Berkeley and idealism.3.Hume and skepticism.G.Enlightenment Movements.1.English Deism.2.Reid and Scottish common-sense realism.3.The French Englightenment.a)Voltaire.b)Encyclopedists.c)Sensationalists and materialists.d)Rousseau and Romanticism.4.German Aufklarung.H.Loss of Optimism Regarding Reason.1.Enlightenment optimism regarding rationality of the universe and man.2.Collapse of confidence.3.Recap and synopsis.4.From confidence to despair regarding rationality.5.Kant to the rescue.I.Kant’s Critical Philosophy.1.Two realms.2.Transcendental epistemology.3.Values and ethics.III.NINETEENTH & TWENTIETH CENTURIES(Lecture Outline and Reading Map).A.Review: Rousseau & Kant (Johnson 1).B.Hegel’s Absolute Idealism (Sahakina 10.4 5; Brown 3.2).C.Schopenhauer’s Voluntarism and Mysticism (Sahakian 10.6).D.Romanticism & Subjectivism (Johnson 2; Sahakian 10.3; 22.1; Brown 3.1,3,5).E.Nietzsche’s Nihilism (Sahakian 12.4; Brown 3.4).F.British Utilitarianism (Sahakian 11; Brown 3.4).G.Materialism, Positivism, & Evolutionary Naturalism (Sahakian 12.1 3,5,7; 13; Brown 3.4).H.Marxism (Johnson 3; Sahakian 14; Brown 3.4).I.Retrospect and Prospect at Century’s End.J.Process Philosophy: Bergson, Whitehead (Sahakian 12.6; 17.3.c).K.Idealism (Sahakian 16.1,3).L.Personalism (Sahakian 16.2).M.Realism (Sahakian 17.1 3.b).N.Phenomenology (Sahakian 21).O.Existentialism (Johnson 9; Sahakian 22.2 3).P.Pragmatism (Sahakian 15; Brown 3.4).Q.Developments in Logic & Language: Frege, Russell, Wittgenstein, Logical Positivism (Johnson 8; Sahakian 17.2 3; 18; Brown 4.1,4).R.Ordinary Language Analysis: Wittgenstein, Austin, Searl (Sahakian 19).S.The Crisis of our Culture (Johnson 11 or 12; 13; Brown 4.2 3; Schaeffer 9 13).T.Current Trends.U.Concluding Assessment.Philosophical VocabularyGENERALReason: man’s intellectual or mental capacity.Presupposition: an elementary assumption or basic commitment or foundational perspective.Worldview: a network of presuppositions which is not verified by the procedures of natural science but in terms of which every aspect of man’s knowledge and experience is interpreted and interrelated.Dualism: the general perspective that reality or man’s experience is properly interpreted by two different kinds of explanation, the one religious and the other non-religious; thus the endorsement of a sacred/secular distinction. [This should be distinguished from the specific metaphysical doctrine given the same name.]Autonomous: characterized by self-sufficiency or independence from outside authority(especially a transcendent authority); being a law unto oneself.Transcendent: the quality of originating beyond man’s temporal experience or exceeding it.Objective: the quality of having a public nature, independent of our thoughts.Absolute: unconditioned by qualifications or limitations.Relativism: all judgments are conditioned by factors like cultural milieu and individual bias; thus there is no objective, absolute truth.Humanism: (secularism), the view that man is the highest value and authority in terms ofknowledge or behavior, rather than any transcendent reality or revelation.Rationalism: the general attitude that man’s autonomous reason is his final authority, in which case divine revelation may be denied or ignored. [This should be distinguished from the specific epistemological school given the same name.]Rational: an adjective used for either: (1) whatever pertains to man’s intellect (cf. “reason”), (2) whatever is based on the authority of man’s mind (cf. general attitude called “rationalism”), (3) whatever is known apart from experience or observation (cf. the epistemological school of “rationalism”)LOGIC: the study of principles for distinguishing correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning.Judgment: a movement in thought which asserts a predicate (quality or relation) of a subject.Inference: a movement in thought which draws a conclusion from premises.Fallacy: an error in reasoning or a mistaken inference.Deduction: inferring with necessity a particular conclusion from general premises.Induction: inferring with probability a general conclusion from particular premises.EPISTEMOLOGY: the study of the nature and limits of human knowledge.Belief: a mental state affirmative of a proposition.Knowledge: justified, true belief.Certainty: the property of a proposition that it cannot fail to be true.Confidence: the psychological property of feeling assurance that a proposition is true.Skepticism: the view that denies the possibility of knowledge or certainty (sometimeslimited to certain areas).Mysticism: the view that reality is ineffable and transcends precise conceptual schemes;thus it is known by non-rational means.Intuition: direct, immediate (non-discursive) knowledge.a priori:independent of observation, experience, or sense perception.a posteriori: dependent upon observation, experience, or sense perception.Innate idea: a concept known a priori and characterized by universality and necessity.Rationalism: the view that some knowledge is a priori.Empiricism: the view that all knowledge is a posteriori.Phenomenalism: the view that what we know is mind-dependent, so