chapter2-foundations of individual behavior(1)

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远大前程第二部分中英双语介绍

the Great Expectation story is divided into three phases of Pip's life expectations. Now i will introduce you the second phase and then have a brief study of the Bible’s influence on the characterization of two people in the book - havisham and Joe gargery.The second stage of Pip's expectations has Pip in London, learning the details of being a gentlemen, having tutors, fine clothing, and joining cultured society. Whereas he always engaged in honest labour when he was younger, he now is supported by a generous allowance given by the attorney Mr.Jaggers, which he frequently lives beyond. He learns to fit in this new milieu, and experiences not only friendship but rivalry as he finds himself in the same circles as Estella, who is also pursued by many other men, especially Bentley Drummle, whom she favours.As he adopts the physical and cultural norms of his new status, he also adopts the class attitudes that go with it, and when Joe comes to visit Pip and his friend and roommate Herbert to deliver an important message, Pip is embarrassed to the point of hostility by Joe's unlearned ways, despite his protestations of love and friendship for Joe.During this time, He learns that 20 years ago, havisham was swindled a large amount of money by brother Arthur and her fiance compeyson, thus became dispirited and dwell on the past memories. Pip asks why the fiance didn’t marry her to get the assets instead of choosing to obtain the half wealth sharing with her brother,Herbert explains that it is perhaps because the fiance was a married man,if he married havisham,his wife and arthur would conspire to expose his deceit,which would make him lose the trust and assets from havisham,so he has to give in.At the end of this stage, Pip is introduced to his benefactor, again changing his world.He turns out to be the outlaw who pip once helped and offers the story from a different perspective:he is another accomplice of the tragedy.under the guidance of compeyson,he and compeyson’s wife killed arthur and grabbed his assets to do some illegal trade. Later they got arrested imprisoned. The outlaw’s wife who was charged with a murder just delivered the daughter estella, the attorney of miss havisham helped her to escape the imprisonment , in return , estella was sent to havisham.threatened with the future of the outlaw and their daughter ,the wife had to be the attorney’s slave for over 20 years.在希伯来圣经中所讲述的早期的以色列文化中，“女性从属”的普遍性已经是一个不争的事实。

高等意识手册.txt

HANDBOOK TO HIGHER CONSCIOUSNESSKen Keyes Jr.ForewordMillions of years ago when our animal ancestors had to survive in the jungle,it was necessary to have an instantly effective fight or flight mechanism.When a tiger was about to spring, an automatic emotional response was a lifesaver. A nervous shock was needed to squirt adrenalin into the blood so thatmuscles became jet powered. Emotional alarms were needed to commandfull attention. When a tiger was ready to jump, there was no time to admirethe beautiful sunset. As a jungle survival mechanism, our animal ancestorswere programmed for automatic duality -- automatic feelings of otherness,threat, and paranoia. Survival required instant domination of consciousnessto meet the perils of the jungle.We are the pioneers in the evolution of human consciousness. It was onlyabout 10,000 years ago that our ancestors built the first cities. As civilizationgrew, survival no longer depended on the instant fight or flight of the jungle.Survival and happiness now depend on tuning in to the overall situationinvolving ourselves, the people around us, and the total environment of thehere and now. Perceptiveness, wisdom, and oneness are now the ingredientsof effective and happy living. But our biocomputers are still programmed forjungle fight or flight -- for a fast release of adrenalin into the blood stream,and for rapid heartbeat -- for automatic anger and fear. In our socialinteractions, our consciousness magnifies molehills and makes them intomountains -- and this constant distortion destroys our energy, our insight, andour ability to love.Thus survival in the jungle meant that we had to be programmed for instantparanoia -- instant fear -- instant anger -- instant perception of duality.Survival in our world today means that we must have instant perceptions ofoneness -- of love -- of compassion with everyone and understanding ofeverything around us. When we learn to cut through our paranoid jungleprogramming, we are on our way to higher consciousness and happiness.Evolution is now working to remedy this primitive jungle alarm wiring in ourbrain that tends to hold us on lower consciousness levels. Paranoid, dualisticindividuals who cannot love themselves and others tend to get heart trouble,ulcers, other psychosomatic diseases, are accident-prone, etc. Perhaps in100,000 years, through the ruthless survival of the fittest, humans may havenervous systems that are automatically structured to produce instant insightsthat facilitate love and oneness. But that doesn¡¯t help you and me. We needthe Living Love Way to show us how to live in higherconsciousness as soonas possible -- to override our jungle programming so that we can enjoy livinghere and now.We have escaped from the domination of instincts (inflexible unlearnedbehavior) that guides animals through their daily life situations. Since theyoung human is not provided with a full repertoire of automatic fixedresponses, we are unable to independently cope with life for a number ofyears after birth. This long period of plasticity and openness to learningcomplex life guidance patterns helps us avoid fixed preprogrammed behavior.For example, this long nurturing period lets us learn complex languagesystems -- and our flexibility is such that we can learn to communicate inSwahili as easily as in English or any other language.Instead of a complete pattern of animal-type instincts to provide survivalresponses to life situations, the young child uses ego mechanisms backed byhair-trigger emotions to develop security, sensation, and power magnificationof the moment-to-moment sensory inputs. Our personal development intofulfilling, happy lives (as well as the progression ofcivilization beyond thedangerous power consciousness) depends on our getting free of our egobacked,subject-object, me-them, security-sensation-power hang-ups.It may be helpful to see this progression of consciousness in outline form asfollows:ORGANISM METHOD OFPROTECTING ANDENHANCING THEORGANISMAnimal Relatively fixed lifestyle based on instinctor unlearnedpreprogrammedbehavior.LowerConsciousnessHumanEgo-directed, subjectobject,emotion-backedsecurity, sensation, andpower consciousness(increasingly involvingthe rational mind) thatmakes us inflexiblyguard and protecthabitual folkways andpersonal patterns.HigherConsciousnessHumanThe ego-driven negativeemotions have beenreplaced by wideranginginsight and deepintuitive understandinggiving full flexibility toflow in mutuallysupportive and lovingways with no inflexiblefolkways and personalpatterns.The biocomputer with which you are equipped is the mostremarkableinstrument in the universe. Your only problem is to learn to use it properly. Itis capable of handling two million visual inputs