Lecture2

合集下载

lecture 2--听辨

听力训练 VS 听辨过程 1

英语听力训练中比较注重语言层面，即十分注意语音、语调和语言的表达及用法。

译员在听辨过程中所注重的是意思，或是讲话者的意图而不是具体的词句表达。所以译员在听到一段话之后在头脑中形成的是一个有逻辑关系的语意整体，而不仅仅是词句的简单集合。
听力训练 VS 听辨过程 2
• 对照关系：like, similarly, in a similar manner, likewise • 对比关系：different from, unlike, by contrast, on the other hand, on the contrary, • conversely
• 解释关系： that is to say, in other words, this means

先后次序：first of all, next, before, after, previously, simultaneously, eventually, finally
Bugs in LCII 恼人的听辨“虫”

1. unknown words 生词 2. culturally-burdened phrases or idioms 英语中的文化陷阱（容易望文生义） 3. illogical flow of thought逻辑混乱 4. heavy accent 口音浓重 5. unfamiliar topic 不了解主题知识 6. too quick a delivery speed 语速过快 7. blurred point of view 意思不明确 8.数字
逻辑关系和对应的标示词
并列关系：and, too, at the same time, meanwhile, in the meantime, as well • • • • • 递进关系：also, moreover, in addition, furthermore, besides, not only, on top of that, apart from 转折关系：but, however, though, whereas, nevertheless, in fact, instead 让步关系：in spite of, despite， although, even though 因果关系：so, thus, hence, as a result, consequently, reason, because, for, due to, accordingly

【托福听力备考】TPO3听力文本——Lecture 2

【托福听力备考】TPO3听力文本——Lecture 2对于很多学生来说，托福TPO材料是备考托福听力最好的材料。

相信众多备考托福的同学也一直在练习这套材料，那么在以下内容中我们就为大家带来托福TPO听力练习的文本，希望能为大家的备考带来帮助。

Lecture 2 Film historyNarrator：Listen to part of a lecture in a film history class.Professor：Okay, we’ve been discussing films in the 1920s and 30s, and how back then film categories, as we know them today, had not yet been established. We said that by today’s standards, many of the films of the 20s and 30s would be considered hybrids, that is, a mixture of styles that wouldn’t exactly fit into any of today’s categories. And in that context, today we are going to talk about a film-maker who began making very unique films in the late 1920s. He was French, and his name was Jean Painlevé.Jean Painlevé was born in 1902. He made his first film in 1928. Now in a way, Painlevé’s films conform to norms of the 20s and 30s, that is, they don’t fit very neatly into the categories we use to classify films today. That said, even by the standards of the 20s and 30s, Painlevé’s films were a unique hybrid of styles. He had a special way of fusing, or some people might say, confusing, science and fiction. His films begin with facts, but then they become more and more fictional. They gradually add more and more fictional elements. In fact, Painlevé was known for saying that science is fiction.Painlevé was a pioneer in underwater film-making, and a lot of his short films focused on the aquatic animal world. He liked to show small underwater creatures, displaying what seemed like familiar human characteristics – what we think of as unique to humans. He might take a clip of a mollusk going up and down in the water and set it to music. You know, to make it look as if the mollusk were dancing to the music like a human being – that sort of thing. But then he suddenly changed the image or narration to remind us how different the animals are, how unlike humans.He confused his audience in the way he portrayed the animals he filmed, mixing up our notions of the categories human and animal. The films make us a little uncomfortable at times because we are uncertain about what we are seeing. It gives him films an uncanny feature: the familiar made unfamiliar, the normal made suspicious. He liked twists, he liked the unusual. In fact, one of his favorite sea animals was the seahorse because with seahorses, it’s the male that carries the eggs, and he thought that was great. His first and most celebrated underwater film is about the seahorse.Susan, you have a question?Student 1：But underwater film-making wasn’t that unusual, was it? I mean, weren’t there other people making movies underwater?Professor：Well, actually, it was pretty rare at that time. I mean, we are talking the early 1930s here.Student 1：But what about Jacques Cousteau? Was he like an innovator, you know, with underwater photography too?Professor： Ah, Jacques Cousteau. Well, Painlevé and Cousteau did both film underwater, and they were both innovators, so you are right in that sense. But that’s pretty much where the similarities end.First of all, Painlevé was about 20 years ahead of Cousteau. And Cousteau’s adventures were high-tech, with lots of fancy equipment, whereas Painlevé kind of patchedequipment together as he needed it. Cousteau usually filmed large animals, usually in the open sea, whereas Painlevé generally filmed smaller animals, and he liked to film in shallow water.Uh, what else? Oh well, the main difference was that Cousteau simply investigated and presented the facts – he didn’t mix in fiction. He was a strict documentarist. He set the standard really for the nature documentary. Painlevé, on the other hand, as we said before, mixed in elements of fiction. And his films are much more artistic, incorporating music as an important element.John, you have a question?Student 2：Well, maybe I shouldn’t be asking this, but if Painlevé’s films are so special, so good, why haven’t we ever heard of them? I mean, everyone’s heard of Jacques Cousteau.Professor： Well, that’s a fair question. Uh, the short answer is that Painlev é’s style just never caught on with the general public. I mean, it probably goes back at least in part to what we mentioned earlier, that people didn’t know what to make of his films – they were confused by them, whereas Cousteau’s documentaries were very straightforward, met people’s expectations more than Painlevé’s films did. But you true film history buffs know about him. And Painlevé is still highly respected in many circles.。

lecture 2

II. Listening is closely linked to critical thinking.
Comprehensive listening and critical listening are most important for public speaking. 1. Several critical thinking skills are central to comprehensive listening. a. One such skill is the ability to summarize information. b. Another is the ability to recall facts. c. A third is the ability to distinguish main points from minor points. 2. Several critical thinking skills are important to critical listening. a. Separating fact from opinion is one. b. Spotting weaknesses in reasoning is another. c. Judging the quality of evidence is yet another. 3. Listening and critical thinking are so closely allied that training in listening is really training in thinking.
Lecture 2 Listening
Outline
• Listening is important • Listening and critical thinking • Four causes of poor listening • How to become a better listener

