ProducerAndConsumerProblemMemo
新编剑桥商务英语初级第三版答案
新编剑桥商务英语初级第三版答案【篇一:新编剑桥商务英语(初级)学生用书_答案_module_1.1-5.3】ing and workshopsp6what does your job involve? p7the present simplep8module 1.2personal and professional details meetingpeoplep10job and work p12module 1.3bec preliminary exam p14p15 reading test【篇二:新编剑桥商务英语(初级)(第三版) 词汇整理浓缩版】txt>(第三版)1.1 world of work 工作领域business n. 工商企业;商行;商业 technique n. 技巧,技能cross-cultural adj. 跨文化的 presentation n. 口头报告,陈述,叙述public speaking 演说,演讲 consultant n. 顾问 consultancy n. 咨询公司 run vt. 开办(课程/ 讲习班) one-to -one 一对一的accredited adj. 公认的motivational adj. 激发积极性的, client n. 客户entertaining adj. 有趣的,使人愉快的,professional adj. 专业的,职业的 involve vt. 包含、需要、使成为必要部分responsibility n. 责任,所负责的事情 be responsible for sb./ sth. 对某人/某事负责title n. 头衔,职称 sample n. 样品试用产品 account n. 账目,账户correspondence n.(来往的)信件 badge n.徽章identify vt. 发现,确定 workshop n. 研讨会,讲习班 catering service 餐饮服务md managing director 的缩写,总经理,执行董事gadget n. 小巧的器械,小玩意儿 interior adj. 车内产品,内部装饰memo n. 备忘录,便条,便笺 electrical appliances 电器,(家用)电器ship vt. 运送power point 电子版幻灯片 bonus n. 奖金 catalogue n. 产品目录positive adj. 积极乐观的 presence n. 仪态,风度,风采 diary n.记事簿athens n. 雅典(希腊首都) do you like your job? do you oftentravel abroad ? how are you? …not too bad, thanks. i work fora company that… i work as…what does your job involve ? my job involves doing… what do you do ? i deal withwho is your md? i am based i n ….1.2 personal and professional details个人和职业详细情况 division n. 分理处,部门 profile n. 传略;人物简介;概况 questionnaire n. 问卷,调查表 interview n. 采访;面试 musical instrument 乐器 destination n. 目的地follow-up questions 后续问题,补充问题 swap vt. 交换electronics n. 电子学;电子器件 varied adj. 多变化的,各不相同的 confectionary adj. 糖果的,有关甜食制造的allocate vt. 分配,分派 candidate n. 候选人criterion n. 标准,准则 pl.(复数)criteriainc. adj. incorporated 的缩写,股份有限的supervise vt. 主管,监管,管理 coordinate vt. 使协调 scuba diving 水肺潜水 marathon n. 马拉松赛跑 finance assistant 财务助理 audit vt. 审计master’s degree 硕士学位 judo n.柔道chronic fatigue syndrome 慢性疲劳综合症ambitious adj. 雄心勃勃的 journalism n. 新闻学,新闻业1 / 4breed vt. 饲养 terrier n. 小猎狗 chewing gum 口香糖 gallery n.画廊,美术馆 format n. 形式,格式sars--severe acute respiratory syndrome 严重急性呼吸道综合征,俗称非典型肺炎,简称非典 efficiency n. 效率 profit n. 利润 mentor n. 良师益友make contribution to 为……做贡献 personal problem 个人(私人)问题 set an example to 树立榜样 be based in 在……总部raise money 募捐master’s degree in business administration: mba工商硕士chronic fatigue syndrome 慢性疲劳综合症be in charge of 负责 best-selling 畅销think of a new idea 想出新点子2.1 work in progress 工程进展be in progress 在进行中,在运行中project n. 项目,工程 garden vi. vt.种植或修整花园,从事园艺工作update vt.更新 construction n. 建筑,建筑物 apart from 除了……之外 minor adj.较小的,次要的 proceed vi. 进行,继续下去 panorama n. 全景,全景画 management team 管理团队 take shape 成形ahead of schedule 提前于预订计划 financial report 财务报告temp n. 临时雇员help out 帮助(某人)解决困难 give a presentation of 对……做陈述 launch vt. 开始,开办,推出;发射 photocopy vt. n. 影印,复印 branch n. 分部,分店,分公司 projector manager 项目经理subcontractor n. 转包商 period of transition 过渡期 permanentjob 永久性工作 temporary employment agency 临时就业中介机构 try out 测试,试用 take maternity leave 休产假 option n. 选择,可选择的办法 career field 职业领域 existing skills 现有的技能supervisor n. 主管,监督人 temorary job 临时工作 ask for a payrise 要求涨工资meet one’s target 完成指标,完成定额sack vt. 解雇administration work 行政管理工作 brazil 巴西lisbon 里斯本(葡萄牙首都)belem 贝伦(巴西东北部港口城市)fortaleza 福塔雷萨(巴西东北部港口城市)valencia 巴伦西亚(西班牙港口城市)montpellier 蒙彼利埃(法国南部城市)2.2 making arrangements 日程安排make arrangements 做安排,做准备 plant n. 工厂,车间 vt. 种植take time off 抽出时间,休假,休息 finance director 财务经理confirm vt. 确认,确定 reception n. 接待,接待处 trade fair 交易会,展销会 present vt. 介绍,引见;出席 potential client 潜在客户 quality inspector 质检人员 job applicant 求职者 festival n. 节日self-employed adj. 个体的,自己经营的accept an invitation 接受邀请 special reception 特别招待会anniversary n. 周年纪念日 venue n. 会场,会议地点 attendancen. 出席,出席人数prague 布拉格(捷克斯洛伐克首都) morpeth 莫派斯(位于英国诺森伯兰郡)helsinki 赫尔辛基(芬兰首都) buenos aires 布宜诺斯艾利斯(阿根廷首都)toronto 多伦多(加拿大主要城市) sydney 悉尼(澳大利亚东南部港口城市,新南威尔士州首府)3.1 company biography 公司简介biography n. 形成、成长和衰亡的记载;传记fast food restaurant 快餐店 transform vt. 转换、改变、改造global business 跨国企业original adj. 最初的,原始的,起源的franchise n. vt. 特许经销权,给……以特许feature n. vt. 是……的特色,以……为特色 french fries 炸薯条softdrink n. 软饮料;汽水 milkshake n. 奶昔 purchase vt. 买,购买multimixer n. 多用混合器(机) exclusive distributor 独家批发商(代理商)open vi. vt. 开设,开办,开张 expand vi. vt. 扩大,扩张corporation n. 公司 cosmetic n. 化妆品inspire vt. 激发,启示,使生灵感 philosophy n. 哲学revolutionary adj. 革命的 raw material 原材料 supplier n. 供应者,厂商 ethical adj. 伦理的;道德的 travel agency 旅行社contract n. vt. 订合同,合同、契约 take delivery of 收货,提取货物 merge vi. vt. 合并 fleet 舰队budget airline 低价航空公司 go public 上市,公开发售股票business partner 生意伙伴,商业伙伴2 / 4entrepreneurial adj. 企业家的 freelancer n. 自由职业者;自由撰稿人kuwait city 科威特城(科威特首都) san bernardino 圣贝纳迪诺(美国加利福尼亚州东南部的一个县) illinois 伊利诺斯州(美国中北部州)3.2 company performance 公司业绩performance n. 业绩,成绩;性能 distribute vt. 配送,分发,分送 record profit 历史最高利润 vegetarian n. 素食者,素食的organic adj. 使用有机肥料的 ingredient n. 配料,成分 nutritious adj. 有营养的improve one’s image 改善形象 banquet n. 宴会manufacturer n. 制造业者,厂商 guarantee vt. n. 保证,担保,担保人symbol n. 象征,符号,记号 innovative adj. 创新的,革新的sport utility vehicle 运动型多用途车 component n. 成分 optical instrument 光学仪器 validation n. (可靠性)检测 certify vt. 证明,保证 application n. 应用,运用assurance n. 保证,担保,确信,断言founder n. 创始人,奠基人 turnover n. 营业额 dramatically adv. 戏剧地 advertise vt. 做广告,登广告 annual report 年终报告,年终终结 share price 股票价格proactive adj. 积极的,主动的 dedicated adj. 专注的,献身的unique adj. 唯一的,独特的 access n. 接近(进入)的机会,接近(进入)的权利;入口 consolidate vt. 巩固 brochure n. 小册子in this respect 在这个方面,在这个细节maximum n. 最大量,最大限度,极大4.1 international business 国际商务import n. vi. vt. 进口 export n. vi. vt. 出口 competitor n. 竞争对手 wholesaler n. 批发商 warehouse n. 仓库 audio product 音响产品 ban n. vt. 禁令fashion industry crisis 服装行业危机 commissioner n. 委员spokeswoman n. 女发言人 huge losses 巨大损失 resign n. vi. vt. 辞职 garment n. 服装(成衣) clothing blockade 服装封锁 in favour of 支持、赞成disastrous adj. 损失惨重的,灾难的import control 进口控制import quotas 进口配额compromise n. 妥协,折中,让步 stock exchange 证券交易所appeal to sb. 对……有吸引力 available adj. 有空的,能得到的dossier n. 档案,卷宗 flat adj. 没电的,平面的 embarrassing adj. 令人尴尬的 in-house magazine 内部杂志 participant n. 参加者stressful adj. 有压力的,紧迫的 moderator n. 会议主持人 press the mute button 按下静音键 reflect on 有损声誉,招来非议teleconference n. 远程电话会议 producer n. 生产商 wholesaler n. 批发商customer n. 顾客 retailer n. 零售商warehouse n. 仓库 consumer n. 消费者competitor n. 竞争对手 customs n. 海关port n. 港口clothing n. 服装4.2 business communications 商务沟通printer cartridges 打印墨盒 description n. 种类;性质;描述pass the message on to 把留言给…… complaint n. 投诉 cancel vt. 取消plasma screen tv 等离子电视 freight forwarder 货运商distributor n. 发行人,销售商 container n. 集装箱production manager 生产经理,厂长 madrid 马德里(西班牙首都)5.1 career choices 职业选择stock broker 股票经纪人london stock exchange 伦敦证券交易所bank account 银行帐户 bankrupt adj. 破产的 a modest life 简朴的生活 accommodation n. 住处,膳宿 get started 开始source of income 收入来源 olive n. 橄榄 farm products 农产品 business contact 生意场的熟人/关系 deal in 经营 make enquiries 询问 record shop 音像店 human resource 人力资源 hr manager 人力资源经理 photography exhibition 摄影展accountancy job 会计工作 passion n. 热情,激情 competitive adj 竞争的 give up sth. all together 完全放弃……professional photographer 职业摄影师portrait n. 肖像,人像studio n. 照相馆,画室,摄影室,演播室3 / 4birmingham 伯明翰(英格兰中部城市)luxembourg 卢森堡(西欧国家) resign from the job 辞职farmhouse n. 农舍bed and breakfast accommodation 只提供床铺与早餐的住宿reorganise vt. 重新组织,重新安排 source of income 收入来源as though 仿佛,好像 the best of luck 好运5.2 achievements and plans 业绩和计划design office 设计室 book cover 书的封面printer n. 印刷商,印刷工;打印机 quotation n. 报价 in full colour 用彩色 in black and white 用黑白 a full progress report详细的进展报告refer to 参考,查阅,查看 book fair 书展,书市 a series of 一系列italian 意大利人,意大利语;意大利的coincidence n. 巧合,巧事 move n. 行动,步骤;措施;方法; vi. 移动consolidate one’s strong position 巩固某人的强势地位 removal company 搬运公司 stationery n. 文具,信纸 keep sb. up-to-date使某人信息灵通 utility n. 公用事业,公用事业设备 bank loan 银行贷款 paperwork 日常文书工作 loan application 贷款申请 additive n. 添加剂4 / 4take on 雇佣meet demand 满足需求 health club 健身俱乐部6.2 travel arrangements 旅行安排ticket, crew, security/ safety inspectionbe in business 做生意 poland 波兰(中欧国家) hungary 匈牙利(中欧国家) spain 西班牙(欧洲南部国家) portugal 葡萄牙(欧洲西南部国家) slovakia 斯洛伐克(中欧国家) bratislava 布拉迪斯拉发(捷克斯洛伐克中南部城市)5.3 reading test: parts one to threeposter n. 海报,招贴 office equipment 办公设备prefabricated hut 预制营房,活动房 pharmaceutical company制药公司 previous adj. 以前的,在先的 disastrous fall 损失惨重的一跌 reach the highest level 达到最高水平 rise/ increase/improve /ascend/ go up/ move up/ mount up 上升 soar 飙升fall/ drop/ decrease/ decline/ descend/ go down下降stay stable/ steady/ the same 保持平稳level off 持平 recover 反弹peak up 达到顶峰,最高点 dramatically 喜剧地,引人注目地considerably 相当大地 obviously 明显地 gradually 渐渐地sharply 急剧地,明显地 slightly 轻微地 a little bit 一点儿6.1 business travel 商务旅行 aircraft, check-in, delay, journey,land, luggage, passenger, passport, pilot, take off, travel, trip,air traffic controller, baggage handler,check-in baggage, carry-on bag, boarding pass, board, business/ economy/ first class,flight attendant/ stewardship/air-hostess/ stewardess, identitycard, return/ singlemanchester 曼彻斯特(英格兰西北部港口城市)glasgow 格拉斯哥(英国城市) bristol 布里斯托尔(英国西部的港口)london heathrow airport 伦敦希思罗机场paris charles de gaulle airport 巴黎戴高乐机场lyon 里昂(法国城市)【篇三:新编剑桥商务英语(中级)学生用书答案】ading (5)1,open your mind 2 plan for disaster 3 get organized 4 setyour limits 5 put pen to paper 6 don’t feel guilty 7 two become onep9 grammar (5)1 need2 communicate3 have escaped4 have been working 5have been 6 am working 7 answer p9 (speaking)writing 第六题work in pairs.中有可能选择其中一个话题进行作文。
关于生产者消费者问题
形象启发分层解剖——PV操作教学引导实践【摘要】PV操作及利用PV原语实现进程间的同步互斥是计算机操作系统中一个非常重要的学习内容。
本文详细介绍了形象启发,分层解剖的教学方法在教学中的应用,希望以此引出更优的教学方法。