and one hundred thousandauditory inputs at any one time. Your biocomputer operates continuallythroughout all of its parts and is capable of making millions of simultaneouscomputations. It operates with enormous power primarily on unconsciouslevels -- with only a tiny proportion of its activity rising to the level ofconsciousness. The conscious level of your biocomputer is analogous to theprint-out of the man-made computers. Your journey into higher consciousness is a matter of your learning how to properly program yourremarkable biocomputer. When you really learn to operate your exquisitemechanism, you will be able to fully realize your potential for a happy life.A wonderful thing about life is that it is naturally good. Lifeis set up to work-- to produce love, fulfillment, and happiness continuously. However, varioussituations during your first years of life conditioned you in the methods ofconsciousness which continually generate unhappiness in your life. Yet everycurrent experience can aid you in your growth toward higher consciousness ifyou know how to use it.This Handbook will explain how you have been creating the experiences thatyou have. It will show you exactly what to do to break out of the traps inyour mind that are the cause of all the unhappiness that you have experiencedin your life! When you apply the Methods in the Handbook you will be ableto turn your life around. The continuous experience of love, serenity,happiness, joy, effectiveness, perceptiveness, and wisdom thatyou have hadonly in bits and pieces can now be available to you all of the time.You will learn how to experience the world as a friendly, loving place that hasbeen designed to give you everything that you need. You will develop a¡°miraculous¡± quality in your life. Beautiful things will happen socontinuously that you can no longer ascribe it to mere¡°coincidence.¡± Youwill experience that you can create more love, happiness, and serenity thanyou need for living a thoroughly fulfilled and enjoyable life. While this was certainly not your intention, you will becomeaware of howyou have been turning yourself off to the energies of the world around you.Your mind has been programmed to process incoming visual, auditory, andother information in ways that continuously alienate and separate you frompeople. You will realize that you have been unconscious of what you havebeen doing to yourself. it is as though you have been born with eyes that seeonly with great distortion -- but which give the illusion of seeing sharply andclearly. This handbook will help you become aware that the only realproblem in your life involves how consciously you use your mind -- and itgives you clear instructions for carrying out the inner work necessary tobecome an energetic, perceptive, loving being.Living Love is a positive cure for all of the suffering and unhappiness in yourlife and that of all humanity. The Living Love Way offers mankind one of themost powerful tools for emerging victorious in the race between higherconsciousness and the suffering of atomic annihilation,ecologicaldegradation, prejudice, and the thousand-fold ways we separate ourselvesfrom each other.Chapter 1Why This Book Was Written For Us¡°Most of us,¡± said the cosmic humorist, ¡°go through life not knowing whatwe want, but feeling damned sure this isn¡¯t it.¡±Over 99% of the people in the western world live on lower consciousnesslevels characterized by trying to find enough security, sex,¡°groovy¡±sensations, ego rushes, prestige, money, power, and status. This endlessstruggle yields lives of constant resentment, worry, suspicion, anger, jealousy,shyness, and fear. Everything people tell themselves they must do to behappy ends up yielding more frustration than joy. The more successful aperson is in making money, collecting skills and possessions, developingexciting sexual relationships, acquiring knowledge and degrees, and achievingpositions of status, power, and prestige, the less loving, peaceful, andcontented he may find himself or herself.And yet it is not these things in and of themselves that create an unhappy life-- it is the internal mental addiction or desire for them that minute-by-minutekeeps one from enjoying life. Addictions (or emotion-backed demands) bringfear of non-fulfillment; jealousy that someone may steal our source offulfillment; anger when someone thwarts us; cynicism ifconstantlyundersupplied; paranoia if constantly threatened; boredom ifwe¡¯re making noprogress toward satisfying our addictions; worry if we can¡¯t see a steadysupply; anxiety if we¡¯re worried about being worried; and unhappiness whenthe outside world does not supply us with whatever it is we are addicted to.Since the nature of life is such that we win some and lose some, an addictedperson has no chance of living a happy, loving, peaceful, conscious, wise andeffective life. And the addictive programming is not necessary to find andenjoy that which we prefer in life.You are ready for growth into the happiness of higher consciousness whenyou realize the utter futility of trying to live a beautiful life by your efforts torearrange or change the world of people and things outside of you to fit youraddictions and desires. You will find you have only to rearrange your ownpersonal, automatically programmed responses to life situations -- most ofwhich are childhood hangups.As you work toward higher levels of consciousness, you will find that youhave always had enough to be happy. It is the patterns in your head thatmake you unhappy, although you usually blame the people and conditionsoutside you for your unhappiness. Your journey into higher consciousnesscan enable you to be loving, peaceful, wise, and free of a constant barrage ofunpleasant emotional feelings.Living Love offers you four advantages in your adventure into higherconsciousness:1.For many people it can be one of the most powerful and rapidways forgrowth into higher consciousness that has ever been available to mankind.2.It does not require you to detach yourself from your presentlife. LivingLove can be used most effectively if you stay with your present business,personal life, and other conditions until you have grown to ahigh enoughstate of consciousness to be fully perceptive of the arbitrary mores,folkways, and social roles you are guarding and living out.3.Once you thoroughly understand the system, it is notessential to have ateacher for continuing your growth. Your life will be your best teacher, foryou will discover that you are always putting yourself into learningsituations that are ideal for your growth. The programming that you mostneed to change has an unerring way of putting you into life situations thatcan make you aware of the exact inner work you should be doing. 