that knowledge islimited to appearance (the data of inner or outer sense).ETHICS: the study of right and wrong actions and attitudes.Metaethics: the study of the meaning and justification of fundamental moral terms and judgments. Hedonism: the view that pleasure is the sole good.Voluntarism: the view that asserts the primacy of will over intellect (as explanatory of human behavior, God’s nature, or the universe as a whole).Utilitarianism: the view that goodness is the quality of promoting the greatest happiness of the greatest number.Emotivism: the view that moral utterances are mere expressions of feeling (and are thusnon-informative in function).Marxism: dialectical materialism (the sole reality, matter, develops through history according to the pattern of thesis C antithesis C and then synthesis or resolution at a higher level), leading to revolution and then the state-less society.METAPHYSICS: the study of the nature, structure, and origin of what exists.Ontology: the theory of being itself.Cosmology: the study of the universe, its origin, and its process of development.Universal: a general concept (idea, form) which is predicable of many individuals.Particular: an instance of a universal.Essence: that-about-a-thing-that-makes-it-what-it-is.Accidents: the non-essential properties of a thing.Existence: the actuality of a thing: that it is.Substance: (1) whatever is real; (2) something’s essence; (3) whatever exists in its own right and depends on nothing else; (4) that which underlies (or has) the properties of a thing.Contingent: the quality of not being necessarily determined: whatever may or may not be the case. Determinism: the view that there is no contingency, for every event is necessary (according to some laws); thus the view that every event is the theoretically predictable consequence of antecedent causes. Behaviorism: determinism applied to every detail of man’s behavior.Materialism: the view that the whole of reality consists of matter.Dualism: the view that there are two ultimate and irreducible principles for explaining reality: mind and matter (body).Monism: the view that reality consists of only one kind of substance.Solipsism: the view that everything other than one’s self is a state of one’s self.Teleology: the view that the universe is characterized by design or purpose. SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHYRealism: the view either that (1) universals are independently real (vs. nominalism,conceptualism), or (2) objects of knowledge exist independently of the mind (vs. idealism), or (3) reality is not greatly different from appearance (vs. phenomenalism).Nominalism: the view that only particulars are real; universals are only a name given to an observable similarity.Conceptualism: the view that universals are neither independently existing, nor mere names, but rather concepts abstracted from the particulars by the mind.Idealism: the view that fundamental reality is mind-dependent or mental in nature (thus non-spatial and non-sensuous). Subjective idealism holds that to be is to be perceived. Objective idealism maintains that there is no categorical distinction between the knower and what he knows—that both are part of absolute thought.Pragmatism: the view that the meaning of a statement is its practical consequences in experience, and that truth is satisfactory problem-solving (success).Logical Positivism: the view that all meaningful sentences are verifiable scientifically or logically (scientism).Linguistic Analysis: the view that conceptual confusions should be resolved by clarifying our use of words and getting back to ordinary usage.Process Philosophy: the view that all reality is united into one interdependent, evolving whole. Existentialism: the view that “existence precedes essence,” so that man is radically free to choose what he will be.。
What Use Is Philosophy译文
What Use Is Philosophy?哲学有何用处？By J.B.S. HaldaneJ.B.S. 霍尔丹G. Alexandrov and four colleagues have just been awarded a Stalin prize of 200,000 roubles for a three-volume book on the history of philosophy. Most of the other prizes went to scientists. Many people will be inclined to say, “Why rank with scientists men who have merely described the opinions, mostly false, held by a number of people in the past? No doubt this has some interest, like a history of fairy tales or astrology, but it isn’t much use, particularly at the present grim moment.”亚力克山德洛夫与四位同事因出版了三卷本哲学史著作一起获得了二十万卢布的斯大林奖。
其它的大多数奖都授予了科学家。
许多人都会认为“那些只是描述了过去的某些人认定的一些观点的人们，其中大都存在着谬误，为什么却与科学家们相提并论？这无疑有某种趣味，像神话故事或占星术的历史一样，但它没有什么用处，特别在当下这种严峻的时刻。
”There are a great many reasons for studying what philosophers have said in the past. One is that we cannot separate the history of philosophy from that of science. Philosophy is largely discussion about matters on which few people are quite certain, and those few hold opposite opinions. As knowledge increases, philosophy buds off the sciences.有太多的理由去研究哲学家们在过去预言过什么。
1. What is philosophy汇总
Fundamental questions cannot be answered/resolved by appealing to empirical facts (i.e., “truths” about the world that can be confirmed, verified, or falsified by observation).