【关键词】PV操作、形象启发、分层解剖、生产消费者问题、多媒体课件PV操作及同步互斥的实现是操作系统这门课中最抽象,也是学生难以理解的知识内容之一,其中生产消费者问题又是PV操作中最为经典的案例,学生要深刻理解这个知识点并不容易。
为了取得较好的教学效果,帮助学生深刻理解这个知识点,本人制作了多媒体课件《PV操作及实现同步互斥》,把抽象的内容具体化,由浅到深,化解难点,通过形象启发,分层解剖的科学教学方法,提高了学生学习积极性,在教学实践中取得非常显著的效果。
一、明确定义要理解生产消费者问题,首先应弄清PV操作的含义:PV操作是由P操作原语和V操作原语组成(原语是不可中断的过程),对信号量进行操作,具体定义如下:P(S):①将信号量S的值减1,即S=S-1;②如果S≥0,则该进程继续执行;否则该进程置为等待状态,排入等待队列。
V(S):①将信号量S的值加1,即S=S+1;②如果S>0,则该进程继续执行;否则释放队列中第一个等待信号量的进程。
这只是书本的定义,对于这部分内容,老师先不要急于解释上面的程序流程,而是应该让学生首先知道P操作与V操作到底有什么作用。
P操作相当于申请资源,而V操作相当于释放资源。
所以要学生记住以下几个关键字:P操作-----→申请资源V操作----→释放资源二、形象启发为此举两个生活中的例子:例一:在公共电话厅打电话公共电话厅里有多个电话,如某人要打电话,首先要进行申请,看是否有电话空闲,若有,则可以使用电话,如果电话亭里所有电话都有人正在使用,那后来的人只有排队等候。
当某人用完电话后,则有空电话腾出,正在排队的第一个人就可以使用电话。
这就相当于PV操作:某人要打电话,首先要进行申请,相当于执行一次P操作,申请一个可用资源(电话);某人用完电话,则有空电话腾出,相当于执行一次V操作,释放一个可用资源(电话)。
消费者生产者与生产效率英文版课件
Consumer Producer in Manufacturing
Consumer producers in the manufacturing industry refer to individuals who play both consumer and producer roles in the manufacturing industry. They are responsible for designing, manufacturing, and selling products, as well as purchasing and using production equipment and raw materials.
• The benefits of agricultural consumer producers: By playing both consumer and producer roles simultaneously, agricultural consumer producers can obtain more benefits. They can earn income by selling agricultural products, while also enjoying a sense of self satisfaction and achievement.
Consumer Producer and Welfare
Improving consumer welfare
The consumer producer theory encourages consumer participation in the production process, which helps to increase consumer satisfaction and trust in products or services.
消费者抱怨英语作文
消费者抱怨英语作文Consumer Complaints。
Nowadays, consumer complaints have become increasingly common in our daily lives. People often encounter various problems when purchasing goods or services, leading to dissatisfaction and frustration. In this essay, we will explore the reasons behind consumer complaints and discuss possible solutions to address this issue.One of the main reasons for consumer complaints is the poor quality of products. Many consumers find that the products they purchase do not meet their expectations in terms of durability, performance, or safety. For example, electronic devices may break down shortly after purchase, clothing may shrink or fade after a few washes, and food products may be expired or contaminated. As a result, consumers feel cheated and demand refunds or replacements.Another common reason for consumer complaints is thelack of transparency and honesty in advertising and marketing. Companies often use misleading or exaggerated claims to promote their products, leading consumers to have unrealistic expectations. For example, a skincare product may promise to eliminate wrinkles and blemishes overnight,a weight-loss supplement may claim to help people lose 10 pounds in a week, and a cleaning product may advertiseitself as "100% natural" when it contains harmful chemicals. When consumers realize that these claims are false, theyfeel deceived and demand compensation.Furthermore, poor customer service is also a majorcause of consumer complaints. Many consumers have had negative experiences with rude, unresponsive, orincompetent customer service representatives. They may have difficulty reaching a live person, have to wait on hold for hours, or receive unhelpful responses to their inquiries or complaints. In some cases, companies may even ignore or dismiss consumer complaints altogether, leaving consumers feeling frustrated and powerless.To address the issue of consumer complaints, companiesneed to prioritize quality control and customer satisfaction. They should invest in research and development to improve the quality and safety of their products, conduct thorough testing and inspections before releasing products to the market, and provide clear and accurate information to consumers. Companies should also be transparent and honest in their advertising and marketing, avoid making false or exaggerated claims, and ensure that their products live up to consumers' expectations.In addition, companies need to improve their customer service processes and train their employees to provide excellent customer service. They should make it easy for consumers to contact them, respond promptly to inquiries and complaints, and resolve issues in a timely and satisfactory manner. Companies should also listen to consumer feedback, take complaints seriously, and use them as opportunities to improve their products and services.In conclusion, consumer complaints are a common and pervasive issue that affects consumers and companies alike. By addressing the root causes of consumer complaints andimplementing effective solutions, companies can build trust and loyalty with their customers, improve their reputation, and ultimately achieve long-term success in the marketplace. It is essential for companies to prioritize quality, transparency, and customer service to ensure that consumers have positive and satisfying experiences with theirproducts and services.。
考研英语作文消费者考虑的因素
考研英语作文消费者考虑的因素In the dynamic world of consumerism, the decision-making process is often complex and multifaceted. Especially in the context of higher education, where the stakes are high and the choices numerous, consumers—in this case, prospective graduate students—must carefully consider a range of factors before committing to a particular program. This essay explores the key considerations that influence consumers' decisions, focusing on the unique challenges and opportunities presented by the postgraduate education market.Firstly, consumers must assess the quality of the education they are seeking. This entails considering the reputation and accreditations of the institution, as well as the qualifications and experience of the faculty. Prospective students may also look at program rankings, alumni outcomes, and the availability of resources such as libraries, research facilities, and career services. The overall academic environment and the extent to which it aligns with the student's academic and career goals are crucial factors.Secondly, financial considerations play a pivotal role in consumers' decisions. Tuition fees, living expenses, and the availability of scholarships or loans are key factors that impact a student's ability to pursue their desired education. Consumers must also consider the long-term investment of a postgraduate degree and its potential to enhance their earning potential and career opportunities. Moreover, the location of the institution is another significant factor. Consumers may prefer institutions located in specific cities or regions based on factors such as proximity to home, cultural fit, or the availability of professional networks. The urban or rural setting, as well as the climate and living conditions, can significantly influence a student's experience and well-being.Additionally, program specifics are crucial. Consumers need to consider the length of the program, the course offerings, and the flexibility of the schedule. For instance, some programs offer part-time options or accelerated tracks, which may suit the needs of working professionals or those with specific timeline constraints.The program's alignment with personal interests and career aspirations is also essential.Lastly, consumers must evaluate the support systems available at the institution. This includes the quality of advising, mentoring, and peer support. The availability of mentors and professional networks can be particularly beneficial for students seeking to transition into new fields or industries. The institution's commitment to student success and well-being is also a key factor.In conclusion, the consumer considerations in the marketplace are diverse and interconnected. Prospective graduate students must carefully balance factors such as academic quality, financial viability, location, program specifics, and support systems to make informed decisions about their education. By doing so, they can ensure that their investment in postgraduate education will yield the desired outcomes and lay the foundation for successful careers.**消费者在市场中的考量:一个多元化的视角**在消费者主义这个充满活力的世界中,决策过程通常复杂且多元化。
生产者—消费者问题
第一章、概述1.1 课题背景在多道程序环境下,进程同步问题十分重要,也是一个相当有趣的问题,因而吸引了不少学者对它进行研究,并由此而产生了一系列经典的进程同步问题。
其中比较有代表性的有“生产者—消费者问题” 、“读者—写者问题” 、“哲学家进餐问题”等等。
通过对这些问题的研究和学习,可以帮助我们更好地理解进程同步概念及实现方法。
1.2生产者—消费者问题生产者—消费者问题(Producer_consumer)是一个经典的进程同步问题。
它描述的是:有一群生产者进程在生产产品,并将此产品提供给消费者进程去消费。
为使生产者进程和消费者进程能并发执行,在它们之间设置有个缓冲区的缓冲池,生产者进程可将它所生产的产品放入一个缓冲区中,消费者进程可从一个缓冲区取得一个产品消费。
尽管所有的生产者进程和消费者进程都是以异步的方式运行的,但它们之间必须保持同步,即不允许消费者进程到一个空缓冲区去取产品,也不允许生产者进程向一个已装有消息尚未被取走产品的缓冲区投放产品。
如下图所示:1.3进程同步机制在中引入进程后,虽然提高了资源的利用率和系统的吞吐量,但由于进程的异步性,也会给系统造成混乱,尤其是在它们争用临界资源的时候。
例如,当多个进程去争用一台打印机时,有可能使多个进程的输出结果交织在一起,难于区分;而当多个进程去争用共享变量,表格,链表时,有可能使数据处理出错。
进程同步的主要任务就是使并发执行的诸进程之间能有效地共享资源和相互合作,从而使程序的执行具有可再现性。
1.4进程同步优点进程同步其优点在于能够让操作系统更加有效地对资源进行管理和调度,最大潜力地发挥处理机的性能。
让系统的执行更加畅通无阻,尽可能地让系统少出现一些由于系统资源分配不合理所带来的死锁、死机之类的事情的发生。
保持了处理机的高速运行之后从用户角度来说程序运行所花费的时间就会更短。
从而保证了处理机在相同的时间内有更大的吞吐量。
而把并发进程的同步和互斥问题一般化,就可以得到一个抽象的一般模型,即本次课程设计的任务:生产者—消费者问题。
曼昆经济学原理-第七章-消费者、生产者与市场效率
经济福利与社会总剩余
消费者剩余 =
买者的评 _
价
买者支付的量
and 生产者剩余 = 卖者得到的量
_ 卖者的
成本
Economic Well-Being and Total Surplus
外部性
Externalities 是指当市场结果不仅影响 参与市场的买者与卖者,还影响了那 些根本不参与市场的人。
外部性使市场福利不仅仅取决于买者的评价 和卖者的成本。
由于买者与卖者在决定消费量与生产量时并 没有考虑外在性的影响,所以,从整个社会 的角度来看,市场均衡可能是无效率的。
Summary
2
3
4
Quantity of
Houses Painted
价格如何影响生产者剩余...