4.When you use the Living Love Way to find the love, innerpeace, wisdom,and effectiveness of higher consciousness, your inner work on yourselfimmediately adds to your enjoyment of life. With the Living Love Way,happiness is not a distant goal -- it is an ever-growing part of your hereand now.Think of the energy you now put into the up-and-down hour-by-hour copingwith your feelings while you continually try to rearrange the people andsituations in your life so that you can then be loving, serene, effective, andhappy. And yet year by year your quest for happiness is aselusive as findingthe pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. Since almost everyone around youseems to be having similar trouble in becoming a happy, loving being, youmay have lowered your standards and decided that continuous happiness isprobably not realistic.The Living Love Way invites you to set the highest imaginable standards oflove, serenity, peace, wisdom, effectiveness, and continuous happiness foryour life. and then you are ready to begin your journey into higherconsciousness.Chapter 2Secrets of HappinessWhy do we have lives filled with turmoil, desperation, and anxiety? Why arewe always pushing ourselves and others? Why do we have only small dribbles of peace, love, and happiness? Why is it that human beings arecharacterized by bickering and turmoil that make animals¡¯ relationships withtheir own species seem peaceful in comparison? The answer is so simple --but it is sometimes difficult for us to really understand because almost everyway we were taught to work toward happiness only reinforces the feelingsand activities that make us unhappy.This is a central point that must be understood. The ways we were taught tobe happy can¡¯t possibly work. Unless we see this point clearly, we cannotprogress to higher consciousness. Here¡¯s why.Most of us assume that our desires (backed up by our emotional feelings) arethe true guides to doing the things that will make us happy. But no one hasyet found happiness by using emotion-backed desires as guides. Flashes ofpleasure, yes; happiness, no.Our wants and desires are so seductive . . . They masquerade as ¡°needs¡± thatmust be satisfied so we can be happy at last. They lead us from one illusionof happiness to another. Some of us tell ourselves, ¡°if I can just get to bepresident of this corporation, I will be happy.¡± But have you ever seen areally happy president? His outside drama may feature beautiful yachts,Cadillacs, Playboy bunnies -- but is he really happy inside? Has his ulcergone away yet?We constantly tell ourselves such things as, ¡°If I could just go back to schooland acquire more knowledge -- perhaps get a Master¡¯s degree -- then I willbe happy.¡± But are people with Master¡¯s degrees or Ph.D.¡¯s any happier thanthe rest of us? It is beautiful to acquire knowledge but it is misleading toexpect it to bring us peace, love, and happiness. We tell ourselves, ¡°If I couldonly find the right person to love, then I would be happy.¡± So we search forsomeone who our addictions tell us is the right person -- and we experiencesome pleasurable moments. But since we don¡¯t know how to love, therelationship gradually deteriorates. Then we decide we didn¡¯t have the rightperson after all! As we grow into higher consciousness, we discover that it ismore important to be the right person than to find the right person.We must deeply understand why all of our negative emotions are misleadingguides to effective action in life situations. Our negative emotions are simplythe result of an extensive pattern of scars and wounds that we haveexperienced. And these emotional wounds lead us to perceive differencesthat make us uptight instead of similarities that enable us to understand andlove. The present programming of our emotions makes us perceive otherpeople (and the conditions of the world around us) as threats -- potentiallydangerous to our well-being. We then respond with adrenalin, fasterheartbeat, increased blood sugar, and other jungle survival responses thatprepare us for fight or flight. We are trapped in our ways of perceiving theworld around us.But no one (or no situation) need be felt as an emotional threat or dangerwhen we see things with the clearer perception of higher consciousness.Think of the most threatening situation you have felt in the last day or two.Are you about to lose your job? Is the person for whom you feel the mostlove paying more attention to someone else than to you? Do you have unpaidbills that you cannot take care of? Do you have a pain that could be cancer?Now, these problems either have solutions -- or they don¡¯t. Either you can dosomething about them here and now -- or you can¡¯t. If you can do somethinghere and now about them, then do it -- even if it¡¯s just a first step. It sapsyour energy to be worried or anxious about a problem. Do what you can do-- but don¡¯t be addicted to the results or you will create more worry foryourself. If you can¡¯t do anything about a problem here and now, then whymake yourself uncomfortable and drain your energy by worrying about it? Itis part of the here and nowness of your life. That¡¯s what is -- here and now.Worry, anxiety, or other unpleasant emotions are absolutely unnecessary --and simply lower your insight and the effectiveness of your actions.You must absolutely convince yourself of the lack of utility of these drainingemotions. You must see your unnecessary worrying as depriving you of theflowing effectiveness and joyousness that you should have in your life. Aslong as you think that these negative emotions have any function whatsoever,you will retard your growth into higher consciousness. If you do not hassleyourself emotionally when the outside world does not conform with yourinside programming (your desires, expectations, demands, or models of howthe world should treat you) you will have so much energy that you probablywill sleep fifty per cent less. You will be joyous and loving, and reallyappreciate each moment of your life -- no matter what¡¯s happening in theworld of people and situations outside you.Where and how did we get this emotional programming? Almost allof it wasacquired in the first few years of life. For example, when we were veryyoung, we had the experience of mother forcefully taking a perfume bottlefrom our tiny fingers and at the same time sending out bad vibrations basedon her desire not to have her perfume bottle broken. We cried. Throughbeing painfully pushed around, dominated, told what to do, and controlledwhen we were babies, we developed our emotionally intense security,sensation, and power programs. Many of our emotion-backed programscame from repeated moral directives or statements about howthings ¡°should¡±be. We developed a ¡°self¡± consciousness with robot-like emotionalresponses to protect the ¡°survival¡± of this separate self.So we become emotionally programmed to feel that we must have power tocontrol and manipulate people in order to be happy. We eventually becomevery finely attuned to the actions or vibrations of any person or situation thateven remotely threatens our power addictions -- our ability to manipulate andcontrol people and things around us.As we reach physical maturity and our biocomputer (or brain) is able tofunction more perceptively, we have all the power we need. Butourbiocomputer (backed up by the full repertory of our emotions) is stillprogrammed to compensate for the power deficiency we experienced whenwe were infants and young children. We now need to learn to flow with thepeople and things around us. But our power addiction keeps usfrom lovingpeople because we perceive them as objects that may threaten our power,prestige, or pecking order. If we want to love and be loved, we can¡¯t beaddicted to power -- or to anything else.As conscious beings the only thing we need to find happiness in life is