The American Heritage?D ictionary of the English Language, Third Edition copyright ? 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Doing philosophy (1st requirement)
(A History of Western Philosophy, p. xiii)
What is philosophy?
Have you ever heard the term ‘philosophy’?
What does ‘philosophy’ mean?
Connotation
“world view”
History of philosophy
study of the emergence, examination, and evolution of philosophical ideas as found in the writings of philosophers
• How does Plato's theory of the self differ from Descartes’? • How prominent was dualism prior to the 20th century? • Why did Hume deny the existence of the self as only a bundle
关于哲学的论文格式（2）
关于哲学的论文格式(2)哲学的论文范文篇二俞吾金哲学博士、中国哲学界首位长江特聘教授。
现为国务院哲学学科评议组成员、教育部社会科学委员、中华现代外国哲学学会副理事长、复旦大学学术委员会副主任暨人文学术委员会主任、复旦大学现代哲学研究所所长。
长期从事哲学基础理论、外国哲学和国外马克思主义的教学和研究。
已经出版《问题域的转换》、《从康德到马克思》、《重新理解马克思》等个人学术著作二十多种。
迄今在教学和科研上已获得十一项省部级以上(含省部级)一等奖。
哲学何谓?用通常的话说就是：什么是哲学?用英语来表达，就是Whatjs p…osophy?哲学研究者之所以要不断追问这个问题，主要有以下三点理由：第一，哲学自身的不确定性。
与一切实证科学比较，哲学缺乏一个共同认可的确定的研究领域。
正是这种不确定性促使哲学家们不断反躬自问哲学何谓?以便在变化着的时代背景下对哲学做出新的理解和阐释。
其二，正是通过对哲学何谓的解答，解答者选择了一种确定的哲学观，从而自觉地从这种哲学观出发去探索具体的哲学问题。
如果一个研究者只注重对具体哲学问题的思考，却缺乏总体上的哲学观，他的思想就会始终处于碎片化的状态中，这样的研究者充其量只能成为哲学匠，却无缘升格为哲学家，更不可能成为原创性的哲学家。
其三，只有当研究者不断追问哲学何谓时，才能在哲学研究中始终保持新鲜的，即永不衰竭的、怀疑的、批判的精神。
在哲学研究中经常遭遇到的情景是：当某人站在哲学殿堂之外时，总是充满好奇心地追问：哲学何谓?而一旦成了哲学系的学生，他就再也没有兴趣去追问这个问题了，仿佛他研究哲学必须以忘记哲学为代价。
其实，这种不追问的状态正是哲学思维衰退乃至死亡的一个标志。
哲学概念的来源哲学不啻是对智慧的热爱，而且它本身就是智慧。
智慧始终是充满生命力的、灵活的理念。
这种理念的基础和核心的意识是对具体问题进行具体分析，而正是这种意识确保智慧永远不变质，也永远不僵化。
英语中的Philosophy，在希腊语中是在拉丁语中是philosophia。
Introduction to Philosophy 为什么要学哲学
A piece of history
Whas the subject matter of philosophy? What is its aim?