Lecture 2

2. How do you do? •
（好）你好吗？
• Fine，thank you. • （饭，三克油。）很好，谢谢。 • Very well, thanks. • （外瑞威尔，三克斯。） • 很好，谢谢。
问候基本句型
3. Good morning!
早上好！ Good afternoon! 下午好！ Good evening! 晚上好！ 4. How is …? …好吗？ 3. Good morning! Good afternoon! Good even I’m(=I am)… (爱母…) 我是… • I’m from...
（爱母芙蓉母…)
我是来自于...
介绍的相关词汇
• name ( 内母) 名字 • what (沃特) 什么 • is (一子) 是 are(阿) 是 • his 他的 my(卖) 我的 her(喝) 她的 your(哟) 你的 • he() 他 I（爱）我 she(睡) 她 you（油）你 • son （桑）儿子 daughter（多特）女儿
• 早上好！ • 下午好！ • 晚上好！
• （Good!） • Goodbye!
• 故的 • 故的拜
• （好！） • 再见！
问候基本句型
1. Hello! /Hi! 你好！ 1. Hello! /Hi!
2. How do you do?第一次见面时用
（好度油度？）你好吗？
How are you?熟悉后用
•
4. …is fine，thank you. And you? • （…一字饭，三克油。安的油） …很好，谢谢。你呢？ • …is very well, thanks. • （…一字外瑞威尔，三克斯。） • …很好，谢谢。

Lecture2

=have an effect on... =have an influence on...
e.g. Forgiveness and encouragement can make a great difference to a
child's future.
□ embarrassed embarrassing
□ forgive
v.原谅
e.g. We are always told to forgive and forget, for there is a saying “to err is
human, to forgive divine”.
□ make a difference to...
对......产生影响
Useful Words
□ forgiveness
n.宽恕；饶恕
ask forபைடு நூலகம்beg for forgiveness 请求/乞求原谅
e.g. The little boy begged me for forgiveness when he learned what he did
hurt me badly.
a.感到尴尬的 a.令人尴尬的
e.g. I felt very embarrassed when I found my students making fun of me,
for this was very embarrassing.
□ keep/stay calm 保持冷静； calm/cool down 冷静下来
所有（三者以上）任何一个（三者以上）没有一个（三者以上）
e.g. All of the apples are small. You can take any of them. None of them is ripe.

lecture 2 英译汉的技巧

众所周知，过度肥胖或消瘦都肯定是
不健康的。 He acts a lot older than his years. 他年纪轻轻，做事却相当老练。
The
young girl thumbed her way to the passing cars.
那个年轻的姑娘站在路边不停地向来往的
汽车摆动着竖起的拇指表示她要搭车.
2.直译加注
(literal translation + annotation)
音译加注：音译后附加解释性注释。
1.
词语翻译
比萨饼丰田车撒哈拉沙漠艾滋病爵士乐
Pizza Toyota Sahara AIDS Jazz
2.
句子翻译 He did it a Jordon. 他投篮像飞人乔丹那样棒。 I’m Peter Darwin. Everyone asks, so I may as well say at once that no, I’m not related to Charles. 我叫彼得.达尔文。谁都会对我的名字产生疑问，我不妨当下说个明白：我与进化论创始人查尔斯没有关系。 A dead leaf fell in Soapy’s lap. That was Jack Frost’s card. 一片枯叶飘落到苏贝的膝头。那是杰克.弗罗斯特的名片。（杰克.弗罗斯特：英文里对“寒霜” 的拟人称号。）
释义（paraphrase)
定义：舍弃原文的具体表达形式和比喻形
象，采取解释性的办法译出原文。在翻译一些具有鲜明民族色彩的词语（如成语、典故、超常规搭配）时，如果直译不能使译文读者明白其意思，而加注又使译文太啰嗦时，可采用释义法，将原文的意思传达出来。

最优化方法Lecture2_LP基本性质

"" " "设P1, P2 , , Pk线性无关, 则k m.
P1 x1 P2 x2 Pk xk b
若k m,则B P1, P2 , , Pk 就是基.
若k m,则可从其余列向量中再挑出m k个列向量Pk1,
使P1, P2 , , Pk , , Pm线性无关。令B P1, P2 , , Pm
j 1
j 0, j 1, , l.
代入标准形
min
k
l
jcx j jcd j f x
j 1
j 1
k
s.t.
j 1, j 0, j 1, , k
j 1
j 0, j 1, , l.
1
若存在j, 使得cd j
0，则f
x
,即该问题无界.
2 对任意j, cd j 0,令 j 0, j 1, ,l得
4
5 2 5
基本解为x1
24 5
,
2 5
,
0,
0
T
.
或 B1 X B1 b
1 1
3
-2
x1 x2
6 增广矩阵
4
1 1
3 -2
6 4
初等变换
1
0
3 -5
6 -2
1 3
0
1
6 2
5
1
0
0 1
24 5 2 5
x1 24 5
x2
2 5
x(1)
24 5
x3
令
x1
x | 2
x
|
x2
|
x
| x 2
x3
y | 2
y|
x4
|

lecture 2

A landmark decision yesterday by an industrial tribunal on pension equality could leave the UK pension industry facing extra costs of £13 billion a year. 昨天一行业纠纷审理委员会作出一项史无前例的裁决。此举可能使英国的养老金管理事业每年要多支出130亿英镑。

But public outrage over abuse of privilege continued to mount, fueled by allegations of dope dealing at the House Post Office, unpaid bills at the exclusive members’ dining room and extravagant junketeering at taxpayers’ expense. 公众对国会议员滥用特权的义愤有增无减。有些议员被指利用国会邮政所从事毒品交易，有的被指控在专门餐厅用餐不付帐，有的被指控华纳税人的钱公费旅游，这些更使公众怒不可遏。

Foreign firms have increasingly turned to China to supply parts or make products, and such deals have been a hot political topic in the run-up to the US presidential elections as industry groups worry about losing ground to low-cost Chinese competitors. 外国企业越来越多地转向中国，或提供部件，或制造产品。而这类交易成了美国总统竞选前期的一个热门话题，因为一些行业担心在中国低成本的竞争者面前处于下风。

lecture2

Lecture Two A Contrastive Study of Chinese and English 只赢得：几杵疏钟，半江渔火，两行秋雁，一枕清霜。

There left behind are bronze bells heard occasionallyand fishing boats with flickering lamps seen in the middle of the lake, wild geese leaving in a hurry in two files in autumn, and only frosted snow all over the terrains in winter.What remains is only sparse bells ringing in cold hills, fishermen ' s lantern lights by riverside, two rows of wild geese flying in autumn sky and a dreary dream of hoary winter frost. 知己知彼，百战不殆；不知彼而知己，一胜一负；不知彼不知己，每战必殆。