toperceive clearly who we are (we are pure consciousness and notthe socialroles we are acting out), and exactly what are the real conditions, here andnow, of our lives. How basically simple is our problem! But to achieve thisclear perception of ourselves and the world around us takes constant innerwork. And this means developing the habit of emotionallyacceptingwhatever is here and now in our lives. For only an emotionally calmbiocomputer can see clearly and wisely, and come up witheffective ways tointeract with people and situations.Our power addiction is only one example of the happiness-destroyingprogramming that we put into our biocomputers when we were too young toperceive the realities of the world in which we lived. Although we now havethe basic capacity for clear perception, the operatinginstructions we gave ourbiocomputer anchor us to the lower levels. And so we¡¯re unconsciouslytrapped.Here and now is the reality in our lives -- and it is only from the conditions ofthe present that our future can be generated. But our present addictions,demands, and expectations (the programming of our biocomputer) dominateour consciousness and force us to spend most of the time we are awake (andmost of the time we are dreaming) in protesting and pouting about the hereand now situation in our lives. This lowers our perceptiveness and keeps usfrom finding effective solutions to our problems. The Living Love Way toHigher Consciousness shows us how to break through this trap, to freeourselves, and to find our full potential as human beings.Chapter 3The Law of Higher ConsciousnessYour growth into higher consciousness should begin by fully understandingthe importance of becoming one with the Law of Higher Consciousness :Love everyone unconditionally -- including yourself.This law can enable you to find the hidden splendor withinyourself andothers. Unfortunately, we have never been taught how to love unconditionally. Almost all of our loving has been motivated by emotionaldesires programmed into us at an early age. Most of our love experienceshave taught us we must earn or deserve love before we can have it -- and thatothers must deserve our love. This is conditional love -- it is like a barter or abusiness transaction. It is no wonder that our well-meaning but unskilledattempts to love usually end up in separation and alienation. We have beentaught to place conditions on our love : ¡°If you really loved me you would . ..¡± -- and then we use one of our addictions to finish the sentence. This is anexchange -- it is not unconditional love.What is unconditional love? It is not, ¡°I can love you if you do what myemotional programming -- my addictions -- says I want you todo.¡± It is justlove. Just, ¡°I love you because you are there. I love you because you arepart of the nowness of my life. I love you because although our bodies andminds may be on different trips, on the consciousness level allof us are alikein our humanness. We are one.¡±Real love is simply accepting another person. Completely and unconditionally! We experience things from his or her psychic space. It islike seeing the world through his or her eyes. Whatever he or she is goingthrough -- whatever he or she is feeling -- we have been there, too -- at sometime in our lives.When we love, we view others as unfolding beings in their journey towardhigher consciousness. We realize that no matter how intensely we strive forworldly attainments, we all seek love and oneness on the consciousnesslevel. We are all on the journey to higher consciousness. Some of us arehearing the messages life offers us and are working consciouslyto eliminateour addictions. Others are not progressing rapidly because they do not yetknow how to consciously work on themselves.We must also learn to love ourselves -- right here and now. We need to feelthat no matter how horrible we have judged our past actions, each day our lifebegins anew. We have at all times been lovable. A child may be naughty, buthe is always lovable. And so we are all children as long as weareprogrammed with our lower consciousness addictions. So we must acceptthe melodramas we get involved in as we live out our current crop ofaddictions. This, too, is a part of life and growth.Every part of the system of Living Love is designed to help you learn to loveeveryone unconditionally -- including yourself. You only need to plant theliving Love seeds in your consciousness and they willautomatically sprout.Do not berate yourself because you are not enlightened by thethird Tuesdayof next month. The more you learn to love and accept yourself,the more youwill realize that you are doing exactly what you need to do to provideyourself with experiences to grow into higher consciousness.How can you love others if you do not love yourself? The love you have foryourself and the love you have for ¡°another¡± are buildingblocks joiningtogether within you to create the beautiful edifice of real love. Learning to love unconditionally means getting free ofinterference from ourprogrammed addictions -- those emotion-backed demandinginstructions toour biocomputer. This enables us to perceive clearly what is here and now --to evaluate wisely -- and to act effectively to do whatever we want to doabout it. They key to this is the instant emotional acceptance of the here andnow -- the emotional acceptance of the previously unacceptable. When our emotions are triggered, we cannot perceive clearly our actual lifesituation. Our biocomputer then sends a flow of information toourconsciousness in which separation and alienation are emphasized. We createa horribly warped evaluation of the here and now based on our addictiveprogramming. When this happens, we magnify differences and suppresssimilarities between ourselves and ¡°others.¡± And this destroys our ability tolove unconditionally.We all know that just having the desire to love is not enough. As far back aswe can remember we have been aware of the importance of love in our lives.We know that lack of love is responsible for most of the unhappiness in theworld -- for difficulties in getting along with other people, for pollution,prejudice, wars, and other individual and group crimes against humanity. butwhat can we do about it?The Law of Higher Consciousness suggests a practical guide forthe AquarianAge :You add suffering to the worldjust as much when you take offenseas when you give offense.。

Mechanizing set theory cardinal arithmetic and the axiom of choice