Philosophy is the most controversial discipline of intellectual activity
The central doctrines that are advocated in Plato’s writings:
• The world that appears to our senses is defective and filled with error; but there is a more real and perfect realm of “forms” or “ideas”, “notions” - eternal, changeless, paradigmatic for the structure and character of our world. The most important of ideas are: goodness, beauty, equality, bigness, likeness, unity, being, sameness, difference, change, and changelessness.
The allegory of the cave
• Plato uses as an illustration of the way from opinion to knowledge the famous allegory of the cave. We are to imagine a group of prisoners chained in a cave with their backs to its entrance, facing shadows of puppets thrown by a fire against the cave’s inner wall. Education in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmony is to release the prisoners from their chains, and to lead them, past the puppets and the fire in the shadow-world of becoming, into the open sunlight of the world of being. The whole course of this education, the conversion from the shadows, is designed for the best part of the soul – i.e. for reason; and the chains from which the pupil must be released are the desires and pleasures of appetite
哲学是什么？What is philosophy？
What is Philosophy?Walter Sinnott-ArmstrongWell, what do you think philosophy is? Most people can't answer this question. It's too abstract. It's also controversial. Philosophers themselves can't agree on any answer. Sure, the name "philosophy" derives from the Greek for "love of wisdom", but what's that? There has been a long and glorious history of people called philosophers, but they talk about all kinds of topics in all kinds of ways. It is not clear what, if anything, they have in common that makes them all philosophers.Still, though many philosophers would dispute what I say, I will give you one model of philosophy. For me, philosophy is defined by a goal and a method.Philosophy's goal is nothing less than a systematic world view. Other fields study particular kinds of things. Philosophy asks how it all fits together. For example, if you want to learn about bodies, take a course in physics or biology. If you want to learn about minds, take a course in psychology. But if you want to learn about how minds are related to bodies, or how physics is related to psychology, then philosophy (of mind) is for you. Similarly, economics, political science, and art and music courses study different values (welfare, justice, and beauty). Then moral philosophers ask how these values are similar or different, when one may be traded off against another, and where any of these values fit into the physical world. Again, historians try to discover knowledge of the past and astronomers try to discover knowledge of stars and planets, but only philosophers ask what makes any of these beliefs knowledge, and how (or whether) we can have any knowledge at all. Such philosophical questions are very abstract, but that is what enables them to cover so many different fields at once.This goal also means that you can study anything under the name of philosophy. Philosophy encompasses subfields called philosophy of religion, of law, of economics, of biology, of physics, of mathematics, of computers, of psychology, of art, of music, of literature, and so on. Any and all of these topicscan be studied in a philosophical way when one asks how they are related to each other in an overall world view.When such disparate topics are raised, conflicts and paradoxes are bound to arise. One famous example is the paradox of freedom: Science, including psychology, leads us to believe that (1) Every act is determined by a prior cause. Law and common practices of blaming and punishing wrongdoers then lead us to believe that (2) Some acts are free. But the very definition of "free" suggests that (3) Nothing that is determined is free. Unfortunately, (1)-(3) cannot all be true, so any world view that includes all three of these claims is incoherent.Paradoxes like this are both loved and hated by philosophers. Philosophers love them for their stimulation but hate them for their incoherence, so philosophers try hard to get rid of paradoxes. One prevalent way to resolve paradoxes is conceptual analysis. In response to the paradox of freedom, for example, some philosophers try to analyze freedom in a way that makes it compatible with determinism and thereby undermines (3). Other philosophers give accounts of blame and punishment that do not presuppose freedom, so they can reject (2). Still others analyze determinism and causation in ways that cast doubt on (1). One of these claims has to go. Conceptual analysis tries to help us decide which claim to give up.The method of conceptual analysis might sometimes seem picky, but unclarity or imprecision in our concepts is often what leads us into paradoxes and incoherence in our world views. That is why the philosophical goal of a coherent overall world view makes philosophers adopt the method of conceptual analysis.Philosophers use other methods as well. Many philosophers employ empirical discoveries in psychology, biology, and physics to illuminate traditional philosophical issues. (Can our moral beliefs be understood as a product of evolution?) Others use formal developments in logic and mathematics. (Does the incompleteness of arithmetic, proven by G?del, show that computers cannot think in the way humans do?) Still others turn to literature and first-person narratives to express their ideas. (Is the position of oppressed groups best understood by listening to their own stories?) Since it ispuzzling how the abstract world of numbers or the lived world of personal experience is related to the physical world of subatomic particles, the variety of methods used by philosophers reflects the issues that must be faced in formulating a coherent overall world view.One feature is shared by almost all methods used by philosophers: Philosophers question authorities. Whereas legislators or judges have the authority to declare what the law is, and specific texts determine what is required by some religions, philosophers do not grant any special authority to anyone or anything. Every claim, no matter where it comes from, is subject to scrutiny. Even common sense is not taken for granted, which leads philosophers to put forward some very weird views.In place of authorities, philosophers try to justify their views with arguments. Indeed, philosophers love arguments. One of the earliest examples of philosophy was an argument by Zeno, which runs like this: "The slow runner [a tortoise] will never be overtaken by the swiftest [Achilles], for it is necessary that the pursuer should first reach the point from which the pursued started, so that necessarily, the slower is always somewhat in advance." If you think about it for a while, Zeno's argument should be clear. What is not clear is how to respond. One popular reaction is, "That's silly. Of course, Achilles can overtake a tortoise. It happens all the time." Philosophers retort, "Everybody assumes that Achilles can overtake the tortoise, and it does appear that swift runners overtake slow runners, but how do you know what is really going on? And what is wrong with Zeno's argument to the contrary? You cannot reject the argument just because you don't like the conclusion." In such debates, philosophers try to uncover our basic assumptions, evaluate our reasons (if any) for these assumptions, and speculate on what our world view would be like if we gave up those assumptions. This process can be liberating and fascinating, even when (or maybe because) it leads to results that seem hard to believe.In seeking this goal through these methods, philosophers address a wide variety of problems, which can be classified into three main areas: Metaphysics or the theory of existence addresses the questions of whether God exists, whether we have free will, how our minds are related toour bodies, what reality is, and so on. Epistemology or the theory of knowledge asks whether and how we can know or be justified in believing anything; and it also investigates particular areas or sources of (supposed) knowledge, such as perception, memory, and science. Ethics or moral philosophy studies which acts are morally right or wrong and which people or character traits are morally good or bad; then other values, such as beauty, are studied in other areas of value theory, such as aesthetics. Some of the most exciting philosophical issues (such as those raised by existentialists, phenomenologists, feminists, and philosophers of language) do not fit neatly under any of these traditional categories.True philosophers will not rest until they combine theories about all of these various topics into a single coherent system of thought that is justified without appeal to authority. Because this ideal is so demanding, the process of doing philosophy can be frustrating, but it is also something that can fill and fulfill one's entire life.。
专题三 哲学是什么
唯物主义
认为物质是世界 的本原， 的本原，坚持物质第 一性； 一性；精神是物质的 产物或表现。 产物或表现。
唯心主义
认为精神是世界 的本原， 的本原，坚持精神第 一性； 一性；物质是精神的 产物或表现。 产物或表现。