You can fight a hundred battles without defeat if you know the enemy as well as yourself. You will win one battle and lose another if you know yourself but leave yourself in the dark about the enemy. You will lose every battle if you leave both the enemy and yourself in the dark.From Structure1. 英语有形态变化 ,汉语没有严格意义的形态变化 .English : gender, number, case, tense, voice, mood, degree of comparison, person and parts of speech. 汉语 : 数量助词 ,动态助词 ,结构助词He is a professional. He is a loose man. He served as a call boy when he was 19.She is a professional. She is a loose woman. She served as a call girl when she was 19.2. 英语经常使用定冠词和不定冠词I have lived here for more than a year. I have lived here fore more than one year.It isn ' t going to rain today, is it? Just think it over. All right, let ' s make it tomorrow. Let 's go. 打吧 ,打不下去 ;跑吧 ,跑不了 ,敌人只好投降 .Unable to fight on or to escape, the enemy were forced to surrender.3. 英语常用介词 ,汉语则少用介词 .What is he at? 他正在干什么 ?John voted with the Tories. John 投票支持保守党 .He is a man above vulgar interests. 他是一个脱离了低级趣味的人It looks as if we are in for a storm. 看来我们免不了要碰上一场暴风雨了 .If a man couldn ' t walk into a room and tell who was for him and who was against him, then he wasn ' t much of a politic 。

52第五讲_lecture_2_原核转录过程-讲义

上一讲中我们已经了解了转录的概念，知道了RNA聚合酶的作用以及复制和转录过程的一些差别。

这一讲我们一起来看看原核细胞中转录的具体过程。

原核细胞的转录过程简单来说，可以分为三步，起始，延伸和终止。

1、起始(Initiation)：先来说说转录的起始环节，虽然说，不是每个好的开始都会有一个好的结局，但一个不好的开始注定得不到一个好的结局，可见一个好的开始是有多么重要。

对转录也一样，转录的起始是转录的关键步骤，它决定着转录的成败。

而且不管原核真核，转录的起始阶段在整个转录过程中是一个限速阶段，起始过程也是调控基因表达的最重要的环节。

1.1 闭合复合体的形成及σ因子对启动子的特异性识别转录起始有三个阶段，首先其涉及到的就是RNA聚合酶与启动子的识别。

上一节我们已经提过，原核细胞RNA聚合酶核心酶可以与DNA序列相结合，但它不能区分启动子和其它的DNA序列，因而并没有特异性起始转录的作用。

而当σ因子与RNA聚合酶的核心酶结合形成RNA聚合酶全酶后，全酶对一般DNA序列的识别结合能力显著降低，而对启动子的识别结合能力显著增强，因为σ因子能够特异性的识别并结合启动子的-10和-35区。

所以说σ因子在RNA聚合酶与启动子的识别与结合过程中发挥了关键作用。

σ因子可以分成4个区域，其中区域4可以形成一个常见的螺旋转角螺旋的结构识别启动子-35区并与之结合，而-10区可以被σ因子区域2中的一个螺旋结构识别。

1.2 开放复合体的形成及s因子在启动子DNA解旋中的作用RNA聚合酶全酶与启动子结合后，可以引起-11至+3区域的DNA发生解旋，形成一个转录泡。

转录泡的形成标志着转录起始复合体由闭合复合体转换为开放复合体，这也是转录起始的第二个阶段。

由于-10区处在DNA双链分子发生解旋的元件中，σ因子区域2与-10区除了结合之外，还参与了这段区域DNA的解旋过程。

最新的研究发现，σ因子区域2与-10区结合后，可以使得-10区非模板链上的两个碱基外翻出来，从而促进模板链被释放形成单链。

Lecture-2

• 一、西方古代社会的管理实践和思想（6世纪以前） • 二、西欧中世纪的管理实践和思想
• 三、欧洲文艺复兴对管理思想发展的影响
一、西方古代社会的管理实践和思想（6世纪以前）• 1、关于西方和西方国家的概念
• 2、古希腊的管理制度与思想
• 3、古罗马的管理制度与思想
• 4、宗教所体现的管理思想
• 5、早期管理思想的主要特点
• 认为治国人才必须受过良好教育，主张通过教育来培养治国人才，对管理人员要进行选拔。为了造就治国人才，苏格拉底非常重视教育，付出了毕生的精力。 • 关于教育的内容：培养人的美德，教人学会做人，成为有德行的人；要教人学习广博而实用的知识；主张教人
岸重要港口。人口27.1万。主要建于离岸4公
里的海边浅水滩上，平均水深1．5米。
• 由铁路、公路、桥与陆地相连。由118个小岛
组成，并以 177条水道、401座桥梁连成一体，以舟相通，有“水上都市”、“百岛城”、 “桥城”之称。
管理和拯救威尼斯：水的魅力与困扰
• 水——曾是威尼斯的保护神，现却成了威尼斯最大的敌人。 • 1966年，威尼斯发生大洪灾，城内水位高达1米——防洪是国家头等大事。 • 每100年，威尼斯就会下沉1.3厘米。二战后，每20年内下沉30厘米，威尼斯人生活的中心——圣马可广场只高于警戒水位30厘米。 • 2001年1月，威尼斯遭受了历史上最为严重的水灾，洪水持续了4天4夜，城市的大半部分都淹没在水中。 • 2008年10月1日，威尼斯经历了22年以来最大的一次水灾。 • 如何管理和拯救威尼斯？ 2009年10月新动工建设一项耗资 30亿美元的新防洪闸门工程。 2012年10月12日，威尼斯遭受水灾
• 城邦所设的行政官员都是义务职，不支薪水；全部行政官员并不组成为某个行政首脑统一领导下的“政府”。