Price
原来生产者 增加的生产 者剩余
P2 D
E
P1 B
Initial
C
Producer
surplus
Supply
F
新生产者的 生产者剩余
A
0
Q1
Q2
Quantity
市场效率
消费者剩余与生产者剩余是分析市场中 买者与卖者福利的基本工具,它们可以
买者与卖者从参与市场中得益。 市场上的供求均衡可以使买者和卖者得到的总 利益最大化。
Welfare Economics
市场均衡导致收益最大化,它使产 品的生产者与消费者的总福利最大 化。
Welfare Economics
消费者剩余从买者的角度测度了经济 福利。 生产者剩余从生产者的角度测度了经 济福利。
消费者生产者与市场效率
福利经济学 Welfare Economics
市场均衡导致收益最大化,因此导致消费 者和生产者的总体福利的最大化。
Equilibrium in the market results in maximum benefits, and therefore maximum total welfare for both the consumers and the producers of the product.
80-70=10 美元的消费者剩余。 • 市场的总消费者剩余为30+10=40 美元。
消费者剩余
Consumer Surplus
消费者剩余与一种物品的需求曲线密切相关。 Consumer surplus is closely related to the
demand curve for a product. 市场需求曲线画出了在不同的价格下,买者愿 意和能够购买的数量。
Price = $70
$100
80 70
约翰的消费者剩余($30) 保罗的消费者剩余($10)
50 总消费者剩余 ($40)
Demand
0 1234
Quantity of Albums
用需求曲线衡量消费者剩余 Measuring Consumer Surplus with
the Demand Curve
价格
买者
需求量
>$100
无
0
$80 - $100
约翰
1
$70 - $80
约翰、保罗
2
$50 - $70
约翰、保罗、乔治
3
<$50
约翰、保罗、乔治
4
和林格
Chapter6复习
Chapter 6Consumer Markets and Consumer Buyer BehaviorMultiple Choice1.What is the name of the company that is the top-in fast food.?a.Kentucky Fried Chickenb.Wendy’sc.Burger Kingd.McDonald’s(d; Easy)2.McDonald’s had attracted Hong Kong customers who were ______.a.old peopleb.young peoplec.middle-aged peopled.retired people(b; Moderate)3.What is McDonald’s well publicized formula?a.ABCDb.QCSVc.PDCAd.ASQC(b; Easy)4.McDonald’s in Asia is an intereting example of segmentation by _____.a.time of dayb.age groupc.personalityd.income(a; Challenging)5._____ is never simple, yet understanding it is the essential task of marketingmanagement.a.Brand personalityb.Consumption pioneerc.Early adopterd.Consumer buyer behavior(d; Challenging)6.Most large companies research _____ buying decisions to find out what they buy,where they buy, how and how much they buy, when they buy, and why they buy.a.marketb.permanentc.consumerd.social(c; Easy)7.How do consumers respond to various marketing efforts the company might use?The starting point is the _____ of a buyer’s behavior.a.beliefb.subculturec.postpurchase feelingd.stimulus-response(d; Challenging)8.Marketing stimuli consist of the four Ps. Which is not one of these Ps?a.productb.politicalc.priced.promotion(b; Moderate)9.Which is not a part of the buyer’s black box?a.observable buyer responsesb.product choicec.need recognitiond.dealer choice(c; Challenging)10.The marketer wants to understand how the stimuli are changed into responses insidethe consumer’s _____, which has two parts. First, the buyer’s characteristicsinfluence how he or she perceives and reacts to the stimuli. Second, the buyer’sdecision process itself affects the buyer’s behavior.a.cultureb.black boxc.beliefd.lifestyle(b; Moderate)11.The marketer needs to understand the role played by all of the following except_____.a.the buyer’s cultureb.the buyer’s subculturec.the weatherd.the buyer’s social class(c; Easy)12._____ is the most basic cause of a person’s wants and behavior.a.Cultureb.Brand personalityc.Cognitive dissonanced.New product(a; Moderate)13.With the recent economic recovery from the _______crisis in 1998, Asia iscommonly regarded as the most attractive consumer market in the world.a.environmentalb.technologicalc.politicald.fincancial(d; Challenging)14.Understanding _______ is an essesntial task of marketing management.a.Individual behaviorb.buying behaviorc.group behaviord.market behavior(b; Challenging)15.Each culture contains smaller _____, or groups of people with shared value systemsbased on common life experiences and situations.a.alternative evaluationsb.cognitive dissonancesc.subculturesd.motives(c; Moderate)16.Three important Asian subcultures mentioned by the author include all except_____.a.Chineseb.Malaysc.Indiansd.Hispanics(d; Challenging)17.Western regions Chinese tend to follow the _______trend when making purchases.a.currentb.pastc.futured.important(a; Challenging)18.The majority of Beijing consumers will buy a watch to replace the broken one,They shop for the ______of the watch.a.rarityb.collectibilityc.styled.functionality(d; Moderate)19.This group are the social elite. Who are they?a.Upper uppers.b.Lower uppers.c.Upper middles.d.Middle class.(a; Moderate)20._____ are society’s relatively permanent and ordered divisions whose membersshare similar values, interests, and behaviors.a.Social classesb.Purchase decisionsc.Perceptionsd.Attitudes(a; Easy)21.What is one way that a social class is not measured?a.occupationcationc.incomed.number of children in the family(d; Easy)22._____ are ones to which the individual wishes to belong, as when a teenagebasketball player hopes to play someday for the Los Angeles Lakers.a.Membership groupsb.Aspirational groupsc.Reference groupsd.Leisure groups(b; Easy)23._____ are people within a reference group who, because of special skills,knowledge, personality, or other characteristics, exert influence on others.a.Opinion leadersb.Habitual buyersc.Charismatic personalitiesd.Perceptionists(a; Easy)24._____ marketers are now taking to the streets, as well as cafes, nightclubs, and theInternet, in record numbers. Their goal: to seek out the trendsetters in eachcommunity and subtly push then into talking up a specific brand to their friends and admirers.a.Familyb.Buzzc.Personalityd.Opinion(b; Easy)25.The _____ is the most important consumer buying organization in society.Marketers are interested in the roles and influence of the husband, wife, andchildren on the purchase of different products and services.a.familyb.social classc.opinion leaderrmation search(a; Easy)26. A _____ consists of the activities people are expected to perform according to thepersons around them.a.motiveb.rolec.lifestyled.perception(b; Easy)27.People often buy the kind of clothing that shows their _____ in society.a.attitudeb.statusc.learningd.motive(b; Easy)28. A buyer’s decisions also are influenced by _____ such as the buyer’s age and life-cycle stage, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle, and personality and self-concept.a.personal characteristicsb.learningc.habitual buying behaviord.variety-seeking buying behavior(a; Moderate)29.People change the goods and services they buy over time because of two importantfactors. These are _____.a.belief and attitudeb.perception and personalityc.age and life-cycle stage.d.groups and learning(c; Moderate)30.Sony recently overhauled its marketing approach in order to target products andservices to consumers based on their life stages. It created a new unit called theConsumer Segment Division, which has seven life-stage segments. Which of the following is not one of these segments?a.gen Yb. D.I.N.K.sc.opinion leadersd.zoomers(c; Easy)31.In Asia, credit card companies are known to develop different card types that targetdifferent _____.a.personalitiesb.professionalsc.culturesd.motivations(b; Easy)32._____ is a person’s pattern of living as expressed in his or her psychographics.a.Personalityb.Culturec.Lifestyled.Motive(c; Challenging)33.All of the following make up a person’s lifestyle except _____.a.AIO dimensionsb.interestsc.dissonance-reducing buying behaviord.opinions(c; Moderate)34.Several research firms have developed lifestyle classifications. The most widelyused is the _____.a.VALSb.AIOc.CIAd.B2B(a; Challenging)35._____ are people with so many resources that they can indulge in any or allconsumer self-orientation.a.Habitual buyersb.Actualizersc.Brand personalitiesd.Subcultures(b; Moderate)36._____ refers to the unique psychological characteristics that lead to relativelyconsistent and lasting responses to one’s own environment. It is usually described in traits such as self-confidence, dominance, sociability, autonomy, defensiveness, adaptability, and aggressiveness.a.Alternative evaluationb.Beliefc.Cultured.Personality(d; Moderate)37.Researchers found that a number of well-known brands tended to be stronglyassociated with one particular trait, such as Levi’s with “ruggedness.” What is the name of the term that means a specific mix of human traits that may attribute to a particular brand?rmation searchb.social classc.brand personalityd.new product(c; Easy)38.Many marketers use a concept related to personality—a person’s self-concept. Thebasic self-concept premise is that people’s possessions contribute to and reflect their identities; that is, “we are what we have.” This leads consumers to _____.a.buy books to support their self-imagese brand personalitiesc.begin habitual buying behaviord.begin variety-seeking buying behavior(a; Challenging)39. A person’s buying choices are further influenced by four major psychologicalfactors. Which is not one of these factors?a.motivationb.perceptionc.habitual buying behaviord.learning(c; Moderate)40. A _____ is a need that is sufficiently pressing to direct the person to seeksatisfaction.a.lifestyleb.motivec.cultured.personality(b; Easy)41.The term _____ refers to qualitative research designed to probe consumers’ hidden,subconscious motivations.a.social classb.opinion leaderc.motivation researchd.need recognition(c; Easy)42.Maslow’s theory is that human needs are arranged in a _____ from the mostpressing at the bottom to the least pressing at the top.a.social classb.culturec.perceptiond.hierarchy(d; Easy)43.Maslow has a list of human needs from the most pressing to the least pressing. Theyinclude all of the following except _____.a.physiological needsb.safety needsc.need recognitiond.self-actualization(c; Moderate)44._____ is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret information toform a meaningful picture of the world.a.Personalityb.Perceptionc.Selective groupd.Habitual behavior(b; Moderate)45.People can form different perceptions of the same stimulus because of threeperceptual processes. All of the following name these processes except _____.a.selective attentionb.selective distortionc.selective attituded.selective retention(c; Challenging)46._____ is the tendency for people to screen out most of the information to which theyare exposed.a.Selective distortionb.Selective attitudec.Selective retentiond.Selective attention(d; Moderate)47._____describes the tendency of people to interpret information in a way that willsupport what they already believe.a.Selective distortionb.Selective attitudec.Selective retentiond.Selective attention(a; Challenging)48.People will forget much that they learn. They tend to retain information thatsupports their attitudes and beliefs. This is called _____.a.selective retentionb.selective distortionc.selective attituded.selective attention(a; Challenging)49._____ advertising is when consumers are affected by marketing messages withouteven knowing it.a.Alternative evaluationb.Subliminalplexd.Motive(b; Easy)50._____ describes changes in an individual’s behavior arising from experience.a.Lifestyleb.Learningc.Perceptiond.Cognitive dissonance(b; Easy)51.Learning occurs through the interplay of all of the following except _____.a.drivesb.stimulic.cuesd.dissonance behavior(d; Challenging)52._____ are minor stimuli that determine where, when, and how a person responds topurchasing an item.a.Cuesb.Drivesc.Messagesd.Personalities(a; Challenging)53.If the experience is rewarding, she will probably use the camera more and more.Her response to cameras will be _____.a. a learning experienceb. a beliefc.reinforcedd. a dissonance experience(c; Easy)54.The practical significance of _____ for marketers is that they can build up demandfor a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivating cues, andproviding positive reinforcement.a.alternative evaluationb.social classesc.learning theoryd.subcultures(c; Challenging)55. A _____ is a descriptive thought that a person has about something.a.lifestyleb.motivec.beliefd.habitual behavior(c; Easy)56._____ describes a person’s relatively consistent evaluations, feelings, andtendencies toward an object or idea.a.Lifestyleb.Motivec.Habitual behaviord.Attitude(d; Moderate)57. A person’s attitudes fit into a pattern, and to change one attitude may requiredifficult adjustments in many others. Thus, a company should _____ try to fit its products into existing attitudes rather than attempt to change attitudes.uallyb.notc.once in a whiled.seldom(a; Easy)58.Consumers undertake _____ when they are highly involved in a purchase andperceive significant differences among brands.a.postpurchase behaviorplex buying behaviorc.opinion leadersd.dissonance(b; Challenging)59._____ occurs when consumers are highly involved with an expensive, infrequent, orrisky purchase but see little difference among brands.a.Brand personalityb.Dissonance-reducing buying behaviorplex buying behaviord.Consumer market(b; Challenging)60.After a purchase, consumers might experience _____ when they notice certaindisadvantages of the purchased carpet brand and hear favorable things about brands not purchased.a.postpurchase cultureb.perceptionc.postpurchase dissonanced.purchase decision(c; Moderate)61._____ occurs under conditions of low consumer involvement and little significantbrand difference. Consumers have little involvement in this product category – they simply go to the store and reach for a brand.a.Alternative evaluationb.Habitual buying behaviorc.Brand personalityd.Opinion leader(b; Moderate)62.All of the following are part of habitual buying behavior except which one?a.Consumers search extensively for information about the brands.b.Consumer behavior does not pass through the usual belief – attitude – behaviorsequence.c.Ad repetition creates brand familiarity rather than brand conviction.d.The buying process involves brand beliefs formed by passive learning.