内容二： 内容二：思维和存在有无同一性，即人们的思 维能否认识现实世界的问题。
唯物主义
辩证唯物主义历史唯物主义
马克思、恩格 马克思、 斯把唯物论和辩证 法有机结合起来， 法有机结合起来， 创立了辩证唯物主 义；把辩证唯物主 义运用于考察人类 社会发展， 社会发展，创立了
马克思
恩格斯
历史唯物主义。 历史唯物主义。
（二）唯心主义的两种基本形式 主 义 。 就 是 唯 心 哲 学 观 点 ， 第 一 性 的 坚 持 意 识 界 的 本 原 ， 意 识 是 世 凡 是 认 为
二、概念界定
哲学是关于世界观的学问。 哲学是关于世界观的学问。
哲学是理论化系统化的世界观； 哲学是关于自然、 哲学是关于自然、社会和思维知识 的概括和总结； 的概括和总结； 哲学是世界观和方法论的统一。 哲学是世界观和方法论的统一。
概 念 哲学是系统化理论化的世界观 一
世界观？ 世界观？
世界观是人 们对整个世界 总的根本的看 法和观点。 法和观点。
人生观
人们对人生目的和意义的根 本看法和态度，它是一定世界观 在人生问题上的表现。
价值观
价值观是指一个人对周围的客观 事物（包括人、事、物）的意义、重 要性的总评价和总看法。
哲学与世界观
理 论 化
世界观
哲学
世界观
哲 学系Βιβλιοθήκη 统 化概 念 二 哲学是对具体科学的总结概括
哲学与具体科学是普遍与特殊的关系 二者既有区别， 二者既有区别， 又有联系。 又有联系。
教育哲学(Philosophy
教育哲學（Philosophy of Education）的涵義教育哲學是應用哲學思考，對教育的語言和基本概念加以澄清，或對教育的現象、問題或預設作通全而深入的探索、反省、描述及檢證；最後形成教育理論，如教育的基本原理、教育的本質、教育的規範和理想等。
教育哲學主要分為四種取向：首先是「教育原理」（principles of education）的取向。
傳統認為哲學家的角色是「愛智者」（the lover of wisdom），因此，這種模式的擁護者，經常將所謂的教育哲學呈現為關於教育的智慧，即教育原理。
教育哲學家的任務在於闡明價值是什麼，而不是探討價值判斷的意義與辯解（meaning and justification）的哲學問題。
所以他們主要是藉由思辨來建立規範性的教育原理。
雖然哲學家可以辨別形成某一原理的經驗事實與道德判斷，但哲學家卻不能權威地宣稱這類的原理。
因為原理是語言的混合體，包括概括的複雜經驗和價值，其中經驗部分不是哲學家所能以權威決定的。
更應注意提供證據和論證，以澄清、修正和改進這類的原理。
其次是教育理念史（history of educational ideas）的取向。
這種模式是將教育哲學視為各大教育思想家理論的介紹，也就是傳授歷史上偉大教育家所討論與主張的理念，嘗試將他們的著作應用到當代的教育問題上，以找出適當的答案。
但是，嚴格地說，這類作品只是教育的普通理論，其中充斥著道德化（moralizing）、經驗的類化以及哲學思辨等素材。
像盧梭的《愛彌兒》（Emile）是教育理念史的經典，卻難以說是哲學分析或論證的優秀作品。
而且，由於這些理念係由著作本文中抽繹出來，並直接應用，學習者必須要有思維形式的訓練，以對些思想家在倫理學或認識論上的基本假設或理念做必要的討論或批判。
第三種教育哲學取向是「哲學與教育」。
這種取向一方面試著說明傳統裡純哲學的問題如形上學、心靈論、人性論、認識論等學說與教育的關聯；另一方面，從不同的哲學立場如實在論者、觀念論者、實用主義者及存在主義者來檢查其理論在教育上的含義。
哲学是什么英语作文
哲学是什么英语作文Philosophy is a vast and multifaceted field of study that has captivated thinkers and scholars for centuries. At its core, philosophy is the pursuit of knowledge, wisdom, and understanding of the fundamental questions that underlie our existence. From the nature of reality to the meaning of life, philosophy delves into the most profound and complex issues that confront the human experience.One of the primary aims of philosophy is to engage in critical thinking and rational inquiry. Philosophers seek to examine and challenge the assumptions and beliefs that shape our worldviews, often questioning the status quo and exploring alternative perspectives. Through rigorous analysis, discussion, and debate, they strive to uncover deeper truths and gain a more comprehensive understanding of the world around us.Philosophy encompasses a wide range of disciplines, each with its own unique focus and approach. Metaphysics, for instance, explores the nature of reality, examining the fundamental constituents of the universe and the nature of existence itself. Epistemology, on the other hand, investigates the nature of knowledge, how we acquire and justify our beliefs, and the limits of human understanding.Ethics, a crucial branch of philosophy, delves into the realm of morality, examining the principles and values that guide human behavior and the dilemmas we face in making moral decisions. Political philosophy explores the nature of government, the role of the state, and the relationship between the individual and society. Aesthetics, meanwhile, grapples with the nature of art, beauty, and the human experience of the aesthetic realm.One of the hallmarks of philosophy is its emphasis on critical thinking and the willingness to question and challenge established ideas. Philosophers are often driven by a deep sense of curiosity and a desire to understand the world in all its complexity. They engage in rigorous debate, considering multiple perspectives and weighing the merits of various arguments before arriving at their own conclusions.The study of philosophy is not merely an academic exercise; it has profound implications for our everyday lives. By encouraging us to think deeply about the nature of our existence, the human condition, and the ethical dilemmas we face, philosophy can help us develop a greater understanding of ourselves and our place in the world. It can also inspire us to become more engaged and responsible citizens, as we grapple with the complex social, political, and environmental issues that confront our society.Moreover, the skills developed through the study of philosophy, such as critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and effective communication, are highly valued in a wide range of professional and personal contexts. Philosophers often find themselves well-equipped to navigate the challenges of the modern world, drawing upon their ability to think creatively, consider multiple perspectives, and articulate their ideas with clarity and persuasion.In conclusion, philosophy is a rich and multifaceted field of study that invites us to explore the fundamental questions of human existence. Whether we are seeking to understand the nature of reality, the basis of morality, or the meaning of life, philosophy provides a framework for engaging in critical inquiry and expanding our horizons. By embracing the spirit of philosophical inquiry, we can cultivate a deeper appreciation for the complexities of the world and our place within it, ultimately enriching our lives and our understanding of the human experience.。