【托福听力备考】TPO16 听力文本——Lecture 2

【托福听力备考】TPO16 听力文本——Lecture 2众所周知，托福TPO材料是备考托福听力最好的材料。

相信众多备考托福的同学也一直在练习这套材料，那么在以下内容中我们就为大家带来托福TPO听力练习的文本，希望能为大家的备考带来帮助。

TPO 16 Lecture 2 music historyNarrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a music history class.Professor:Up until now in our discussions and readings about the Baroque and earlyclassical periods,we’ve been talking about the development of musical styles andgenres within the relatively narrow social context of its patronage by the upperclasses. Composers, after all, had to earn a living and those who were employedin the services of a specific patron, well, I don’t have to spell it out foryou, the likes and dislikes of that patron, this would’ve had an effect on whatwas being composed and performed. Now, of course, there were many otherinfluences on composers, um, such as the technical advances we’ve seen and thedevelopment of some of the instruments, uh, you remember the transverse flute,the clarinet and so on.But I think if I were asked to identify a single crucial development inEuropean music of this time, it would be the invention of the piano, which,interestingly enough also had a significant effect on European society of thattime. And I’ll get to that in a minute.Now, as we know, keyboard instruments existed long before the piano - theorgan, which dates back to the Middle Ages, as do other keyboard instruments,such as the harpsichord which is still popular today with some musicians. Butnone of these has had as profound an impact as the piano.Uh, the piano was invented in Italy in 1709. The word piano is short forpianoforte, a combination of the Italian words for soft and loud. Now, unlikethe harpsichord which came before it, the piano is a percussion instrument. Yousee, the harpsichord is actually classified as a string instrument, sincepressing a key of a harpsichord causes a tiny quill that’s connected to the keyto pluck the strings that are inside the instrument, much the same as a guitarpick plucks the strings of a guitar But pressing the keys of a piano causes tinyfelt-covered hammers to strike the strings inside the instrument, likedrumsticks striking the head of a drum. This striking action is why the piano isa percussion instrument instead of a string instrument.Okay, so why is this so important? Well, the percussive effect of thoselittle hammers means that the pianist, unlike the harpsichordist, can controlthe dynamics of the sound - how softly or loudly each note is struck, hence thename, pianoforte, soft and loud.Now, artistically for both composers and performers this was a major turningpoint. This brand new instrument, capable of producing loud and soft tones,greatly expanded the possibilities for conveying emotion. This capacity forincreased expressiveness, in fact, was essential to the Romantic style thatdominated 19th century music. But I’m getting ahead of myself.Um, before we get back to the musical impact of this development, I wanna take a look at the social impact that I mentioned earlier.Now, in the late 1700s and the earlier 1 800s, the development of the piano coincided with the growth of the middle class in Western Europe. Of course folk music, traditional songs and dances had always been part of everyday life. But as mass production techniques were refined in the 19th century, the price of pianos dropped to the point that a larger proportion of the population could afford to own them. As pianos became more available, they brought classical music, the music which previously had been composed only for the upper classes, into the lives of the middle class people as well.One way in particular that we can see the social impact of this instrument isits role in the lives of women of the time. Previously, it was quite rare for awoman to perform on anything, but maybe a harp or maybe she sang. But suddenly in the 19th century it became quite acceptable, even, to some extent, almost expected for a middle-class European woman to be able to play the piano, partly because among upper-middle class women it was a sign of refinement. But it was also an excellent way for some women to earn money by giving piano lessons.And some women, those few who had exceptional talent and the opportunity todevelop it, their lives were dramatically affected. Later we’ll be listening toworks by a composer named Robert Schumann. But let’s now talk about his wifeClara Schumann. Clara Schumann was born in Germany in 1819. She grew up surrounded by pianos. Her father sold pianos and both her parents were respected piano teachers. She learned to play the instrument when she was a small child and gave her first public recital at age 9. Clara grew up to become a well-known and respected piano virtuoso, a performer of extraordinary skill who not only gave concerts across Europe, but also was one of the first important female composers for the instrument.。

【托福听力备考】托福TPO1听力文本——Lecture 2

【托福听力备考】托福TPO1听力文本——Lecture 2众所周知，托福TPO材料是备考托福听力最好的材料。

相信众多备考托福的同学也一直在练习这套材料，那么在以下内容中我们就为大家带来托福TPO听力练习的文本，希望能为大家的备考带来帮助。

Lecture 2 BotanyNarrator：Listen to part of a lecture from a Botany class.Professor：Hi, everyone. Good to see you all today. Actually, I expected thepopulation to be a lot lower today. It typically runs between 50 and 60 percent on the day the research paper is due. Um, I was hoping to have your exams back today, but, uh, the situation was that I went away for the weekend, and I was supposed to get in yesterday at five, and I expected to fully complete all the exams by midnight or so, which is the time that I usually go to bed, but my flight was delayed, and I ended up not getting in until one o’clock in the morning. Anyway, I’ll do my best to have them finished by the next time we meet.OK. In the last class, we started talking about useful plant fibers. Inparticular, we talked about cotton fibers, which we said were very useful, not only in the textile industry, but also in the chemical industry, and in the production of many products, such as plastics, paper, explosives, and so on.Today we’ll continue talking about useful fibers, and we’ll begin with a fiber that’s commonly known as “Manila hemp.”Now, for some strange reason, many people believe that Manila hemp is ahemp plant. But Manila hemp is not really hemp. It’s actually a member of thebanana family— it even bears little banana-shaped fruits. The “Manila” part ofthe name makes sense, because Manila hemp is produced chiefly in the Philippine Islands and, of course, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila.Now, as fibers go, Manila hemp fibers are very long. They can easily beseveral feet in length and they’re also very strong, very flexible. They have one more characteristic that’s very important, and that is that they are exceptionally resistant to salt water. And this combination ofcharacteristics—long, strong, flexible, resistant to salt water—makes Manila hemp a great material for ropes, especially for ropes that are gonna be used on ocean-going ships. In fact, by the early 1940’s, even though steel cables were available, most ships in the United States Navy were not moored with steel cables; they were moored with Manila hemp ropes.Now, why was that? Well, the main reason was that steel cables degradevery, very quickly in contact with salt water. If you’ve ever been to SanFrancisco, you know that the Golden Gate Bridge is red. And it’s red because ofthe zinc paint that goes on those stainless steel cables. That, if they start atone end of the bridge and they work to the other end, by the time they finish, it’s already time to go back and start painting the beginning of the bridge again, because the bridge was built with steel cables, and steel cables can’ttake the salt air unless they’re treated repeatedly with a zinc-based paint.On the other hand, plant products like Manila hemp, you can drag through the ocean for weeks on end. If you wanna tie your anchor to it and drop it right into the ocean, that’s no problem, because plant fibers can stand up for months, even years, in direct contact with salt water. OK. So how do you take plant fibers that individually you could break with your hands and turn them into a rope that’s strong enough to moor a ship that weighs thousands of tons? Well, what you do is you extract these long fibers from the Manila hemp plant, and then you take several of these fibers, and you group them into a bundle, because by grouping the fibers you greatly increase their breaking strength—that bundle of fibers is much stronger than any of the individual fibers that compose it.And then you take that bundle of fibers and you twist it a little bit, because by twisting it, you increase its breaking strength even more. And then you take several of these little bundles, and you group and twist them into bigger bundles, which you then group and twist into even bigger bundles, and so on, until eventually, you end up with a very, very strong rope.。