(a; Challenging)63.With habitual buying behavior, buyers are not highly committed to any brands;marketers of low-involvement products with few brand differences often use _____ and _____ promotions to stimulate product trial.a.belief; attitudeb.learning; attitudec.price; salesd.culture; learning(c; Challenging)64.Consumers undertake _____ in situations characterized by low consumerinvolvement but significant perceived brand differences. In such cases, consumers often do a lot of brand switching.a.dissonance buying behaviorplex buying behaviorc.need recognition behaviord.variety-seeking buying behavior(d; Challenging)65.Which of the following does not encourage habitual buying behavior?a.dominating shelf spaceb.running frequent reminder advertisingc.keeping shelves fully stockedd.putting out new products(d; Easy)66.What is one thing that challenger firms do not do to encourage habitual buyers to trytheir products?a.They offer lower prices.b.They advertise special deals.c.They put their products high on the shelf to be above all the others.d.They give out coupons and free samples.(c; Easy)67.The buyer decision process consists of five stages. Which of the following is notone of these stages?a.need recognitionrmation searchc.variety-seeking buying behaviord.purchase decision(c; Challenging)68.The buying process starts with _____— the buyer recognizes a problem or need.a.need recognitionrmation searchc.evaluation of alternativesd.purchase decision(a; Easy)69.If the consumer’s drive is strong and a satisfying product is near at hand, theconsumer is likely to buy it then. If not, the consumer may store the need inmemory or undertake a(n) _____.a.brand personalityb.alternative evaluationc.postpurchase behaviorrmation search(d; Challenging)70.The consumer can obtain information from any of several sources. Which is notone of these sources?a.personalmercialc.attituded.public(c; Moderate)71.The most effective source that consumers obtain information from is _____ becauseit legitimizes or evaluates products for the buyer.mercialb.publicc.experimentald.personal(d; Challenging)72.What is the only promotion method that is of consumers, by consumers, and forconsumers?a.public sourcesb.word-of-mouth sourcesmercial sourcesd.subculture sources(b; Moderate)73.The marketer needs to know about _____— that is, how the consumer processesinformation to arrive at brand choices.a.alternative evaluationb.opinion leadersc.lifestyled.habitual buying behavior(a; Moderate)74.Consumers arrive at attitudes toward different brands through some evaluationprocedures. Which describes how this happens?a.Consumers use careful calculations and logical thinking.b.Consumers sometimes do little or no evaluating; instead they buy on impulseand rely on intuition.c.Sometimes consumers turn to friends for advice.d.All of the above apply.(d; Easy)75.Generally, the consumer’s purchase decision will be to buy the most preferredbrand, but two factors can come between the purchase intention and the purchase decision. What is one of these factors?a.postpurchase behaviorb.attitude of othersc.cognitive dissonanced.habitual buying behavior(b; Challenging)76.The marketer’s job does not end when the product is bought. After purchasing theproduct, the consumer will be satisfied or dissatisfied and will engage in _____.a.habitual buying behaviorb.alternative evaluationc.postpurchase behaviord.variety-seeking buying behavior(c; Easy)77.What determines whether the buyer is satisfied or dissatisfied with a purchase? Theanswer lies in the relationship between the consumer’s expectations and theproduct’s _____.a.perceived performanceb.brand personalityc.recognitiond.consumer market(a; Easy)78.Almost all major purchases result in _____, or discomfort caused by postpurchaseconflict.a.opinion leadersb.cognitive dissonancec.purchase decisionsplex buying behavior(b; Moderate)79._____ is a key to building lasting relationships with consumers.a.Personalityb.Alternative evaluationc.Need recognitiond.Customer satisfaction(d; Moderate)panies should set up systems that _____ customers to complain.a.discourageb.encouragec.do not allowd.none of the above(b; Easy)81. A new product is a good, service, or idea that is perceived by some potentialcustomers as new. Our interest is in how consumers learn about products for the first time and make decisions to buy them. This is called the _____.a.new product recognitionb.adoption processc.variety-seeking buying behaviorrmation search(b; Moderate)82.Which is not one of the stages that customers go through in the process of adoptinga new product?a.awarenessb.interestc.evaluationd.culture(d; Easy)83.Relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, divisibility, and communicability arecharacteristics of _____.a.alternative evaluationb.dissonance-reducing buying behaviorc.influence of product on rate of adoptiond.habitual buying behavior(c; Challenging)True – False84.Mcdonald’s has not performed better than its global competitors like KentuckyFried Chicken, Burger King and Wendy’s.(False; Easy;)85.Mcdonald’s in Asia is an interesting example of segmentation by time of day. (True; Moderate)86.Children and young people are the only segments the McDonald’s serve in Asia. (False; Easy)87.Consumer buying behavior refers to the buying behavior of businesses.(False; Easy)88.The central question for marketers is: How do consumers respond to variousmarketing efforts the company might use? The starting point is called the stimulus-response of buyer behavior.(True; Moderate)89. A dissonance-reducing buying behavior is designed to probe consumers’ hidden,subconscious motivations.(False; Challenging)90.Each culture contains smaller cognitive dissonance, or groups of people with sharedvalue systems based on common life experiences and situations.(False; Moderate)91.Consumers’ behavior is also influenced by the demographic segment.(True; Easy)92.Younger consumers are better off financially than mature consumers. They are theideal market for exotic travel, restaurants, high-tech home entertainment products, and leisure goods and services.(False; Easy)93.Social classes are society’s relatively permanent and ordered divisions whosemembers share similar values, interests, and behaviors.(True; Easy)94.Social classes are now taking to the streets, as well as cafes, nightclubs, and theInternet, in record numbers. Their goal: to seek out the trendsetters in eachcommunity and subtly push them into talking up a specific brand to their friends and admirers.(False; Moderate)95.Lifestyle is a person’s pattern of living as expressed in his or her psychographics. (True; Easy)96. A belief is the specific mix of human traits that may be attributed to a particularbrand.(False; Moderate)97. A person’s buying choices are further influenced by four major psychologicalfactors: motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes.(True; Easy)98. A motive occurs when consumers are highly involved with an expensive,infrequent, or risky purchase but see little difference among brands.(False; Easy)99.Maslow’s theory is that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. They includephysiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. An unsatisfied need motivates one to take action to satisfy it.(True; Moderate)100.Alternative evaluation is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret information to form a meaningful picture of the world.(False; Challenging)101.Consumers undertake complex buying behavior when they are highly involved in a purchase and perceive significant differences among brands.(True; Easy)102.Dissonance-reducing buying behavior occurs when consumers are highly involved with an expensive, infrequent, or risky purchase but see a lot of difference among brands.(False; Challenging)103.Alternative evaluation is how the consumer processes information to arrive at brand choices. Consumers do not use a simple and single evaluation process in all buying situations.(True; Moderate)104.The consumer’s purchase decision will be to buy the most preferred brand, but two factors can come between the purchase intention and purchase decision. The first factor is need recognition.(False; Moderate)105.After purchasing the product, the consumer will be satisfied or dissatisfied and will engage in postpurchase behavior.(True; Easy)106.Almost all major purchases result in cognitive dissonance, or discomfort caused by postpurchase conflict.(True; Easy)107.When a consumer learns about a new product for the first time and makes a decision to try it, it is called the alternative evaluation process.(False; Moderate)108.People differ greatly in their readiness to try new products. In each product area, there are “consumption pioneers.” They are also called laggards.(False; Challenging)109.Early adopters are guided by respect—they are opinion leaders in their communities and adopt new ideas early but carefully.(True; Moderate)110.The early majority are deliberate—although they rarely are leaders, they adopt new ideas before the average person.(True; Moderate)111.The late majorities are skeptical—they adopt an innovation only after their friends have tried it.(False; Challenging)112.In general, innovators tend to be relatively older, more mature, and have a lower income than late adopters.(False; Challenging)113.Five characteristics are especially important in influencing an innovation’s rate of adoption. Two of these are relative advantage and compatibility.(True; Moderate)114.Other characteristics influence the rate of adoption, such as postpurchase behavior. (False; Easy)115.Although consumers in different countries have different values, attitudes, and behaviors, the products they buy are very similar to each other.(False; Challenging)Essay116.What is McDonald’s well publicized formula?.McDonald’s well publicized formula is QCSV, that is, quality (of its food),cleanliness (of its dining environment), service (of its responsiveness and quality staff) and value (i.e. price value of its meals).(Challenging; p. 138)117.Cultural factors exert a broad and deep influence on consumer behavior. The marketer needs to understand the role played by the buyer’s culture, subculture, and social class. Describe the differences between culture, subculture, and social class.Answer: Culture is the most basic cause of a person’s wants and behavior. Eachculture contains smaller subcultures, or groups of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. Social classes are society’srelatively permanent and ordered divisions whose members share similar values,interests, and behaviors.