English for Philosophy课程教学大纲
Engl ish for Phi Iosophy 课程教学大纲(2017-2018 Second Semester)Course Code:111015Course Credit: 32/2Course DescriptionThe course is designed to help Chinese students master basic English skills in philosophy, including reading, translating and discussing. For this purpose, the class will be mainly carried out through students' contributions (reading, translating and discussing an article) with the instructor' s guidance and comments. Starting from the second week, we are going to deal with one philosophy article in each class, and all students are required to read the article beforehand and to participate in translating and discussing it in class. Most of the articles concern Western philosophy, but we will also include three articles about Chinese philosophy.Method of EvaluationAttendance and Participation(30%)■Final Exam(70%)Note:1.Attendance is determined according to each student' s in-person signaturein every class. Participation is determined according to each student * s contributions to in-class translating and discussing.2.The Final Exam will require you to translate some paragraphs from English into Chinese. The exam is closed-book, but you will be allowedto bring with you English-Chinese dictionaries (Electronic dictionary is OK, but no cell phones please).Weekly ScheduleIntroduction1.What is Philosophy-and What, s It For?2.Aristotle* s EthicsAn introduction to Aristotle' s Ethics3.Sapere AudeAnja Steinbauer introduces the life and ideas of Immanuel Kant, the merry sage of Konigsberg, who died 200 years ago.4.SchopenhauerA brief look into Schopenhauer, s philosophy.5.Nietzsche, Our ContemporaryEric Walther introduces the infamous iconoclast.6.Locke's Political PhilosophyAn introduction to some basic concepts of Locke, s political philosophy. 7.Why Buridan，s Ass doesn，t Starve?Does free will exist? Michael Hauskeller reasons about reasons.bor Day [no class]9.An Argument About Free WillLuke Pollard and Rebecca Massey-Chase dialogue about freedom vs determinism.10.Morality is a Culturally Conditioned ResponseJesse Prinz argues that the source of our moral incl inations is merely cultural.11.WittgensteinAn introduction to the early and later WittgensteinWhat is Phenomenology?12.The Early and Later HeideggerConfucian Philosophy13.Taoist PhilosophyYi Jing。
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What is Philosophy?●Etymological def.: …philo‟ (love) + …sophia‟ (wisdom)= …The Love of wisdom.‟●Wisdom. What is it?●Both the power of judging rightly, and the knowledge gained by such judgment.Unlimited in subject matter.●Stands outside of all other disciplines in order to assess them freely of their owninternal presuppositions.●Observes how each discipline interrelates to each other and why it is what it is anddoes what it does.●Wisdom, what is it? (continued)●It is also self-reflectively critical.●In order to study philosophy, you must philosophize, and whenever you sincerelystudy it, you are thereby philosophizing.●To …philosophize‟ is to engage in philosophical argument (reason s or evidenceleading to a conclusion).●Philosophy is the …Mother of all sciences.‟●Primary subdivision into …physics‟ and …metaphysics‟●…Physics‟ becomes …natural philosophy,‟ which becomes the …hard sciences‟ ingeneral form.●Philosophical study of the non-physical becomes what most people mean by theterm today.●The …Mother of all sciences‟ (continued).●The movement of …natural philosophy‟ into …science‟: Methods for explaining thephenomena.●Deductive rational hypotheses (reasoning from the general to the specific, orfrom premises to a logically valid conclusion).●Inductive reasoning from the data of empirical observation (reasoning fromparticular facts to a general conclusion).●The application of mathematical principles.●…Academics‟ in general also descended from philosophy. Plato‟s Academy.●Subdivisions of Philosophy●Ethics: “How should we live?”●What constitutes good and bad behavior?●What is justice?●What are our obligations to others, ourselves and to God?