Mechanizing Set TheoryCardinal Arithmetic and the Axiom of ChoiceLawrence C.PaulsonComputer Laboratory,University of Cambridgeemail:lcp@Krzysztof GrabczewskiNicholas Copernicus University,Toru´n,Polandemail:kgrabcze@mat.uni.torun.plJanuary1996Minor revisions,November2000Abstract.Fairly deep results of Zermelo-Frænkel(ZF)set theory have been mechanized using the proof assistant Isabelle.The results concern cardinal arithmetic and the Axiom of Choice (AC).A key result about cardinal multiplication isκ⊗κ=κ,whereκis any inﬁnite cardinal. Proving this result required developing theories of orders,order-isomorphisms,order types, ordinal arithmetic,cardinals,etc.;this covers most of Kunen,Set Theory,Chapter I.Further-more,we have proved the equivalence of7formulations of the Well-ordering Theorem and20 formulations of AC;this covers theﬁrst two chapters of Rubin and Rubin,Equivalents of the Axiom of Choice,and involves highly technical material.The deﬁnitions used in the proofs are largely faithful in style to the original mathematics.Key words:Isabelle,cardinal arithmetic,Axiom of Choice,set theory,QED projectContents1Introduction1 2Isabelle and ZF Set Theory2 3The Cardinal Proofs:Motivation and Discussion33.1Inﬁnite Branching Trees33.2Overview of Kunen,Chapter I5 4Foundations of Cardinal Arithmetic74.1Well-orderings74.2Order Types84.3Combining Well-orderings84.4Cardinal Numbers94.5Cardinal Arithmetic10 5Provingκ⊗κ=κ105.1Kunen’s Proof105.2Mechanizing the Proof12 6The Axiom of Choice and the Well-Ordering Theorem15 7Rubin and Rubin’s AC Proofs177.1The Well-Ordering Theorem177.2The Axiom of Choice187.3Difﬁculties with the Deﬁnitions207.4General Comments on the Proofs217.5Consolidating Some Proofs227.6The Axiom of Dependent Choice24 8Proving WO6=⇒WO1248.1The idea of the proof258.2Preliminaries to the Mechanization268.3Mechanizing the Proof27 9Conclusions302Lawrence C.Paulson and Krzysztof GrabczewskiMechanizing Set Theory11.IntroductionA growing corpus of mathematics has been checked by machine.Researchers have constructed computer proofs of results in logic[26],number theory[25], group theory[28],λ-calculus[10],etc.An especially wide variety of results have been mechanized using the Mizar Proof Checker,including the theorem κ⊗κ=κdiscussed below[2].However,the problem of mechanizing mathe-matics is far from solved.The Boyer/Moore Theorem Prover[3,4]has yielded the most impressive results[25,26].It has been successful because of its exceptionally strong sup-port for recursive deﬁnitions and inductive reasoning.But its lack of quantiﬁers forces mathematical statements to undergo serious contortions when they are formalized.Most automated reasoning systems areﬁrst-order at best,while mathematics makes heavy use of higher-order notations.We have conducted our work in Isabelle[20],which provides for higher-order syntax.Other recent systems that have been used for mechanizing mathematics include IMPS[6], HOL[8]and Coq[5].We describe below machine proofs concerning cardinal arithmetic and the Axiom of Choice(AC).Paulson has mechanized most of theﬁrst chapter of Kunen[12]and a paper by Abrial and Lafﬁtte[1].Gra¸bczewski has mech-anized theﬁrst two chapters of Rubin and Rubin’s famous monograph[24], proving equivalent eight forms of the Well-ordering Theorem and twenty forms of AC.We have conducted these proofs using an implementation of Zermelo-Frænkel(ZF)set theory in pared with other Isabelle/ZF proofs [15,18,21]and other automated set theory proofs[23],these are deep,abstract and highly technical results.We have tried to reproduce the mathematics faithfully.This does not mean slavishly adhering to every detail of the text,but attempting to preserve its spirit.Mathematicians write in a mixture of natural language and symbols; they devise all manner of conventions to express their ideas succinctly.Their proofs make great intuitive leaps,whose detailed justiﬁcation requires much additional work.We have been careful to note passages that seem unusually hard to mechanize,and discuss some of them below.In conducting these proofs,particularly from Rubin and Rubin,we have tried to follow the footsteps of Jutting[11].During the1970s,Jutting mech-anized a mathematics textbook using the AUTOMATH system[14].He paid close attention to the text—which described the construction of the real and complex numbers starting from the Peano axioms—and listed any deviations from pared with Jutting,we have worked in a more abstractﬁeld,and with source material containing larger gaps.But we have had the advantage of much more powerful hardware and software.We have relied upon Isabelle’s reasoning tools(see§2below)toﬁll some of the gaps for us.2Lawrence C.Paulson and Krzysztof GrabczewskiWe have done this work in the spirit of the QED Project[22],which aims “to build a computer system that effectively represents all important mathe-matical knowledge and techniques.”Our results provide evidence,both posi-tive and negative,regarding the feasibility of QED.On the positive side,we are able to mechanize difﬁcult mathematics.On the negative side,the cost of doing so is hard to predict:a short passage can cause immense difﬁculties. Overview.Section2is a brief introduction to Isabelle/ZF.The remaining sections reportﬁrst Paulson’s work and then Gra¸bczewski’s.Sections3–5dis-cuss the foundations of cardinal arithmetic in increasing detail,culminating in the machine proof of a key result about cardinal multiplication,κ⊗κ=κwhereκis inﬁnite.Section6introduces the Axiom of Choice and describes the mechanization of Abrial and Lafﬁtte.Sections7and8are devoted to the mechanization of parts of Rubin and Rubin.Section9presents some conclu-sions.2.Isabelle and ZF Set TheoryIsabelle[20]is a generic proof assistant.It supports proofs in higher-order log-ic,various modal logics,linear logic,etc.Our work is based upon Isabelle’s implementation of Zermelo-Frænkel(ZF)set theory,itself based upon an imple-mentation ofﬁrst-order logic.Isabelle/ZF arose from early work by Paul-son[17]and No¨e l[15];it is described in detail elsewhere[18,21].There are two key ideas behind Isabelle:−Expressions are typedλ-terms.Thus the syntax is higher-order,giving a uniform treatment of quantiﬁers,descriptions and other binding operators.In Isabelle/ZF,all sets have the same type.But other important objects, such as classes,class relations and class functions,can be expressed using higher types.−Theorems are schematic inference rules.Isabelle’s basic inference mech-anism is to join two schematic rules,in a sort of Horn clause resolution.A typical step in a backward proof consists of joining one rule(typicallya lemma)to another rule(representing the proof state).Thus,theoremsare proved by referring to previous theorems.Proof states may contain unknowns:placeholders for terms that have been left unspeciﬁed.Uniﬁca-tion can incrementally instantiate unknowns,which may be shared among several subgoals.Built around these key ideas are various facilities intended to ease the user’s task.Notations can be deﬁned using a general mixﬁx format,with precedences; variable-binding operators are easily speciﬁed.Isabelle manages a database ofMechanizing Set Theory 3theories and theorems;when asked to load a theory,it automatically loads any other theories that it depends upon.Although Isabelle supports proof checking,users will be more productive if they are provided with automatic tools.−The classical reasoner solves subgoals using methods borrowed from tab-leau provers.It employs user-supplied rules,typically about logical con-nectives or set operators,to break down assertions.