(Challenging; pp. 139-142)118.A consumer’s behavior also is influenced by social factors, such as the consumer’s small groups, family, and social roles and status. Explain the differences between these social factors.Answer: Small groups to which a person belongs have a direct influence on what a person buys. Reference groups serve as direct (face-to-face) or indirect points of comparison or reference in forming a person’s attitudes or behavior. Anaspirational group is one to which the individual wishes to belong. Referencegroups expose a person to new behaviors and lifestyles, influence a person’sattitudes and self-concept, and create pressures to conform that may affect theperson’s product and brand choices. Opinion leaders are also included in reference groups. The family is the most important consumer buying organization in society.Marketers are interested in the roles and influence of each member. Social roles and status—Anna Flores plays the role of a daughter and a wife, and in her company she plays the role of a brand manager. A role consists of the activities people areexpected to perform according to the persons around them. Anna will buy the kind of clothes that reflect her role and status.(Moderate; pp. 143-146)119.Lifestyle segmentation can also be used to understand Internet behavior. Forester developed its “Technographics” scheme, which segments consumers according to motivation, desire, and ability to invest in technology. Name three of thesesegments, and tell what they mean.Answer: 1) Fast Forwards: the biggest spenders on computer technology. FastForwards are early adopters of new technology for home, office, and personal use.2) New Age Nurturers: also big spenders but focused on technology for home uses,such as a family PC. 3) Mouse Potatoes: consumers who are dedicated tointeractive entertainment and willing to spend for the latest in “technotainment.” (Challenging; pp. 150)120.Each person’s distinct personality influences his or her buying behavior.Personality is usually described in terms of traits. What are these traits, and how do they affect the way people purchase items?Answer: Personality is described in terms of traits such as self-confidence,dominance, sociability, autonomy, defensiveness, adaptability, and aggressiveness.Personality can be useful in analyzing behavior for certain products. For example, coffee marketers have discovered that heavy coffee drinkers tend to be high onsociability.(Easy; p. 150)121.A brand personality is the specific mix of human traits that may be attributed to a particular brand. One researcher identified five brand personality traits. Name three of these traits, and tell about them.Answer: 1) Sincerity (down-to-earth, honest, wholesome, and cheerful). 2)Excitement (daring, spirited, imaginative, and up-to-date). 3) Competence (reliable, intelligent, and successful). 4) Sophistication (upper class and charming). 5)Ruggedness (outdoorsy and tough).(Moderate; pp. 150)122.The market leader will try to encourage habitual buying behavior by dominating shelf space, keeping shelves fully stocked, and running frequent reminderadvertising. What are three things that challenger firms will do to encouragevariety-seeking behavior by consumers?Answer: 1) Offer lower prices. 2) Offer special deals. 3) Offer coupons. 4) Offer free samples. 5) Run advertising that presents reasons for trying something new. (Easy; p. 157)21。
消费者抱怨英语作文初中
消费者抱怨英语作文初中标题,Consumer Complaints A Middle School English Composition。
Consumer complaints have become increasingly prevalent in today's society. As consumers, we often encounter various problems with products or services, leading us to express our dissatisfaction through complaints. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the digital age, where information spreads rapidly, and individuals can easily voice their opinions online. In this essay, we will explore the reasons behind consumer complaints, their impacts, and potential solutions.One of the primary reasons for consumer complaints is product or service dissatisfaction. Whether it's a faulty product, poor customer service, or misleading advertising, consumers feel justified in expressing their discontent when their expectations are not met. For example, a customer who purchases a defective electronic device mayfile a complaint with the manufacturer or retailer, seeking a refund or replacement.Moreover, the rise of social media and online review platforms has empowered consumers to share theirexperiences with a broader audience. A single negative review can significantly impact a company's reputation and bottom line, making businesses more attentive to customer feedback. As a result, consumers are more inclined to voice their complaints publicly, knowing that their opinionscarry weight and can influence others' purchasing decisions.Furthermore, consumer complaints serve as a catalystfor improvement. Companies rely on feedback from customersto identify areas for enhancement and innovation. By addressing consumer concerns and implementing necessary changes, businesses can enhance their products or services, ultimately fostering greater customer satisfaction and loyalty. Therefore, rather than viewing complaints assolely negative, they should be regarded as valuableinsights that drive continuous improvement.However, despite the benefits of consumer complaints, there are also challenges associated with their proliferation. In some cases, individuals may abuse the complaint process for personal gain or to malign a business unfairly. False or exaggerated complaints not only harm the reputation of the accused company but also undermine the credibility of legitimate grievances. Therefore, it is essential to differentiate between genuine complaints and those motivated by ulterior motives.To mitigate the negative consequences of consumer complaints, both consumers and businesses must adopt responsible practices. Consumers should exercise discretion and refrain from making baseless or malicious complaints. Before lodging a complaint, individuals should ensure that they have exhausted all avenues for resolution and communicate their concerns constructively. Likewise, businesses should prioritize customer satisfaction and address complaints promptly and transparently. By fostering open communication and accountability, both parties can work towards mutually beneficial outcomes.In conclusion, consumer complaints are an integral part of the modern consumer experience. They provide a channelfor individuals to express dissatisfaction, drive improvement, and hold businesses accountable. However, itis essential to approach complaints responsibly and distinguish between genuine grievances and frivolous claims. By fostering a culture of constructive feedback and collaboration, consumers and businesses can build stronger relationships and create positive outcomes for all stakeholders.This essay has examined the prevalence of consumer complaints, their underlying causes, and the implicationsfor both consumers and businesses. By understanding the dynamics of consumer complaints and adopting responsible practices, we can foster a more equitable and efficient marketplace for all.。
消费者生产者与市场效率概述
生产者剩余减少 了 A+C
社会的损失(无 谓 损 失 ) 是 B+ C
D
Q2
Quantity
2.最低限价(Price Floor)
最低限价是指政府为了保护某些团体的利益而规 定的某些产品(或服务)的最低交易价格,
其价格往往高于市场的均衡价格。 由于最低限 价高于市场均衡水平,所以市场上的供给量经常 超过需求量,造成过剩。
梯形图
P
需求曲线看起来像一个梯形,有四 个台阶—-每一个台阶代表一个买 者。
如果像在竞争市场那样有许多买者 那就会有很多小的台阶
看起来就更像一条 光滑的曲线
Q
支付意愿与需求曲线
P
Flea的支付
意愿
Anthony的支付 意愿 Chad的支付 意愿John的 支付意 愿
在任意数量,
需求曲线的高 度代表边际买 者的支付意愿 边际买者:指 如果价格再提 高一点就首先 离开市场的买 者
如果厂商按规定的产量指标生产, 就可以获得政府的 奖励(Incentive)或补贴。
生产配额
Price
S’
PS
A
P0
D
B C
Q1
Q0
消费者剩余减少了 S A+B
政府的成本
=B+C+D
生产者剩余增加 了 A+B+D
无谓损失=B+C
D
Quantity
二、进口配额与关税
Price
P0 PW
若没有任何贸易壁垒,则本国价格 等于世界价格 PW.
Jack的成本
Q
总生产者剩余
总生产者剩=余$2等0 于价 格以下和供给曲线以
上的面积
提高消费者活力的作文
提高消费者活力的作文英文回答:How to Increase Consumer Engagement.Consumer engagement is a critical metric for businesses of all sizes. It measures how well your customers interact with your brand and can be a predictor of future success. There are a number of things you can do to increase consumer engagement, including:Create high-quality content. Your content should be informative, engaging, and relevant to your target audience. It should also be easy to find and consume.Use social media. Social media is a great way to connect with customers and promote your content. Make sureto post regularly and engage with your followers.Run contests and giveaways. Contests and giveaways area great way to generate excitement and buzz around your brand. They can also help you grow your customer base.Offer excellent customer service. Customer service is essential for building strong relationships with customers. Make sure to respond to customer inquiries promptly and resolve their issues quickly and efficiently.Personalize your interactions. Customers are more likely to engage with brands that make them feel special. Personalize your interactions with customers by sending them targeted emails, offering them exclusive discounts, and remembering their preferences.Use technology. Technology can help you automate many of the tasks associated with consumer engagement, such as sending emails, tracking customer interactions, and measuring the results of your marketing campaigns.Monitor your results. It's important to monitor your consumer engagement metrics so you can see what's working and what's not. This will help you fine-tune your strategyand improve your results over time.中文回答:如何提高消费者活跃度。
理性消费的建议关于英文作文
理性消费的建议关于英文作文英文回答:Rational consumption is a conscious approach to spending that prioritizes need over desire, emphasizes quality over quantity, and seeks to minimize environmental and social impact. It is a mindful practice that empowers individuals to make informed choices about their purchases, ensuring that they get the most value for their money while minimizing waste and harm. Here are some key principles of rational consumption:Plan ahead: Before making a purchase, take time to consider your needs and wants. Identify what you truly require and whether you can meet that need through existing resources or alternative options.Prioritize quality over quantity: Focus on purchasing durable, well-made products that will last longer and perform better. This not only saves you money in the longrun but also reduces waste and resource depletion.Consider the environmental impact: Choose productsthat are eco-friendly, sustainable, and have a minimal carbon footprint. Support businesses that prioritize environmental responsibility.Be mindful of social impact: Consider the social implications of your purchases. Choose products that are ethically sourced, produced by fair labor practices, and support local businesses.Avoid impulse purchases: Resist the urge to make unplanned or unnecessary purchases. Allow yourself time to reflect on whether you truly need an item before buying it.Utilize second-hand options: Consider buying used or refurbished items to extend the lifespan of products, reduce waste, and save money.Repair and repurpose: Instead of discarding broken items, explore options for repairing or repurposing them.This not only saves money but also promotes creativity and sustainability.Borrow or rent: For occasional needs or items youdon't use regularly, consider borrowing or renting them instead of buying new ones. This saves space, reduces clutter, and allows you to use resources more efficiently.Support sustainable businesses: Choose to patronize businesses that demonstrate a commitment to environmental and social responsibility. Your purchases can help drive positive change.By embracing rational consumption, you can lead a more sustainable, fulfilling, and financially responsible lifestyle. It is a conscious choice that requires planning, mindfulness, and a commitment to making informed decisions.中文回答:理性消费是一种有意识的消费方式,它强调需求高于欲望,注重质量高于数量,并力求最大程度降低环境和社会影响。
notes5