●Ethical positions are a given, and no one can live without them. Philosophysubjects them to rational scrutiny and assesses which is best.●Meta-Ethics: “What kind of people we are determines how we should live.”●Meta-Ethics provides the metaphysical foundations which under gird thevarious ethical theories.●Subdivisions of Philosophy (cont.)●Metaphysics: What is truly real, and what things there are in the world, if not theuniverse and all of reality.●Do we have genuine freedom of choice?●Is the world really as it appears to us?●What is the mind and what is its relation to the body?●Does God exist?●Epistemology: How do we know? What is knowledge?●Subdivisions of Philosophy (cont.)●Philosophy of Religion: Assessing the claims of religion and theology(sometimes known as …philosophical theology‟).●If God is all-knowing, all powerful, and entirely good, then why does He allowevil into the world?●How can we understand the Christian conception of God as three persons in oneessence?●Philosophy of Science: Assessing the claims and procedures of science.●Is the uniformity principle valid? (Hume)●Is replication a necessary component of science?●Subdivisions of Philosophy (cont.)●Logic: Analyzing and assessing the language of arguments. Distinguishing goodreasoning from bad.●How well do the premises support the conclusions?●Find arguments where we might otherwise simply see a set of loosely-relatedstatements.●Discover assumptions we did not know we were making.●Formulate the minimum claims we must establish if we are to prove (orinductively support) our point.●Subdivisions of Philosophy (cont.)●Philosophy of Language●What is the correlation between the words we use and their meaning?●What is the nature of language?●Is all language learned, or is some innate?●Aesthetics (Philosophy of Art)●What constitutes beauty in works of art, and how is that standard to bemeasured?●How is a work of fine art to be distinguished from a mere artifact? What is art?What is good art?●How are the arts related to one another, to natural beauty, and to morality,religion and science?●Methodological Foundations: First Principles, Basic Beliefs and Assumptions, and Conditional Statements.●The most enduring and meaningful questions are based upon information that is notable to be observed or proved.●The …origins debate.‟●Arguments for and against the existence of God.●Many of these are theological …crossovers,‟ also known as …articles of faith.‟●In philosophy, these are known as …first principles.‟●Methodological Foundations: First Principles, Basic Beliefs and Assumptions, and Conditional Statements. (Cont.)●First Principles.●A philosophical correlate to …articles of faith‟ in theology, though obtained viareason, not revelation, and not regarded as dogma.●Not empirically observable and provable in the way that the systems ofscientific replication can provide proofs, but depend on fundamental beliefswhich, although un-provable themselves, are the foundation upon which furtherpremises in an argument are based.●Goal of reaching a conclusion that someone who accepts the first principle willalso accept.●Methodological Foundations: First Principles, Basic Beliefs and Assumptions, and Conditional Statements. (Cont.)●First principles as a methodological limiting factor.●Because of the fact that no question whatsoever is outside of the scope ofphilosophical inquiry, well-chosen first principles enable philosophers to limitthe scope of their questions lest they be required to provide an explanation forevery aspect of the entire universe every time they examine one facet of it.●Methodological Foundations: Conditional Statements.●Although philosophers are always ready and willing to examine questions fromevery sphere of life, they are almost always formulated as conditional statements, and their conclusions are also always conditional.●A conditional question or statement is formulated in an “if-then” sentence.●“If God is an omniscient, omnipotent and omnibenevolent Being, then how canHe allow evil in the world?”●Methodological Foundations: Conditional Statements.●A conditional answer to the following question.●“If free will amounts to a greater good proportionately to the amount of evil thatresults from the free exercise of people making evil choices, then such a God asdescribed before is justified in allowing evil to exist for the sake of that freewill” (Augustine‟s …Free will defense‟ updated by Plantinga).●Because first principles differ among different schools, these schools can existalongside one another as long as they are internally coherent.。