lecture 2 翻译技巧

（3）The beauty of lasers is that they can do machining without ever physically touching the material. 激光的妙处在于它能进行机械加工而不必实际接触所加工的材料。（不宜译为“美丽”）
（4）The wireless sensor network is a useful tool for managing the automatic controls inside the greenhouse. 无线传感器网络对于温室内自动控制器的管理十分有用。
（8）The shortest distance between raw material and a finished part is casting. 铸造是把原材料加工成成品的最简便方法。（不译为“最短的距离”）
（9）Science has become a source of power, not merely a subject fit for fiction. 科学已成为一种力量源泉，而不只是作为幻想的主题了。讨论：fiction的其他可能译法。如：科幻小说？
三、词义的选择与引申
英语词汇丰富，一词多用、一词多义现象非常普遍，而且有些词在汉语中没有对应的表达，所以在具体的上下文中确定词义是翻译的一个基本功，需要认真对待。
1. 词义的选择
词义的选择可从词性、上下文、所属领域或专业等方面考虑。
试译以下各句，注意一词多义现象。
（1）He was wet to the skin. 他全身湿透了。（2）At that time he was still wet behind the ears. 那时候他仍然有些乳臭未干。（3）If you think I am for him, you are all wet. 如果你认为我支持他，那你就大错特错了。

lecture 2

8
2）汉语亲属称谓语的英译法）充分性” 可接受性” ※ “充分性”与“可接受性”：充分性 “充分性”就是遵守原文及源语文化的规范， “可接受性” 充分性”就是遵守原文及源语文化的规范，可接受性” 则是遵守原文乃至于源语言和文化的规范。在汉文化里人们习惯于用“排行称谓“，如”大哥“、”二哥“，”大嫂习惯于用“排行称谓“ 大哥“ 二哥“ “、”二嫂“等，在西方文化中，人们则习惯于使用”姓名二嫂“ 在西方文化中，人们则习惯于使用” 称谓“ 在翻译亲属称谓语时，称谓“，在翻译亲属称谓语时，为了让英语读者理解汉语中人物之间错综复杂的关系，我们宜”目标语文化的规范“ 人物之间错综复杂的关系，我们宜”目标语文化的规范“，即通常将汉语中的“排行称谓“译成英语的”姓名称谓“ 即通常将汉语中的“排行称谓“译成英语的”姓名称谓“以符合英语的称谓习惯。符合英语的称谓习惯。
Task 1:汉语亲汉语亲பைடு நூலகம்属称谓语的特点及其英译 Task 2:社会称社会称谓语系统的分类及其英译
Lecture 2
称谓文化与汉英翻译
5
e.g. 刘太太也称赞丈夫心思敏捷，只担心方鸿渐本刘太太也称赞丈夫心思敏捷，
领太遭，替他捧牢饭碗。领太遭，要大舅子替他捧牢饭碗。钱钟书《围城》（钱钟书《围城》） Mrs. Liu also approved of her husband’s keen reasoning, her only qualm being that Fang was inept and would need her husband to keep his job for him. (珍妮凯利、茅国权译）珍妮·凯利珍妮凯利、刘太太想把自己丈夫的妹妹许配给方鸿渐，〔注〕刘太太想把自己丈夫的妹妹许配给方鸿渐，假若此桩婚姻成功的话，婚姻成功的话，那么他们两家就能通过姻亲结成连襟亲属关那么刘太太的丈夫就自然成了方鸿渐妻子（系。那么刘太太的丈夫就自然成了方鸿渐妻子（刘太太丈夫的妹妹）舅爷” 的妹妹）的 “ 舅爷 ” 。假若汉译英时将这么复杂的关系转过去，肯定会让英语读者摸不着头脑。因此，简译成 her husband，英语读者一看就知道指的是刘太太的丈夫。，英语读者一看就知道指的是刘太太的丈夫。

lecture 2

Part 2: Character and performance
Two ways to cast stars Off casting: is opposite to typecasting, refers to the
assignment of a role to a star which is quite different to their usual role. Example: Harrison Ford---from a rogue with a heart of gold to respectable professionals and honest family men.
Part 2: Character and performance
Two ways to cast stars Typecasting: iin kinds of
roles to a performer, a known product. Example: Hugh Grant—a romantic comedy about a good-natured but slightly confused and easily embarrassed Englishman with a dry, ironic sense of humor.(p.30)
Part 2: Character and performance

2.Characters 1) Three basic functions or categories of character Main characters: the protagonist Example: Sherlock Holmes Secondary characters: (the opposition character, the mirror character and the romance character) Example: Lord Blackwood , Holmes’ friend, Dr. John Watson, Irene Adler Minor characters: the unimportant characters Example: Lord Coward, Sir Thomas, the servant (each of those has a certain role to play)