Chapter5Producer TheoryMarkets have two sides:consumers and producers.Up until now we have been studying the consumer side of the market.We now begin our study of the producer side of the market.The basic unit of activity on the production side of the market is thefirm.The task of the firm is take commodities and turn them into other commodities.The objective of thefirm(in the neoclassical model)is to maximize profits.That is,thefirm chooses the production plan from among all feasible plans that maximizes the profit earned on that plan.In the neoclassical (competitive)production model,thefirm is assumed to be onefirm among many others.Because of this(as in the consumer model),prices are exogenous in the neoclassical production model. Firms are unable to affect the prices of either their inputs or their outputs.Situations where the firm is able to affect the price of its output will be studied later under the headings of monopoly and oligopoly.Our study of production will be divided into three parts:First,we will consider production from a purely technological point of view,characterizing thefirm’s set of feasible production plans in terms of its production set Y.Second,we will assume that thefirm produces a single output using multiple inputs,and we will study its profit maximization and cost minimization problems using a production function to characterize its production possibilities.Finally,we will consider a special class of production models,where thefirm’s production function exhibits constant returns to scale.5.1Production SetsConsider an economy with L commodities.The task of thefirm is to change inputs into outputs. For example,if there are three commodities,and thefirm uses2units of commodity one and 3units of commodity two to produce7units of commodity three,we can write this production plan as y=(−2,−3,7),where,by convention,negative components mean that that commodity is an input and positive components mean that that commodity is an output.If the prices of the three commodities are p=(1,2,1),then afirm that chooses this production plan earns profit of π=p·y=(1,2,2)·(−2,−3,7)=6.Usually,we will let y=(y1,...,y L)stand for a single production plan,and Y⊂R L stand for the set of all feasible production plans.The shape of Y is going to be driven by the way in which different inputs can be substituted for each other in the production process.A typical production set(for the case of two commodities)is shown in MWG Figure5.B.1. The set of points below the curved line represents all feasible production plans.Notice that in this situation,either commodity1can be used to produce commodity2(y1<0,y2>0),commodity 2can be used to produce commodity1(y1>0,y2<0),nothing can be done(y1=y2=0)or both commodities can be used without producing an output,(y1<0,y2<0).Of course,the last situation is wasteful—if it has the option of doing nothing,then no profit-maximizingfirm would ever choose to use inputs and incur cost without producing any output.While this is true,it is useful for certain technical reasons to allow for this possibility.Generally speaking,it will not be profit maximizing for thefirm to be wasteful.What is meant by wasteful?Consider a point y inside Y in Figure5.B.1.If y is not on the northeast frontier of Y then it is wasteful.Why?Because if this is the case thefirm can either produce more output using the same amount of input or the same output using less input.Either way,thefirm would earn higher profit.Because of this it is useful to have a mathematical representation for the frontier of Y.The tool we have for this is called the transformation function,F(y),and we call the northeast frontier of the production set the production frontier.The transformation function is such thatF(y)=0if y is on the frontier<0if y is in the interior of Y>0if y is outside of Y.Thus the transformation function implicitly defines the frontier of Y.Thus if F(y)<0,y representssome sort of waste,although F()tells us neither the form of the waste nor the magnitude.The transformation function can be used to investigate how various inputs can be substituted for each other in the production process.For example,consider a production plan¯y such that F(¯y)=0.The slope of the transformation frontier with respect to commodities i and j is given by:∂y ij =−F j(¯y)i.The absolute value of the right-hand side of this expression,F j(¯y)F i(¯y),is known as the marginal rate of transformation of good j for good i at¯y(MRT ji).MRT ji=F j(¯y) F i(¯y)It tells how much you must increase the(net)usage of factor j if you decrease the net usage of factor i in order to remain on the transformation frontier.It is important to note that factor usage can be either positive or negative in this model.In either case,increasing factor usage means moving to the right on the number line.Thus if you are using−5units of an input,going to−4 units of that input is an increase,as far as the MRT is concerned.For example,suppose we are currently at y=(−2,7),that F(−2,7)=0,and that we are interested in MRT12,the marginal rate of transformation of good1for good2.MRT12=F1(−2,7)F2(−2,7). Now,if the net usage of good1increases,say from−2to−1,then we move out of the production set,and F(−1,7)>0.Hence F1(−2,7)>0.If we increase commodity3a small amount,say to 8,we also move out of the production set,and F(−2,8)>0.So,MRT12>0.The slope of the transformation frontier asks how much the net usage of factor2must be changed if the net usage of factor1is increased.Thus it is a negative number.This is why the slope of the transformation frontier is negative when comparing an input and an output,but the MRT is positive.5.1.1Properties of Production SetsThere are a number of properties that can be attributed to production sets.Some of these will be assumed for all production sets,and some will only apply to certain production sets.Properties of All Production SetsHere,I will list properties that we assume all production sets satisfy.1.Y is nonempty.(If Y is empty,then we have nothing to talk about).2.Y is closed.A set is closed if it contains its boundary.We need Y to be closed for technically,if a set does not contain its boundary,then if you try to maximize a function (such as profit)subject to the constraint that the production plan be in Y,it may be that there is no optimal plan—thefirm will try to be as close to the boundary as possible,but no matter how close it is,it could always be a little closer.3.No free lunch.This means that you cannot produce output without using any inputs.In other words,any feasible production plan y must have at least one negative component.Beside violating the laws of physics,if there were a“free lunch,”then thefirm could make infinite profit just by replicating the free lunch point over and over,which makes thefirm’s profit maximization problem impossible to solve.4.Free disposal.This means that thefirm can always throw away inputs if it wants.Themeaning of this is that for any point in Y,points that use less of all components are also in Y.Thus if y∈Y,any point below and to the left is also in Y(in the two dimensional model).The idea is that you can throw away as much as you want,and while you have to buy the commodities you are throwing away,you don’t have to pay anybody to dispose of it for you.So,if there are two commodities,grapes and wine,and you can make10cases of wine from1ton of grapes,then it is also feasible for you to make10cases of wine from 2tons of grapes(by just throwing one of ton of grapes away)or5cases of wine from1ton of grapes(by just throwing5cases of wine away at the end),or5cases of wine from2tons of grapes(by throwing1ton of grapes and5cases of wine away at the end).The upshot is that the production set is unbounded as you move down and to the left(in the standard diagram).Again,you should think of this as mostly a technical assumption.1Properties of Some Production SetsThe following properties may or may not hold for a particular production ually,if the production set has one of these properties,it will be easier to choose the profit-maximizing bundle.1Basically,we are going to want to look for the tangency between thefirm’s profit function and Y in solving thefirm’s profit maximization problem.If Y is bounded below,i.e.,free disposal doesn’t hold,then we mayfind a tangency below Y,which will not be profit maximizing.Thus assuming free disposal has something to do with second-order conditions.We want to make sure that the point that satisfies thefirst-order conditions is really a maximum.1.Irreversibility.Irreversibility says that the production process cannot be undone.Thatis,if y∈Y and y=0,then−y/∈Y.Actually,the laws of physics imply that all production processes are irreversible.You may be able to turn gold bars into jewelry and then jewelry back into gold bars,but in either case you use energy.So,this process is not really reversible.The reason why I call this a property of some production sets is that,even though it is true of all real technologies,we often do not need to invoke irreversibility in order to get the results we are after.And,since we don’t like to make assumptions we don’t need,in many cases it won’t be stated.On the other hand,you should beware of results that hinge on the reversibility of a technology,for the physics reasons I mentioned earlier.2.Possibility of inaction.This property says that0∈Y.That is,thefirm can choose todo nothing.Of course,if it does so,it earns zero profit.This is good because it allows us to only consider positive profit production plans in thefirm’s optimization problem.Situations where0/∈Y arise when thefirm has afixed factor of production.For example,if thefirm is obligated to pay rent on its factory,then it cannot do nothing.The cost of an unavoidable fixed factor of production is sometimes called a sunk cost.A production set with afixed factor is illustrated in MWG Figure5.B.3a.As you may remember,however,whether a cost item isfixed or not depends on the relevant time frame.Put another way,if thefirm waits long enough,its lease will expire and it will no longer have to pay its rent.Thus while inaction is not a possibility in the short run,it is a possibility in the long run,provided that the long run is sufficiently long.Global Returns to Scale PropertiesThe following properties refer to the entire production set Y.However,it is important to point out that many production sets will exhibit none of these.But,they are useful for talking about parts of production sets as well,and the idea of returns to scale in this abstract setting is a little different than the one you may be used to.So,it is worth working through them.1.Nonincreasing returns to scale.Y exhibits nonincreasing returns to scale if any feasibleproduction plan y∈Y can be scaled down:ay∈Y for a∈[0,1].What does that mean?A technology that exhibits increasing returns to scale is one that becomes more productive(on average)as the size of the output grows.Thus if you want to rule out increasing returns to scale,you want to rule out situations that require thefirm to become more productive athigher levels of production.The way to do this is to require that any feasible production plan y can be scaled down to ay,for a∈[0,1].If this holds,then the feasibility of y does not depend on the fact that it involves a large scale of production and thefirm gets more efficient at large scale.2.Nondecreasing returns to scale.Y exhibits nondecreasing returns to scale if any feasibleproduction plan y∈Y can be scaled up:ay∈Y for a≥1.Decreasing returns to scale is a situation where thefirm grows less productive at higher levels of output.Thus if we want to rule out the case of decreasing returns to scale,we must rule out the case where y is feasible,but if that same production plan were scaled larger to ay,it would no longer be feasible because thefirm is less productive at the higher scale.Thus we require that ay∈Y for a≥1.•Note that if afirm hasfixed costs,it may exhibit nondecreasing returns to scale butcannot exhibit nonincreasing returns to scale.See MWG Figure5.B.6.3.Constant returns to scale.Y exhibits constant returns to scale if it exhibits both non-increasing returns to scale and non-decreasing returns to scale at all¯y.That is,for all a≥0,if y∈Y,then ay∈Y.Constant returns to scale means that thefirm’s productivity is independent of the level of production.Thus it means that any feasible production plan can either be scaled upward or downward.