−The simpliﬁer employs user-supplied conditional equalities to rewrite a subgoal.It can make use of contextual information and handles commuta-tive operators using a simple method borrowed from Boyer and Moore [3,page 104].We have found these tools indispensable.But there is much room for improve-ment;mechanizing a page of text can take a week or more.We discuss some reasons for this below.A lengthier introduction to Isabelle and Isabelle/ZF appears elsewhere [18].The Isabelle documentation has been published as a book [20].Figure 1sum-marizes the Isabelle/ZF notation for set theory.Note.Application of the function f to the argument x is formally written f ‘x .In informal mathematics we use the more familiar f (x )for clarity.But a set-theoretic function is just another set,and Isabelle allows the notation f (x )only if f is a meta-level function.This usually corresponds to subscripting in informal mathematics,for example f x .For the Isabelle/ZF development of functions,see Paulson [18,§7.5].3.The Cardinal Proofs:Motivation and DiscussionThe original reason for mechanizing the theory of cardinals was to general-ize Paulson’s treatment of recursive data structures in ZF.The original treat-ment [21]permitted only ﬁnite branching,as in n -ary trees.Countable branch-ing required deﬁning an uncountable ordinal.We are thus led to consider branching of any cardinality.3.1.I NFINITE B RANCHING T REESLet κstand for an inﬁnite cardinal and κ+for its successor cardinal.Branching by an arbitrarily large index set I requires proving the theorem|I |≤κ∀i ∈I αi <κ+( i ∈I αi )<κ+(1)4Lawrence C.Paulson and Krzysztof Grabczewskisyntaxdescription {a 1,...,a n }ﬁnite set <a ,b >ordered pair {x :A.P [x ]}Separation {y .x :A ,Q [x,y ]}Replacement {b [x ].x :A }functional Replacement INT x :A.B [x ]x ∈A .B [x ],general intersection UN x :A.B [x ]x ∈A .B [x ],general union A Int BA ∩B ,intersection A Un BA ∪B ,union A ->BA →B ,function space A *BA ×B ,Cartesian product PROD x :A.B [x ]Πx ∈A .B [x ],general product SUM x :A.B [x ]Σx ∈A .B [x ],general sum THE x.P [x ]ιx.P [x ],deﬁnite description lam x :A.b [x ]λx ∈A .b [x ],abstraction f ‘xf ‘x or f (x ),function application a :Aa ∈A ,membership A <=BA ⊆B ,subset relation ALL x :A.P [x ]∀x ∈A .P [x ],bounded quantiﬁerEX x :A.P [x ]∃x ∈A .P [x ],bounded quantiﬁerFigure 1.ASCII notation for ZFYou need not understand the details of how this is used in order to follow the paper.1Not many set theory texts cover such material well.Elementary texts [9,27]never get far enough,while advanced texts such as Kunen [12]race through it.But Kunen’s rapid treatment is nonetheless clear,and mentions all the essen-tial elements.The desired result (1)follows fairly easily from Kunen’s Lem-ma 10.21[12,page 30]:∀α<κ|X α|≤κ| α<κX α|≤κThis,in turn,relies on the Axiom of Choice and its consequence the Well-ordering Theorem,which are discussed at length below.It also relies on a fundamental result about multiplication of inﬁnite cardinals:κ⊗κ=κ.This is Theorem 10.12of Kunen.(In this paper,we refer only to his Chapter I.)The proof presents a challenging example of formalization,as we shall see.Mechanizing Set Theory5 We could prove A×A≈A,for all inﬁnite sets A,by appealing to AC in the form of Zorn’s Lemma;see Halmos[9,pages97–8].Thenκ⊗κ=κwould follow immediately.But we need to proveκ⊗κ=κwithout AC in order to use it in later proofs about equivalences of AC.In fact,the law A×A≈A is known to be equivalent to the Axiom of Choice.Paulson hoped to proveκ⊗κ=κdirectly,but could notﬁnd a suitable proof.He therefore decided to mechanize the whole of Kunen’s Chapter I, up to that theorem.We suggest this as a principle:theorems do not exist in isolation,but are part of a framework of supporting theorems.It is easier in the long run to build the entire framework,not just the parts thought to be relevant. The latter approach requires frequent,ad-hoc extensions to the framework.3.2.O VERVIEW OF K UNEN,C HAPTER IKunen’sﬁrst chapter is entitled,“Foundations of Set Theory.”Kunen remarks on page1that the chapter is merely a review for a reader who has already stud-ied basic set theory.This explains why the chapter is so succinct,as compared say with Halmos[9].Theﬁrst four sections are largely expository.Section5introduces a few axioms while§6describes the operations of Cartesian product,relations,func-tions,domain and range.Already,§6goes beyond the large Isabelle/ZF the-ory described in earlier papers[18,21].That theory emphasized computa-tional notions,such as recursive data structures,at the expense of traditional set theory.Now it was time to develop some of the missing material.Paul-son introduced some deﬁnitions about relations,orderings,well-orderings and order-isomorphisms,and proved theﬁrst two lemmas by well-founded induc-tion.The main theorem required a surprising amount of further work;see§4.3 below.Kunen’s§7covers ordinals.Much of this material had already been formal-ized in Isabelle/ZF[21,§3.2],but using a different deﬁnition of ordinal.A set A is transitive if A⊆P(A):every element of A is a subset of A.Kunen deﬁnes an ordinal to be a transitive set that is well-ordered by∈,while Isabelle/ZF deﬁnes an ordinal to be a transitive set of transitive sets.The two deﬁnitions are equivalent provided we assume,as we do,the Axiom of Foundation.Our work required formalizing some material from§7concerning order types and ordinal addition.We have also formalized ordinal multiplication.But we have ignored what Kunen calls A<ωbecause Isabelle/ZF provides list(A), the set ofﬁnite lists over A[21,§4.3]for the same purpose.Kunen’s§8and§13address the legitimacy of introducing new notations in axiomatic set theory.His discussion is more precise and comprehensive than Paulson’s defence of the notation of Isabelle/ZF[18,page361].Kunen’s§9concerns classes and recursion.The main theorems of this sec-tion,justifying transﬁnite induction and recursion over the class of ordinals,6Lawrence C.Paulson and Krzysztof Grabczewskiwere already in the Isabelle/ZF library[21,§3.2,§3.4].Kunen discusses here (and with some irony in§12)the difﬁculties of formalizing properties of class-es.Variables in ZF range over only sets;classes are essentially predicates,so a theorem about classes must be formalized as a theorem scheme.Many statements about classes are easily expressed in Isabelle/ZF.An ordi-nary class is a unary predicate,in Isabelle/ZF an object of type i⇒o,where i is the type of sets and o is the type of truth values.A class relation is a binary predicate and has the Isabelle type i⇒(i⇒o).A class function is tradition-ally represented by its graph,a single-valued class predicate[12,page25];it is more easily formalized in Isabelle as a meta-level function,an object of type i⇒i.See Paulson[18,§6]for an example involving the Replacement Axiom.Because Isabelle/ZF is built uponﬁrst-order logic,quantiﬁcation over vari-ables of types i⇒o,i⇒i,etc.,is forbidden.