lecture_2（博弈论讲义GameTheory（MIT））

Last Time:Defined knowledge, common knowledge, meet (of partitions), and reachability.Reminders:• E is common knowledge at ω if ()I K E ω∞∈.• “Reachability Lemma” :'()M ωω∈ if there is a chain of states 01,,...m 'ωωωωω== such that for each k ω there is a player i(k) s.t. ()()1()(i k k i k k h h )ωω+=:• Theorem: Event E is common knowledge at ωiff ()M E ω⊆.How does set of NE change with information structure?Suppose there is a finite number of payoff matrices 1,...,L u u for finite strategy sets 1,...,I S SState space Ω, common prior p, partitions , and a map i H λso that payoff functions in state ω are ()(.)u λω; the strategy spaces are maps from into . i H i SWhen the state space is finite, this is a finite game, and we know that NE is u.h.c. and generically l.h.c. in p. In particular, it will be l.h.c. at strict NE.The “coordinated attack” game8,810,11,100,0A B A B-- 0,010,11,108,8A B A B--a ub uΩ= 0,1,2,….In state 0: payoff functions are given by matrix ; bu In all other states payoff functions are given by . a upartitions of Ω1H : (0), (1,2), (3,4),… (2n-1,2n)... 2H (0,1),(2,3). ..(2n,2n+1)…Prior p : p(0)=2/3, p(k)= for k>0 and 1(1)/3k e e --(0,1)ε∈.Interpretation: coordinated attack/email:Player 1 observes Nature’s choice of payoff matrix, sends a message to player 2.Sending messages isn’t a strategic decision, it’s hard-coded.Suppose state is n=2k >0. Then 1 knows the payoffs, knows 2 knows them. Moreover 2 knows that 1knows that 2 knows, and so on up to strings of length k: . 1(0n I n K n -Î>)But there is no state at which n>0 is c.k. (to see this, use reachability…).When it is c.k. that payoff are given by , (A,A) is a NE. But.. auClaim: the only NE is “play B at every information set.”.Proof: player 1 plays B in state 0 (payoff matrix ) since it strictly dominates A. b uLet , and note that .(0|(0,1))q p =1/2q >Now consider player 2 at information set (0,1).Since player 1 plays B in state 0, and the lowest payoff 2 can get to B in state 1 is 0, player 2’s expected payoff to B at (0,1) is at least 8. qPlaying A gives at most 108(1)q q −+−, and since , playing B is better. 1/2q >Now look at player 1 at 1(1,2)h =. Let q'=p(1|1,2), and note that '1(1)q /2εεεε=>+−.Since 2 plays B in state 1, player 1's payoff to B is at least 8q';1’s payoff to A is at most -10q'+8(1-q) so 1 plays B Now iterate..Conclude that the unique NE is always B- there is no NE in which at some state the outcome is (A,A).But (A,A ) is a strict NE of the payoff matrix . a u And at large n, there is mutual knowledge of the payoffs to high order- 1 knows that 2 knows that …. n/2 times. So “mutual knowledge to large n” has different NE than c.k.Also, consider "expanded games" with state space . 0,1,....,...n Ω=∞For each small positive ε let the distribution p ε be as above: 1(0)2/3,()(1)/3n p p n ee e e -==- for 0 and n <<∞()0p ε∞=.Define distribution by *p *(0)2/3p =,. *()1/3p ∞=As 0ε→, probability mass moves to higher n, andthere is a sense in which is the limit of the *p p εas 0ε→.But if we do say that *p p ε→ we have a failure of lower hemi continuity at a strict NE.So maybe we don’t want to say *p p ε→, and we don’t want to use mutual knowledge to large n as a notion of almost common knowledge.So the questions:• When should we say that one information structure is close to another?• What should we mean by "almost common knowledge"?This last question is related because we would like to say that an information structure where a set of events E is common knowledge is close to another information structure where these events are almost common knowledge.Monderer-Samet: Player i r-believes E at ω if (|())i p E h r ω≥.()r i B E is the set of all ω where player i r- believesE; this is also denoted 1.()ri B ENow do an iterative definition in the style of c.k.: 11()()rr I i i B E B E =Ç (everyone r-believes E) 1(){|(()|())}n r n ri i I B E p B E h r w w -=³ ()()n r n rI i i B E B =ÇEE is common r belief at ω if ()rI B E w ¥ÎAs with c.k., common r-belief can be characterized in terms of public events:• An event is a common r-truism if everyone r -believes it when it occurs.• An event is common r -belief at ω if it is implied by a common r-truism at ω.Now we have one version of "almost ck" : An event is almost ck if it is common r-belief for r near 1.MS show that if two player’s posteriors are common r-belief, they differ by at most 2(1-r): so Aumann's result is robust to almost ck, and holds in the limit.MS also that a strict NE of a game with knownpayoffs is still a NE when payoffs are "almost ck” - a form of lower hemi continuity.More formally:As before consider a family of games with fixed finite action spaces i A for each player i. a set of payoff matrices ,:l I u A R ->a state space W , that is now either finite or countably infinite, a prior p, a map such that :1,,,L l W®payoffs at ω are . ()(,)()w u a u a l w =Payoffs are common r-belief at ω if the event {|()}w l w l = is common r belief at ω.For each λ let λσ be a NE for common- knowledgepayoffs u .lDefine s * by *(())s l w w s =.This assigns each w a NE for the corresponding payoffs.In the email game, one such *s is . **(0)(,),()(,)s B B s n A A n ==0∀>If payoffs are c.k. at each ω, then s* is a NE of overall game G. (discuss)Theorem: Monder-Samet 1989Suppose that for each l , l s is a strict equilibrium for payoffs u λ.Then for any there is 0e >1r < and 1q < such that for all [,1]r r Î and [,1]q q Î,if there is probability q that payoffs are common r- belief, then there is a NE s of G with *(|()())1p s s ωωω=>ε−.Note that the conclusion of the theorem is false in the email game:there is no NE with an appreciable probability of playing A, even though (A,A) is a strict NE of the payoffs in every state but state 0.This is an indirect way of showing that the payoffs are never ACK in the email game.Now many payoff matrices don’t have strictequilibria, and this theorem doesn’t tell us anything about them.But can extend it to show that if for each state ω, *(s )ω is a Nash (but not necessarily strict Nash) equilibrium, then for any there is 0e >1r < and 1q < such that for all [,1]r r Î and [,1]q q Î, if payoffs are common r-belief with probability q, there is an “interim ε equilibria” of G where s * is played with probability 1ε−.Interim ε-equilibria:At each information set, the actions played are within epsilon of maxing expected payoff(((),())|())((',())|())i i i i i i i i E u s s h w E u s s h w w w w e-->=-Note that this implies the earlier result when *s specifies strict equilibria.Outline of proof:At states where some payoff function is common r-belief, specify that players follow s *. The key is that at these states, each player i r-believes that all other players r-believe the payoffs are common r-belief, so each expects the others to play according to s *.*ΩRegardless of play in the other states, playing this way is a best response, where k is a constant that depends on the set of possible payoff functions.4(1)k −rTo define play at states in */ΩΩconsider an artificial game where players are constrained to play s * in - and pick a NE of this game.*ΩThe overall strategy profile is an interim ε-equilibrium that plays like *s with probability q.To see the role of the infinite state space, consider the"truncated email game"player 2 does not respond after receiving n messages, so there are only 2n states.When 2n occurs: 2 knows it occurs.That is, . {}2(0,1),...(22,21,)(2)H n n =−−n n {}1(0),(1,2),...(21,2)H n =−.()2|(21,2)1p n n n ε−=−, so 2n is a "1-ε truism," and thus it is common 1-ε belief when it occurs.So there is an exact equilibrium where players playA in state 2n.More generally: on a finite state space, if the probability of an event is close to 1, then there is high probability that it is common r belief for r near 1.Not true on infinite state spaces…Lipman, “Finite order implications of the common prior assumption.”His point: there basically aren’t any!All of the "bite" of the CPA is in the tails.Set up: parameter Q that people "care about" States s S ∈,:f S →Θ specifies what the payoffs are at state s. Partitions of S, priors .i H i pPlayer i’s first order beliefs at s: the conditional distribution on Q given s.For B ⊆Θ,1()()i s B d =('|(')|())i i p s f s B h s ÎPlayer i’s second order beliefs: beliefs about Q and other players’ first order beliefs.()21()(){'|(('),('))}|()i i j i s B p s f s s B h d d =Îs and so on.The main point can be seen in his exampleTwo possible values of an unknown parameter r .1q q = o 2qStart with a model w/o common prior, relate it to a model with common prior.Starting model has only two states 12{,}S s s =. Each player has the trivial partition- ie no info beyond the prior.1122()()2/3p s p s ==.example: Player 1 owns an asset whose value is 1 at 1θ and 2 at 2θ; ()i i f s θ=.At each state, 1's expected value of the asset 4/3, 2's is 5/3, so it’s common knowledge that there are gains from trade.Lipman shows we can match the players’ beliefs, beliefs about beliefs, etc. to arbitrarily high order in a common prior model.Fix an integer N. construct the Nth model as followsState space'S ={1,...2}N S ´Common prior is that all states equally likely.The value of θ at (s,k) is determined by the s- component.Now we specify the partitions of each player in such a way that the beliefs, beliefs about beliefs, look like the simple model w/o common prior.1's partition: events112{(,1),(,2),(,1)}...s s s 112{(,21),(,2),(,)}s k s k s k -for k up to ; the “left-over” 12N -2s states go into 122{(,21),...