•Constant returns to scale implies the possibility of inaction.4.Convexity.If Y exhibits nonincreasing returns to scale,then Y is convex.Note that the list of returns to scale properties is by no means exhaustive.In fact,most real technologies exhibit none of these.The“typical”technology that we think of is one that atfirst exhibits increasing returns to scale,and then exhibits decreasing returns to scale.This would be the case,for example,for a manufacturingfirm whose factory size isfixed.Atfirst, as output increases,its average productivity increases as it spreads the factory cost over more output.However,eventually thefirm’s output becomes larger than the factory is designed for.At this point,thefirm’s average productivity falls as the workers become crowded,machines become overworked,etc.A typical example of this type of technology is illustrated in MWG Figure5.F.2.So,while the previous definitions were global,we can also think of local versions.A technology exhibits nonincreasing returns at a point on the transformation frontier if the transformation frontier is locally concave there,and it exhibits nondecreasing returns at a point if the transformation function is locally convex there.Also note,decreasing returns to scale means that returns are nonincreasing and not constant—thus the transformation frontier is locally strictly concave.The opposite goes for increasing returns—the transformation frontier is locally strictly convex.5.1.2Profit Maximization with Production SetsAs we said earlier,thefirm’s objective is to maximize profiing the production plan approach we outlined earlier,the profit earned on production plan y is p·y.Hence thefirm’s profit maximization problem(PMP)is given by:maxyp·ys.t.y∈Y.Since Y={y|F(y)≤0},this problem can be rewritten as:maxyp·ys.t.:F(y)≤0.If F()is differentiable,this problem can be solved using standard Lagrangian techniques.The graphical solution to this problem is depicted in Figure5.1.The Lagrangian is:L=p·y−λF(y)which impliesfirst-order conditions:p i=λF i(y∗),for i=1,...,LF(y∗)≤0.As before,we can solve thefirst-order conditions for goods i and j in terms ofλand set them equal,yielding:p i F i(y)=λ=p jF j(y)F i(y∗) j∗=p ij.(5.1)Figure5.1:The Profit Maximization ProblemAlso,since we established that points strictly inside Y are wasteful,and wasteful behavior is not profit maximizing,we know that the constraint will bind.Hence F(y∗)=0.Condition5.1is a tangency condition,similar to the one we derived in the consumer’s problem. It says that at the profit maximizing production plan y∗,the marginal rate of transformation between any two commodities is equal to the ratio of their prices..Figure5.1presents the PMP.The profit isoquant is a downward sloping line with slope−p1p2 We move the profit line up and to the right until wefind the point of tangency.This is the point that satisfies the optimality condition5.1.Note that unless Y is convex,thefirst-order conditions will not be sufficient for a maximum.Generally,second-order conditions will need to be checked. This can be seen in Figure5.1,since there is a point of tangency that is not a maximum.The solution to the profit maximization problem,y(p),is called thefirm’s net supply function. The value function for the profit maximization problem,π(p)=p·y(p),is called the profit function.2One thing to worry about is whether this solution exists.When Y is strictly convex and the production frontier becomes sufficientlyflat(i.e.,thefirm experiences strongly decreasing returns) at some high level of production,it is not too hard to show that a solution exists.Problems can arise when thefirm’s production set is not convex,i.e.,its technology exhibits nondecreasing returns to scale.In this case,the production frontier is convex.3If you go through the graphical analysis we did earlier,you’ll discover that if thefirm maximizes profit,it either produces nothing at all(if the output price is small relative to the input price),or else it can 2There is a direct correspondence to consumer theory.y(p)is like x(p,w),andπ(p)is like v(p,w).3Again,remember the distinction between a convex set and a convex function.always increase profit by moving further out on its production frontier.Thus its production becomes infinite,as do its profits.This problem also arises when thefirm’s production function exhibits increasing returns to scale only over a region of its transformation frontier.It is fairly straightforward to show that thefirm’s profit maximizing point will never be on a part of the production frontier exhibiting increasing returns(formally,because the second order conditions will not hold).As a result,we will focus most of our attention on technologies that exhibit nonincreasing returns.5.1.3Properties of the Net Supply and Profit FunctionsJust like the demand functions and indirect utility functions from consumer theory,the net supply function and profit function also have many properties worth knowing.Let Y be thefirm’s production set,and suppose y(p)solves thefirm’s profit maximization problem.Letπ(p)=p·y(p)be the associated profit function.The net supply function y(p)has the following properties:1.y(p)is homogeneous of degree zero in p.The reason for this is the same as always.The optimality conditions for the PMP involve a tangency condition,and tangencies are not affected by re-scaling all prices by the same amount.2.If Y is convex,y(p)is a convex set.If Y is strictly convex,then y(p)is a singlepoint.The reason for this is the same as in the UMP.But,notice that while it made sense to think of utility as being quasiconcave,it is not always reasonable to think of Y as being convex.Recall that a convex set Y corresponds to non-increasing returns.But,many real productive processes exhibit increasing returns,at least over some range.So,the convexity assumption rules out more important cases in profit maximization than quasiconcavity did in the consumer problem.The profit functionπ(p)has the following properties:1.π(p)is homogenous of degree1in p.Again,the reason for this is the same as thereason why h(p,u)is homogenous of degree zero but e(p,u)is homogeneous of degree1.π(p)=p·y(p).π(ap)=ap·y(ap)=ap·y(p)=aπ(p).Since scaling all prices by a>0 does not change relative prices,the optimal production plan does not change.However, multiplying all prices by a multiplies profit by a as well.Thus profit is homogenous of degree 1.pFigure5.2:Convexity ofπ(p)pFigure5.3:Convexity ofπ(p)2.π(p)is convex.The reason for this is the same as the reason why e(p,u)is concave.That is,if the price of an output increases(or an input decreases)and thefirm does not change its production plan,profit will increase linearly.However,since thefirm will want to re-optimize at the new prices,it can actually do better.Profit will increase at a greater than linear rate.This is just what it means for a function to be convex.Figures5.2and5.3illustrate this for the cases where the price of an output increases and the price of aninput increases,respectively.Note the difference is that profit is increasing in the price of an output but decreasing in the price of an input.To put it another way,consider two pricevectors p and p0,and p a=ap+(1−a)p0.p a·y(p a)=ap·y(p a)+(1−a)p0·y(p a)≤ap·y(p)+(1−a)p0·y¡p0¢=aπ(p)+(1−a)π¡p0¢.This provides a formal proof of convexity that mirrors the proof that e(p,u)is concave.The next two properties relate the net supply functions and the profit function.Note the similarity to the relationship between h(p,u)and e(p,u).41.Hotelling’s Lemma:If y(¯p)is single-valued at¯p,then∂π(¯p)∂p i=y i(p).This follows directly from the envelope theorem.The Lagrangian of the PMP isL=p·y−λF(y).The envelope theorem says that∂π(¯p)i =∂Lib y=y(¯p)=y i(¯p).This is the direct analog to∂e(p,u)∂p i=h i(p,u).In other words,the increase in profit due to an increase in p i is simply equal to the net usage of commodity i.Indirect effects(the effect of rearranging the production plan in response to the price change)can be ignored.If commodity i is an output,y i(¯p)>0,and increasing p i increases profit.On the other hand, if commodity i is an input,y i(¯p)<0,and increasing p i decreases profit.2.If y()is single-valued and differentiable at¯p,then∂y i(¯p)∂p j =∂y j(¯p)∂p i.Again,theexplanation is the same as in the EMP.Because each of the derivatives in the previous equality are equal to∂2π(¯p)∂p i∂p j,Young’s theorem implies the result.3.If y()is single-valued and differentiable at¯p,the second-derivative matrix ofπ(p),with typical term∂2π(¯p)∂p i∂p j,is a symmetric,positive semi-definite matrix.4The PMP is actually more similar to the EMP than the UMP because both the PMP and EMP do not have to worry about wealth effects,which was the chief complicating factor in the UMP.In fact,rewriting the EMP as a maximization problem shows thatmaxx−p·xs.t.:u(x)≥uis directly analogous to the PMP when there are distinct inputs and outputs.That∂2π(¯p)is a symmetric,positive semi-definite(p.s.d.)matrix follows from the convexity ∂p i∂p jofπ(p)in prices.Just as in the case of n.s.d.matrices,p.s.d.matrices have nice properties aswell.One of them is that the diagonal elements are non-negative:∂y i∂p i≥0.Hence if the price of an output increases,production of that output increases,and if the price of an input increases, utilization of that input decreases(since for an input,y i<0,and hence when it increases it becomes closer to zero,meaning that its magnitude decreases.Thus it becomes“less negative,”meaning less of the input is used).This is a statement of what is commonly known as the Law of Supply. Note that there is no need for a“compensated law of supply”because there is nothing like a wealth effect in the PMP.5.1.4A Note on RecoverabilityThe profit functionπ(p)gives thefirm’s maximum profit given the prices of inputs and outputs.At first glance,one would think thatπ(p)contains less information about thefirm than its technology set Y,sinceπ(p)contains only information about optimal behavior.However,a remarkable result in the theory of thefirm is that if Y is convex,Y andπ(p)contain the exact same information. Thusπ(p)contains a complete description of the productive possibilities open to thefirm.I’ll briefly sketch the argument.First,it is easy to show thatπ(p)can be generated from Y,since the very definition ofπ(p) is that it solves the PMP.Thus solving the PMP for any p gives you the profit function.The difficult direction is to show that if you knowπ(p),you can recover the production set Y,provided that it is convex.The method,depicted in Figure5.4,is as follows:1.Choose a positive price vector p>>0,andfind the set{y|p·y≤π(p)}.This gives the setof points that earn less profit than the optimal production plan,y(p).2.Since y(p)is the optimal point in Y,we know that Y⊂{y|p·y≤π(p)},and that any pointnot in{y|p·y≤π(p)}cannot be in Y.So,eliminate all points not in{y|p·y≤π(p)}.If output is on the vertical axis and input on the horizontal axis,all points above and to the right of the price line are eliminated.3.If we repeat steps1-2for all possible positive price vectors,we can eliminate all points thatcannot be in Y for any price vector.And,if Y is convex,every point on the transformation frontier is optimal for some price vector.Thus by repeating this process we can trace outFigure5.4:Recovering the Technology Setthe entire transformation frontier,effectively recovering the set Y asY={y|p·y≤π(p)for all p>>0}whenever Y is convex.The importance of this result is thatπ(p)is analytically much easier to work with than Y. But,we should be concerned that by working withπ(p)we miss some important features of the firm’s technology.However,since Y can be recovered in this way,we know that there is no loss of generality in working with the profit function and net supply functions instead of the full production set.5.2Production with a Single OutputAn important special case of production models is where thefirm produces a single output using a number of inputs.In this case,we can make use of a production function(which you probably remember from intermediate micro).In order to distinguish between outputs and inputs,we will denote the(single)output by q and the inputs by z.5In contrast to the production-plan approach.When examined earlier,inputs will be non-negative vectors when we use this approach,z∈R L−1+there is only one output,thefirm’s production set can be characterized by a production function f(z),where f(z)gives the quantity of output produced when input vector z is employed by the firm.That is,the relationship between output q and inputs z is given by q=f(z).Thefirm’s 5For simplicity,we will assume that none of the output will be used to produce the output.For example,electricity is used to produce electricity.We could easily generalize the model to take account of this possibility.production set,Y,can be written as:Y={(−z,q)|q−f(z)≤0and z≥0}.The analog to the marginal rate of transformation in this model is the marginal rate of technical substitution.The marginal rate of technical substitution of input j for input i when output is q is given by:MRT S ji=f j(q) f i(q).MRTS ji gives the amount by which input j should be decreased in order to keep output constant following an increase in input i.Note that defined this way,the MRTS between two inputs will be positive,even though the slope of the production function isoquant is negative.5.2.1Profit Maximization with a Single OutputLet p>0be the price of thefirm’s output and w=(w1,...,w L−1)≥0be the prices of the L−1 inputs,z.6Thus w·z is the cost of using input vector z.Thefirm’s profit maximization problem can be written asmaxz≥0pq−w·zs.t:f(z)≥q.Since p>0,the constraint will always bind.Hence thefirm’s problem can be written in terms of the unconstrained maximization problem:maxz≥0pf(z)−w·z.Since this is an unconstrained problem,we don’t need to set up a Lagrangian.However,we do need to be concerned with“corner solutions”since thefirm may not use all inputs in production, especially if some are very close substitutes.The Kuhn-Tuckerfirst-order conditions are given by:pf i(z∗)−w i≤0,with equality if z∗i>0,for∀iAs you may recall,f i(z∗)is the marginal product of input z i,the amount by which output increases if you increase input z i by a small amount.pf i(z∗)is then the amount by which revenue increases if you increase z i by a small amount,which is sometimes called the marginal revenue product.Of 6We should be careful not to confuse w the input price vector with w the consumer’s wealth.This is unfortunate, but there isn’t much we can do about it.。