(And it should be;allowing such quantiﬁcation in uses of the Replacement Axiom would be illegitimate.)How-ever,schematic deﬁnitions and theorems may contain free variables of such types.Isabelle/ZF’s transﬁnite recursion operator[21,§3.4]satisﬁes an equa-tion similar to Kunen’s Theorem9.3,expressed in terms of class functions.Isabelle/ZF does not overload set operators such as∩,∪,domain and list to apply to classes.Overloading is possible in Isabelle,but is probably not worth the trouble in this case.And the class-oriented deﬁnitions might be cumber-some.Serious reasoning about classes might be easier in some other axiomatic framework,where classes formally exist.Kunen’s§10concerns cardinals.Some of these results presented great dif-ﬁculties and form one of the main subjects of this paper.But the Schr¨o der-Bernstein Theorem was already formalized in Isabelle/ZF[21,§2.6],and the ﬁrst few lemmas were straightforward.An embarrassment was proving that the natural numbers are cardinals.This boils down to showing that if there is a bijection between an m-element set and an n-element set then m=n.Proving this obvious fact is most tiresome.Rea-soning about bijections is complicated;a helpful simpliﬁcation(due to M.P. Fourman)is to reason about injections instead.Prove that if there is an injec-tion from an m-element set to an n-element set then m≤n.Applying this implication twice yields the desired result.Many intuitively obvious facts are hard to justify formally.This came up repeatedly in our proofs,and slowed our progress considerably.It is a funda-mental obstacle that will probably not yield to improved reasoning tools.Kunen proves(Theorem10.16)that for every ordinalαthere is a larger car-dinal,κ.Under AC this is an easy consequence of Cantor’s Theorem;without AC more work is required.Paulson slightly modiﬁed Kunen’s construction, lettingκbe the union of the order types of all well-orderings of subsets ofα, and found a pleasingly short machine proof.Our main concern,as mentioned above,is Kunen’s proof ofκ⊗κ=κ.We shall examine the machine proof in great detail.The other theorems of Kunen’sMechanizing Set Theory7§10concern such matters as cardinal exponentiation and coﬁnality.We havenot mechanized these,but the only obstacle to doing so is time.The rest of Kunen’s Chapter I is mainly discussion.4.Foundations of Cardinal ArithmeticLet us examine the cardinal proofs in detail.We begin by reviewing the neces-sary deﬁnitions and theorems.Then we look at the corresponding Isabelle/ZF theories leading up to the main result,κ⊗κ=κ.Throughout we shall con-centrate on unusual aspects of the formalization,since much of it is routine.4.1.W ELL-ORDERINGSA relation<is well-founded over a set A provided every non-empty subset of A has a<-minimal element.(This implies that<admits no inﬁnite decreas-ing chains···<x n<···<x2<x1within A.)If furthermore A,< is a linear ordering then we say that<well-orders A.A function f is an order-isomorphism(or just an isomorphism)between two ordered sets A,< and A ,< if f is a bijection between A and A that preserves the orderings in both directions:x<y if and only if f(x)< f(y) for all x,y∈A.Write A,< ∼= A ,< if there exists an order-isomorphism between A,< and A ,< .If A,< is an ordered set and x∈A then pred(A,x,<)def={y∈A|y< x}is called the(proper)initial segment determined by x.We also speak of A itself as an initial segment of A,< .Kunen develops the theory of relations in his§6and proves three funda-mental properties of well-orderings:−There can be no isomorphism between a well-ordered set and a proper initial segment of itself.A useful corollary is that if two initial segments are isomorphic to each other,then they are equal.−There can be at most one isomorphism between two well-ordered sets.This result sounds important,but we have never used it.2−Any two well-orderings are either isomorphic to each other,or else one of them is isomorphic to a proper initial segment of the other.Kunen’s proof of the last property consists of a single sentence:Let f={ v,w |v∈A∧w∈B∧ pred(A,v,<A) ∼= pred(B,w,<B) };note that f is an isomorphism from some initial segment of A onto some initial segment of B,and that these initial segments cannot both be proper. This gives the central idea concisely;Suppes[27,pages233–4]gives a much longer proof that is arguably less clear.However,the assertions Kunen makes are not trivial and Paulson needed two days and a half to mechanize the proof.4.2.O RDER T YPESThe ordinals may be viewed as representatives of the well-ordered sets.Every ordinal is well-ordered by the membership relation∈.What is more important, every well-ordered set is isomorphic to a unique ordinal,called its order type and written type(A,<).Kunen[12,page17]proves this by a direct construc-tion.But to mechanize the result in Isabelle/ZF,it is easier to use well-founded recursion[21,§3.4].If A,< is a well-ordering,deﬁne a function f on A by the recursionf(x)={f(y)|y<x}for all x∈A.Thentype(A,<)def={f(x)|x∈A}.It is straightforward to show that f is an isomorphism between A,< and type(A,<),which is indeed an ordinal.Our work has required proving many properties of order types,such as methods for calculating them in particular cases.Our source material contains few such proofs;we have spent much time re-discovering them.4.3.C OMBINING W ELL-ORDERINGSLet A+B def=({0}×A)∪({1}×B)stand for the disjoint sum of A and B, which is formalized in Isabelle/ZF[21,§4.1].Let A,<A and B,<B be well-ordered sets.The order types of certain well-orderings of A+B and A×B are of key importance.The sum A+B is well-ordered by a relation<that combines<A and<B, putting the elements of A before those of B.It satisﬁes the following rules:a <A aInl(a )<Inl(a)b <B bInr(b )<Inr(b)a∈A b∈BInl(a)<Inr(b)The product A×B is well-ordered by a relation<that combines<A and<B,lexicographically:a <A ab ,b∈B,b a∈A b <B bCardinal=OrderType+Fixedpt+Nat+Sum+constsLeast::(i=>o)=>i(binder"LEAST"10)eqpoll,lepoll,lesspoll::[i,i]=>o(infixl50)cardinal::i=>i("|_|")Finite,Card::i=>odefsLeast_def"Least(P)==THE i.Ord(i)&P(i)&(ALL j.j<i-->˜P(j))"eqpoll_def"A eqpoll B==EX f.f:bij(A,B)"lepoll_def"A lepoll B==EX f.f:inj(A,B)"lesspoll_def"A lesspoll B==A lepoll B&˜(A eqpoll B)"Finite_def"Finite(A)==EX n:nat.A eqpoll n"cardinal_def"|A|==LEAST i.i eqpoll A"Card_def"Card(i)==(i=|i|)"endFigure2.Isabelle/ZF Theory Deﬁning the Cardinal Numbers The well-orderings of A+B and A×B are traditionally used to deﬁne the ordinal sum and product.We do not require ordinal arithmetic until we come to the proofs from Rubin and Rubin.But we require the well-orderings themselves in order to proveκ⊗κ=κ.That proof requires yet another well-ordering construction:inverse image.If B,<B is an ordered set and f is a function from A to B then deﬁne <A byx<A y⇐⇒f(x)<B f(y).Clearly<A is well-founded if<B is.If f is injective and<B is a well-ordering then<A is also a well-ordering.If f is bijective then obviously f is an isomor-phism between the orders A,<A and B,<B ;it follows that their order types are equal.Sum,product and inverse image are useful for expressing well-orderings; this follows Paulson’s earlier work[16]within Constructive Type Theory.4.4.C ARDINAL N UMBERSFigure2presents the Isabelle/ZF deﬁnitions of cardinal numbers,following Kunen’s§10.The Isabelle theoryﬁle extends some Isabelle theories(Order-Type and others)with constants,which stand for operators or predicates.The constants are deﬁned essentially as follows:−The least ordinalαsuch that P(α)is deﬁned by a unique description[18, pages366–7]and may be written LEASTα.P(α).−Two sets A and B are equipollent if there exists a bijection between them.Write A≈B or,in Isabelle,A eqpoll B.−B dominates A if there exists an injection from A into B.Write A B or A lepoll B.−B strictly dominates A if A B and A≈B.Write A≺B orA lesspoll B.−A set isﬁnite if it is equipollent to a natural number.−The cardinality of A,written|A|,is the least ordinal equipollent to A.Without AC,no such ordinal has to exist;we might then regard|A|as undeﬁned.But everything is deﬁned in Isabelle/ZF.The operator THE returns0unless the description identiﬁes an object uniquely.Thus,an “undeﬁned”cardinality equals0;this conveniently ensures that|A|is always an ordinal.