(,2)}N N s s -+.At every event but the last one, 1 thinks the probability of is 2/3.1qThe partition for player 2 is similar but reversed: 221{(,21),(,2),(,)}s k s k s k - for k up to . 12N -And at all info sets but one, player 2 thinks the prob. of is 1/3.1qNow we look at beliefs at the state 1(,1)s .We matched the first-order beliefs (beliefs about θ) by construction)Now look at player 1's second-order beliefs.1 thinks there are 3 possible states 1(,1)s , 1(,2)s , 2(,1)s .At 1(,1)s , player 2 knows {1(,1)s ,2(,1)s ,(,}. 22)s At 1(,2)s , 2 knows . 122{(,2),(,3),(,4)}s s s At 2(,1)s , 2 knows {1(,2)s , 2(,1)s ,(,}. 22)sThe support of 1's second-order beliefs at 1(,1)s is the set of 2's beliefs at these info sets.And at each of them 2's beliefs are (1/3 1θ, 2/3 2θ). Same argument works up to N:The point is that the N-state models are "like" the original one in that beliefs at some states are the same as beliefs in the original model to high but finite order.(Beliefs at other states are very different- namely atθ or 2 is sure the states where 1 is sure that state is2θ.)it’s1Conclusion: if we assume that beliefs at a given state are generated by updating from a common prior, this doesn’t pin down their finite order behavior. So the main force of the CPA is on the entire infinite hierarchy of beliefs.Lipman goes on from this to make a point that is correct but potentially misleading: he says that "almost all" priors are close to a common. I think its misleading because here he uses the product topology on the set of hierarchies of beliefs- a.k.a topology of pointwise convergence.And two types that are close in this product topology can have very different behavior in a NE- so in a sense NE is not continuous in this topology.The email game is a counterexample. “Product Belief Convergence”:A sequence of types converges to if thesequence converges pointwise. That is, if for each k,, in t *i t ,,i i k n k *δδ→.Now consider the expanded version of the email game, where we added the state ∞.Let be the hierarchy of beliefs of player 1 when he has sent n messages, and let be the hierarchy atthe point ∞, where it is common knowledge that the payoff matrix is .in t ,*i t a uClaim: the sequence converges pointwise to . in t ,*i t Proof: At , i’s zero-order beliefs assignprobability 1 to , his first-order beliefs assignprobability 1 to ( and j knows it is ) and so onup to level n-1. Hence as n goes to infinity, thehierarchy of beliefs converges pointwise to common knowledge of .in t a u a u a u a uIn other words, if the number of levels of mutual knowledge go to infinity, then beliefs converge to common knowledge in the product topology. But we know that mutual knowledge to high order is not the same as almost common knowledge, and types that are close in the product topology can play very differently in Nash equilibrium.Put differently, the product topology on countably infinite sequences is insensitive to the tail of the sequence, but we know that the tail of the belief hierarchy can matter.Next : B-D JET 93 "Hierarchies of belief and Common Knowledge”.Here the hierarchies of belief are motivated by Harsanyi's idea of modelling incomplete information as imperfect information.Harsanyi introduced the idea of a player's "type" which summarizes the player's beliefs, beliefs about beliefs etc- that is, the infinite belief hierarchy we were working with in Lipman's paper.In Lipman we were taking the state space Ω as given.Harsanyi argued that given any element of the hierarchy of beliefs could be summarized by a single datum called the "type" of the player, so that there was no loss of generality in working with types instead of working explicitly with the hierarchies.I think that the first proof is due to Mertens and Zamir. B-D prove essentially the same result, but they do it in a much clearer and shorter paper.The paper is much more accessible than MZ but it is still a bit technical; also, it involves some hard but important concepts. (Add hindsight disclaimer…)Review of math definitions:A sequence of probability distributions converges weakly to p ifn p n fdp fdp ®òò for every bounded continuous function f. This defines the topology of weak convergence.In the case of distributions on a finite space, this is the same as the usual idea of convergence in norm.A metric space X is complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges to a point of X.A space X is separable if it has a countable dense subset.A homeomorphism is a map f between two spaces that is 1-1, and onto ( an isomorphism ) and such that f and f-inverse are continuous.The Borel sigma algebra on a topological space S is the sigma-algebra generated by the open sets. (note that this depends on the topology.)Now for Brandenburger-DekelTwo individuals (extension to more is easy)Common underlying space of uncertainty S ( this is called in Lipman)ΘAssume S is a complete separable metric space. (“Polish”)For any metric space, let ()Z D be all probability measures on Borel field of Z, endowed with the topology of weak convergence. ( the “weak topology.”)000111()()()n n n X S X X X X X X --=D =´D =´DSo n X is the space of n-th order beliefs; a point in n X specifies (n-1)st order beliefs and beliefs about the opponent’s (n-1)st order beliefs.A type for player i is a== 0012(,,,...)()n i i i i n t X d d d =¥=Î´D0T .Now there is the possibility of further iteration: what about i's belief about j's type? Do we need to add more levels of i's beliefs about j, or is i's belief about j's type already pinned down by i's type ?Harsanyi’s insight is that we don't need to iterate further; this is what B-D prove formally.Coherency: a type is coherent if for every n>=2, 21marg n X n n d d --=.So the n and (n-1)st order beliefs agree on the lower orders. We impose this because it’s not clear how to interpret incoherent hierarchies..Let 1T be the set of all coherent typesProposition (Brandenburger-Dekel) : There is a homeomorphism between 1T and . 0()S T D ´.The basis of the proposition is the following Lemma: Suppose n Z are a collection of Polish spaces and let021201...1{(,,...):(...)1, and marg .n n n Z Z n n D Z Z n d d d d d --´´-=ÎD ´"³=Then there is a homeomorphism0:(nn )f D Z ¥=®D ´This is basically the same as Kolmogorov'sextension theorem- the theorem that says that there is a unique product measure on a countable product space that corresponds to specified marginaldistributions and the assumption that each component is independent.To apply the lemma, let 00Z X =, and 1()n n Z X -=D .Then 0...n n Z Z X ´´= and 00n Z S T ¥´=´.If S is complete separable metric than so is .()S DD is the set of coherent types; we have shown it is homeomorphic to the set of beliefs over state and opponent’s type.In words: coherency implies that i's type determines i's belief over j's type.But what about i's belief about j's belief about i's type? This needn’t be determined by i’s type if i thinks that j might not be coherent. So B-D impose “common knowledge of coherency.”Define T T ´ to be the subset of 11T T ´ where coherency is common knowledge.Proposition (Brandenburger-Dekel) : There is a homeomorphism between T and . ()S T D ´Loosely speaking, this says (a) the “universal type space is big enough” and (b) common knowledge of coherency implies that the information structure is common knowledge in an informal sense: each of i’s types can calculate j’s beliefs about i’s first-order beliefs, j’s beliefs about i’s beliefs about j’s beliefs, etc.Caveats:1) In the continuity part of the homeomorphism the argument uses the product topology on types. The drawbacks of the product topology make the homeomorphism part less important, but theisomorphism part of the theorem is independent of the topology on T.2) The space that is identified as“universal” depends on the sigma-algebra used on . Does this matter?(S T D ´)S T ×Loose ideas and conjectures…• There can’t be an isomorphism between a setX and the power set 2X , so something aboutmeasures as opposed to possibilities is being used.• The “right topology” on types looks more like the topology of uniform convergence than the product topology. (this claim isn’t meant to be obvious. the “right topology” hasn’t yet been found, and there may not be one. But Morris’ “Typical Types” suggests that something like this might be true.)•The topology of uniform convergence generates the same Borel sigma-algebra as the product topology, so maybe B-D worked with the right set of types after all.。