生产者消费者
生产者消费者
生产者消费者问题(英语:Producer-consumer problem),也称有限缓冲问题(英语:Bounded-buffer problem),是一个多线程同步问题的经典案例。
该问题描述了两个共享固定大小缓冲区的线程——即所谓的“生产者”和“消费者”——在实际运行时会发生的问题。
生产者的主要作用是生成一定量的数据放到缓冲区中,然后重复此过程。
与此同时,消费者也在缓冲区消耗这些数据。
该问题的关键就是要保证生产者不会在缓冲区满时加入数据,消费者也不会在缓冲区中空时消耗数据。
解决办法
要解决该问题,就必须让生产者在缓冲区满时休眠(要么干脆就放弃数据),等到下次消费者消耗缓冲区中的数据的时候,生产者才能被唤醒,开始往缓冲区添加数据。
同样,也可以让消费者在缓冲区空时进入休眠,等到生产者往缓冲区添加数据之后,再唤醒消费者。
通常采用进程间通信的方法解决该问题,常用的方法有信号灯法等。
如果解决方法不够完善,则容易出现死锁的情况。
出现死锁时,两个线程都会陷入休眠,等待对方唤醒自己。
该问题也能被推广到多个生产者和消费者的情形。
1。
PROSUMER产消者
1980年,美国未来学家阿尔文·托夫勒预言,生产者和消费者将融合为一体。
托夫勒的预言,诞生了“生产型消费者”(Prosumer),即producer(生产者)和consumer(消费者)的合成。
后来Prosumers 又有了“专业型消费者”(即professional和consumer的合成词)这一说法。
Prosumers并不是一个新说法。
早在1980年,美国未来学家阿尔文·托夫勒就在他的著作《第三次浪潮》中预言,生产者和消费者的界限将会逐渐模糊,二者将融合为一体。
因为激烈的市场竞争,市场将高度饱和,在利益和竞争的驱动下,企业不得不从大规模生产转向生产高度定制化的产品。
也就是说,消费者将参与到产品的设计和开发环节中来。
托夫勒的预言,诞生了“生产型消费者”(Prosumer),即producer(生产者)和consumer(消费者)的合成。
后来Prosumers 又有了“专业型消费者”(即professional和consumer的合成词)这一说法。
有关这个合成词的一切都和西方的经济发展密不可分。
从工业化初期到二战后初期,只要有产品,不用发愁卖不出去。
消费者根本不在企业的考虑之中。
正如亨利·福特的名言“不管顾客需要什么颜色的汽车,我只有一种黑色的”。
后来企业多了,自然竞争也多了,企业不得不重视销售。
于是市场营销出现了。
市场营销强调的是一切以消费者的需求出发,“消费者需要什么,企业生产什么”。
企业从其企业的战略这第一步开始,就要考虑消费者的需求,而在生产、销售、品牌建设、供应链再到售后服务,都要贯彻和反映消费者需求,甚至在企业文化和外部的种种利益相关者方面,也要反映一个企业对消费者的态度。
究其本质,市场营销观念是一种以顾客需要和欲望为导向的哲学,是消费者主权论在企业市场营销管理及企业战略及其他运营管理中的体现。
可以说,从这一阶段开始,消费者真正被开始融入到了企业的这一环。
单个生产者消费者问题
(单个生产者消费者问题)实验介绍一、实验名称Single producer consumer problem(单个生产者消费者问题)二、实验目的以单个生产者—消费者问题为例,理解进程调度算法。
三、实验内容生产者向消费者提供产品,它们共享一个有界缓冲区,生产者向其中投放产品,消费者从中取得产品。
同时,每个进程都互斥的占用CPU。
假定生产者和消费者是互相等效的,只要缓冲区未满,生产者就可以把产品送入缓冲区,类似的,只要缓冲区未空,消费者便可以从缓冲区中取走产品并消费它。
生产者—消费者的同步关系将禁止生产者向已满的缓冲区中放入产品,也禁止消费者从空的缓冲区中获取产品。
四、实验要求模拟一个生产者,一个消费者,共享一个缓冲区的情形。
五、实验学时及环境4学时,Turbo C、Visual Basic、Delphi均可。
六、实验思路1.随机产生每个生产者生产一个产品的时间和每个消费者消费一个产品的时间,并体现来;2.随着时间的推移,体现生产者生产一个产品的过程和消费者消费一个产品的过程,并统计出生产产品的总数与消费产品的总数;3.限制缓冲区的容量,比如只能容纳N个产品。
当缓冲区已满时,要能够体现出生产者处于等待的情形;当缓冲区为空时,要能够体现出消费者处于等待的情形;4.当存在多个生产者或消费者进程时,随着产生占用某个CPU时间片的单个进程。
这个实验是使用delphi语言编程代码如下:unit Unit1;interfaceusesWindows, Messages, SysUtils, Variants, Classes, Graphics, Controls, Forms,Dialogs, StdCtrls, ExtCtrls, ComCtrls, Buttons, Gauges, jpeg;typeTForm1 = class(TForm)Label1: TLabel;Label2: TLabel;Label3: TLabel;Label4: TLabel;ProgressBar1: TProgressBar; ProgressBar2: TProgressBar;Timer1: TTimer;Timer2: TTimer;Label5: TLabel;Timer3: TTimer;Timer4: TTimer;ProgressBar3: TProgressBar;Timer5: TTimer;Timer6: TTimer;ProgressBar4: TProgressBar;Label6: TLabel;Label7: TLabel;Label8: TLabel;ProgressBar5: TProgressBar; ProgressBar6: TProgressBar;Timer7: TTimer;Timer8: TTimer;Timer9: TTimer;Timer10: TTimer;Timer11: TTimer;Timer12: TTimer;Timer13: TTimer;Timer14: TTimer;Image1: TImage;procedure Timer1Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure FormCreate(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer2Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer4Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer3Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer5Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer6Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer7Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer8Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer9Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer10Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer11Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer13Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer12Timer(Sender: TObject); procedure Timer14Timer(Sender: TObject);procedure Image1Click(Sender: TObject);private{ Private declarations }public{ Public declarations }end;varForm1: TForm1;varm:integer;s:integer;b:integer;c:integer;d:integer;e:integer;f:integer;h:integer;q:integer;t:integer;w:integer;r:integer;p:integer;implementationuses Unit2;{$R *.dfm}procedure TForm1.Timer1Timer(Sender: TObject);beginlabel1.font.Color:=rgb(random(255),random(255),random(255)); end;procedure TForm1.FormCreate(Sender: TObject);varI: Integer;k:integer;zxqr:integer;source:string[50] ;begins:=20;b:=15;c:=40;d:=40;e:=40;f:=80;H:=30;q:=60;w:=35;r:=45;t:=45;p:=45;Randomize;source:='鸡:鸭:鹅:马:羊:狗:猫:';Label5.Caption:=copy(source,random(14),4);PostMessage(ProgressBar6.Handle, $0409, 0, clGreen); PostMessage(ProgressBar2.Handle, $0409, 0, clGreen);PostMessage(ProgressBar4.Handle, $0409, 0, clGreen); end;procedure TForm1.Timer2Timer(Sender: TObject);beginProgressBar1.Position:=ProgressBar1.Position+10;end;procedure TForm1.Timer4Timer(Sender: TObject);beginif s>10 thens:=s-1elseProgressBar2.Position:=ProgressBar2.Position+10;end;procedure TForm1.Timer3Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif b>10 thenb:=b-1elseProgressBar3.Position:=ProgressBar3.Position+10; end;procedure TForm1.Timer5Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif c>20 thenc:=c-1elsePostMessage(ProgressBar1.Handle, $0409, 0, clwhite); end;procedure TForm1.Timer6Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif d>20 thend:=d-1elsePostMessage(ProgressBar2.Handle, $0409, 0, clwhite); end;procedure TForm1.Timer7Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif e>20 thene:=e-1elseProgressBar5.Position:=ProgressBar5.Position+10; end;procedure TForm1.Timer8Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif f>40 thenf:=f-1elsePostMessage(ProgressBar5.Handle, $0409, 0, clwhite); end;procedure TForm1.Timer9Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif h>0 thenh:=h-1elseProgressBar6.Position:=ProgressBar6.Position+10; end;procedure TForm1.Timer10Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif q>20 thenq:=q-1elsePostMessage(ProgressBar6.Handle, $0409, 0, clwhite); end;procedure TForm1.Timer11Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif w>0 thenw:=w-1elseProgressBar4.Position:=ProgressBar4.Position+10; end;procedure TForm1.Timer13Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif r>0 thenr:=r-1elsePostMessage(ProgressBar3.Handle, $0409, 0, clwhite); end;procedure TForm1.Timer12Timer(Sender: TObject); beginif t>0 thent:=t-1elsePostMessage(ProgressBar4.Handle, $0409, 0, clwhite); end;procedure TForm1.Timer14Timer(Sender: TObject);var zxqr:integer;beginif p>0 thenp:=p-1elsezxqr:= MessageDlg('当前没有可消费的产品,请等待!',mtConfirmation,[mbYes,mbNo],0); if zxqr=mrYes thenForm1.Close;end;程序运行如下:。
第七章消费者生产者与市场效率
第七章消费者生产者与市场效率在本章中你将——调查买者对一种物品的支付志愿与需求曲线之间的联络了解如何定义并权衡消费者剩余调查卖者消费一种物品的本钱与供应曲线之间的联络了解如何定义并权衡消费者剩余知道供应与需求平衡可以使市场总剩余最大当消费者为购置感恩节晚餐而到商店时,他们能够为火鸡的价钱如此之高而感到绝望。
同时,当农民把他们饲养的火鸡送到市场时,他们希望火鸡的价钱能再高一些。
这些观念并不使人感到惊讶:买者总想少付些钱,而卖者总想多得些钱。
但是,从整个社会的角度看,存在一种火鸡的〝正确价钱〞吗?在以前各章中,我们说明了,在市场经济中供应与需求的力气如何决议了物品与劳务的价钱和销售量。
但是,到如今为止,我们只是描画了市场配置稀缺资源的方式,而没有直接说明这些市场配置是不是令人满意的效果。
换句话说,我们的剖析是实证的〔是什么〕,而不是规范的〔应该是什么〕。
我们知道,火鸡的价钱调整是要保证火鸡的供应量等于火鸡的需求量。
但是,在这种平衡时,火鸡的消费量与消费量是太少、太多,还是正好呢?在本章中,我们要讨论福利经济学这个标题,即研讨资源配置如何影响经济福利。
我们从调查买者和卖者从参与市场中失掉的利益末尾。
然后我们思索社会如何可以使这种利益尽量到达最大。
这种剖析得出了一个影响深远的结论:市场上供求平衡可以使买者和卖者失掉的总收益最大化。
也许你还记得第一章经济学十大原理之一是,市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法。
福利经济学的研讨更充沛地解释了这个原理。
它还要回答火鸡的正确价钱这个效果:在某种意义上说,使火鸡供求平衡的价钱是最好的价钱,由于它使火鸡消费者和火鸡消费者的总福利最大化。
消费者剩余我们从观察参与市场的买者失掉的收益末尾我们的福利经济学研讨。
支付志愿想象你有一张崭新的猫王的首张专辑。
由于你不是一个猫王迷,你决议把该专辑卖出。
这样做的一种方法是举行拍卖。
四个猫王迷出如今你的拍卖会上:约翰、保罗、乔治和林格。
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jbEqual4[0].setEnabled(true);
}
else if(x=="消费者1"){
jbEqual6[0].setText(y);
jbEqual6[1].setText(z);
p2.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
p2.add(new JLabel("缓冲队列:"));
p2.add(jbEqual21);
p2.add(jbEqual22);
p2.add(jbEqual23);
JPanel p3 = new JPanel();
import java.awt.*;
import javax.swing.*;
import javax.swing.JLabel;
import javax.swing.JTextField;
import javax.swing.JFrame;
import java.awt.GridLayout;
p6.add(jbEqual6[i]);
}
setLayout(new GridLayout(6,1,5,5));
add(p1);
add(p2);
add(p3);
add(p4);
add(p5);
add(p6);
}
p3.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
p3.add(new JLabel("生产者:"));
for (int i=0;i<=2;i++)
{
jbEqual3[i] = new JButton("生产者"+i);
jbEqual3[i].addActionListener(new Monitor());
import java.awt.FlowLayout;
import ponent;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt.Color;
import javax.swing.JButton;
import javax.swing.border.*;
p3.add(jbEqual3[i]);
}
JPanel p4 = new JPanel();
p4.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
p4.add(new JLabel("消费者:"));
for (int i=0;i<=2;i++)
{
frame.setVisible(true);
}
class Monitor implements ActionListener {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
String x = jbEqual6[0].getText();
JButton jbEqual21 = new JButton(" ");//缓冲队列
JButton jbEqual22 = new JButton(" ");
JButton jbEqual23 = new JButton(" ");
JButton[] jbEqual5 = new JButton[3];//生产者阻塞队列
jbEqual6[2].setText(" ");
jbEqual4[1].setEnabled(true);
}
else if(x=="消费者2"){
jbEqual6[0].setText(y);
String y = jbEqual6[1].getText();
String z = jbEqual6[2].getText();
if(x=="消费者0"){
jbEqual6[0].setText(y);
jbEqual6[1].setText(z);
if(a<=3){
if(a==3&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[0]){
jbEqual21.setText("产品0");
frame.setSize(550,300);
//frame.setResizable(false);
frame.setLocationRelativeTo(null);
frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
JPanel p1 = new JPanel();
p1.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
p1.add(new JLabel("Producer And Consumer Problem Memo"));
JPanel p2 = new JPanel();
jbEqual5[0].setText("生产者0");
jbEqual3[0].setEnabled(false);
}
else if(a==2&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[0]){
jbEqual22.setText("产品0");
p5.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
p5.add(new JLabel("生产者阻塞队列:lt;=2;i++)
{
jbEqual5[i] = new JButton(" ");
p5.add(jbEqual5[i]);
jbEqual4[i] = new JButton("消费者"+(i));
jbEqual4[i].addActionListener(new Monitora());
p4.add(jbEqual4[i]);
}
JPanel p5 = new JPanel();
}
JPanel p6 = new JPanel();
p6.setLayout(new FlowLayout());
p6.add(new JLabel("消费者阻塞队列:"));
for (int i=0;i<=2;i++)
{
jbEqual6[i] = new JButton(" ");
else if(a==3&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[2]){
jbEqual21.setText("产品2");
}
jbEqual6[1].setText(z);
jbEqual6[2].setText(" ");
jbEqual4[2].setEnabled(true);
}
}
else if(a==3&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[1]){
jbEqual21.setText("产品1");
}
}
else if(a==0&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[0]){
else if(a==2&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[2]){
jbEqual22.setText("产品2");
}
}
else if(a==2&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[1]){
jbEqual22.setText("产品1");
}
jbEqual23.setText("产品1");
}
else if(a==1&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[2]){
jbEqual23.setText("产品2");
JButton[] jbEqual6 = new JButton[3];//消费者阻塞队列
JButton[] jbEqual3 = new JButton[3];//生产者
JButton[] jbEqual4 = new JButton[3];//消费者
public ProducerAndConsumerProblemMemo() {
public static void main(String[] args) {
ProducerAndConsumerProblemMemo frame = new ProducerAndConsumerProblemMemo();
frame.setTitle("Producer And Consumer Problem Memon");
else if(a==1&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[0]){
jbEqual23.setText("产品0");
}
else if(a==1&&e.getSource()==jbEqual3[1]){
import ng.String;
public class ProducerAndConsumerProblemMemo extends JFrame {