lecture 2

Lecture 2Stage 1:Reading: broaden their horizon; enrich their knowledgeSports and Exercises:work out; intense sports; aerobic sports; practice Tai Chi; dance Yangko; Yoga; Pilate; keep healthy; keep fit; help me unwind; spice up my lifeTV and Radio: A couch potato; quiz show; talk show; entertainment show; precious quality time; broaden their horizon; enrich their knowledge; violence, crime and pornography; nostalgic.Stage 2:物品题(Objects)：presents礼物、toy玩具、clothes衣服、books读过的书、newspaper or magazines报纸杂志、movies电影、programs电视节目、advertisements广告、furniture家具、paintings画、handcrafts手工艺品、photos照片、statue雕塑······SampleSpeaking of a gift, I want to talk about my cell phone I got from my parents on the day when I got offer from my dream university (high school).On the day I got offer from my dream university (high school). I was really excited. You know, three year’s hard work and efforts finally got a big payoff. And my parents were more excited. When we were having dinner together, my parents gave me a cell phone as the congratulation gift. It was super thin and incredibly light. The color was my favorite bright blue. When I turned on the phone, I was impressed a lot by the wallpaper. It was a photo of my parent. And In the meantime, I got a text message from them as well. It said on the text, “Seeing you make your dream come true is the best thing that has happened to us. We feel happy for you. We were proud of you! Love parents.” I am telling you, I was really moved at that moment.Until today, I am still using this cell phone, use the same wall paper and keep that text message. They might seem pretty common, but they mean a lot to me.多米诺：A gift you got=a piece of electronic equipment=a thing you lost=a thing you save money to buy=a letter(a text message)=a photoStage 3:分析类：Q: what are the advantages and disadvantages of …?A: well, let me started from the bright side. Speaking off the top of my head, …; another highlight is… . However, the bright side apparently doesn’t overshadow it’s dark side. The first thing that is totally disappointing people is …, another disadvantage springs to mind is…. I think these are two sides of the same coin. Questions:1.what are the advantages and disadvantages of living in a big city?2.what are the advantages and disadvantages of being a celebrity?3.what are the advantages and disadvantages of private cars?Tips:Big money; first-class education; transport; a wide choice of entertainment; never get bored;Colorful life; traffic jams; high crime rate; pollutionIn the spotlight; make a killing; admire; have no privacy; paparazzi狗仔队; tabloid 小报; judgment by the media and public.Convenient; be stuck in the teeny, tiny compartment of buses; pollution; environmentally unfriendly; aggravate traffic jam.。