−A set i is a cardinal if i=|i|;write Card(i).Reasoning from these deﬁnitions is entirely straightforward except for the “obvious”facts aboutﬁnite cardinals mentioned above.4.5.C ARDINAL A RITHMETICLetκ,λ,µrange overﬁnite or inﬁnite cardinals.Cardinal sum and product are deﬁned in terms of disjoint sum and Cartesian product:κ⊕λdef=|κ+λ|κ⊗λdef=|κ×λ|These satisfy the familiar commutative,associative and distributive laws.The proofs are uninteresting but non-trivial,especially as we work without AC.We do so in order to use the results in proving various forms of AC to be equivalent (see below);but frequently this forces us to construct well-orderings explicitly.5.Provingκ⊗κ=κWe begin with an extended discussion of Kunen’s proof and then examine its formalization.5.1.K UNEN’S P ROOFKunen calls this result Theorem10.12.His proof is admirably concise.0,κκ,0α,00,α0,0Figure 3.Predecessors of α,β ,with β≤αTheorem.If κis an inﬁnite cardinal then κ⊗κ=κ.Proof.By transﬁnite induction on κ.Assume this holds for smaller cardi-nals.Then for α<κ,|α×α|=|α|⊗|α|<κ(applying Lemma 10.10when αis ﬁnite).3Deﬁne a well-ordering on κ×κby α,β γ,δ iff max(α,β)<max(γ,δ)∨[max(α,β)=max(γ,δ)∧α,β precedes γ,δ lexicographically ].Each α,β ∈κ×κhas no more than|succ(max(α,β))×succ(max(α,β))|<κpredecessors in ,so type(κ×κ, )≤κ,whence |κ×κ|≤κ.Since clearly |κ×κ|≥κ,|κ×κ|=κ.The key to the proof is the ordering ,whose structure may be likened to that of a square onion.Let αand βbe ordinals such that β≤α<κ.The predecessors of α,β include all pairs of the form α,β for β <β,and all pairs of the form α ,α for α <α;these pairs constitute the αth layer of the onion.The other predecessors of α,β are pairs of the form γ,δ such that γ,δ<α;these pairs constitute the inner layers of the onion.(See Figure 3.)The set of all -predecessors of α,β is a subset of succ(α)×succ(α), which gives an upper bound on its cardinality.Kunen expresses this upper bound in terms of max(α,β)to avoid having to assumeβ≤α.To simplify the formal proofs,Paulson used the more generous upper bound |succ(succ(max(α,β)))×succ(succ(max(α,β)))|.This is still a cardinal belowκ.As Kunen notes,there are two cases.Ifαorβis inﬁnite then succ(succ(max(α,β)))<κbecause max(α,β)<κand because inﬁnite cardinals are closed under successor;therefore,the inductive hypothesis realizes our claim.On the other hand,ifαandβare bothﬁnite, then so is succ(succ(max(α,β))),whileκis inﬁnite by assumption.To complete the proof,we must examine the second half of Kunen’s sen-tence:“so type(κ×κ, )≤κ,whence|κ×κ|≤κ.”Recall from§4.2that there is an isomorphismf:κ×κ→type(κ×κ, )such thatf(α,β)={f(γ,δ)| γ,δ α,β }.Thus,f(α,β)is an ordinal with the same cardinality as the set of predecessors of α,β .This implies f(α,β)<κfor allα,β<κ,and therefore type(κ×κ, )≤κ.Because f is a bijection betweenκ×κand type(κ×κ, ),we obtain|κ×κ|≤κ.The opposite inequality is trivial.5.2.M ECHANIZING THE P ROOFProvingκ⊗κ=κrequires formalizing the relation .Kunen’s deﬁnition looks complicated,but we can get the same effect using our well-ordering constructors(recall§4.3).Note that is an inverse image of the lexicographic well-ordering ofκ×κ×κ,under the function g:κ×κ→κ×κ×κdeﬁned byg(α,β)= max(α,β),α,β ;this function is trivially injective.Figure4presents part of the Isabelle theoryﬁle for cardinal arithmetic.It deﬁnes as the constant csquare rel.Here is a summary of the operators appearing in its deﬁnition:−rvimage(A,f,<)is the inverse image ordering on A derived from< by f.−lam<x,y>:K*K.<x Un y,x,y>is the function called g above.The pattern-matching in the abstraction expands internally to the con-stant split,which takes apart ordered pairs[18,page367].Finally Un denotes union;note that max(α,β)=α∪βfor ordinalsαandβ.。

《月亮与六便士》chapter 2

Chapter 1I confess that when first I made acquaintance with Charles Strickland I never for a moment discerned that there was in him anything out of the ordinary. Yet now few will be found to deny his greatness. I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstances reduces it to very discreet proportions. The Prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests. The time has passed when he was an object of ridicule, and it is no longer a mark of eccentricity to defend or of perversity to extol him. His faults are accepted as the necessary complement to his merits. It is still possible to discuss his place in art, and the adulation of his admirers is perhaps no less capricious than the disparagement of his detractors; but one thing can never be doubtful, and that is that he had genius. To my mind the most interesting thing in art is the personality of the artist; and if that is singular, I am willing to excuse a thousand faults. I suppose Velasquez was a better painter than El Greco, but custom stales one's admiration for him: the Cretan, sensual and tragic, proffers the mystery of his soul like a standing sacrifice. The artist, painter, poet, or musician, by his decoration, sublime or beautiful, satisfies the aesthetic sense; but that is akin to the sexual instinct, and shares its barbarity: he lays before you also the greater gift of himself. To pursue his secret has something of the fascination of a detective story. It is a riddle which shares with the universe the merit of having no answer. The most insignificant of Strickland's works suggests a personality which is strange, tormented, and complex; and it is this surely which prevents even those who do not like his pictures from being indifferent to them; it is this which has excited so curious an interest in his life and character.It was not till four years after Strickland's death that Maurice Huret wrote that article in the Mercure de France which rescued the unknown painter from oblivion and blazed the trail which succeeding writers, with more or less docility, have followed. For a long time no critic has enjoyed in France a more incontestable authority, and it was impossible not to be impressed by the claims he made; they seemed extravagant; but later judgments have confirmed his estimate, and the reputation of Charles Strickland is now firmly established on the lines which he laid down. The rise of this reputation is one of the most romantic incidents in the history of art. But I do not propose to deal with Charles Strickland's work except in so far as it touches upon his character. I cannot agree with the painters who claim superciliously that the layman can understand nothing of painting, and that he can best show his appreciation of their works by silence and a cheque-book. It is a grotesque misapprehension which sees in art no more than a craft comprehensible perfectly only to the craftsman: art is a manifestation of emotion, and emotion speaks a language that all may understand. But I will allow that the critic who has not a practical knowledge of technique is seldom able to say anything on the subject of real value, and my ignorance of painting is extreme. Fortunately, there is no need for me to risk the adventure, since my friend, Mr. Edward Leggatt, an able writer as well as an admirable painter, has exhaustively discussed Charles Strickland's work in a little book(1) which is a charming example of a style, for the most part, less happily cultivated in England than in France.(1) "A Modern Artist: Notes on the Work of Charles Strickland, " by Edward Leggatt, A. R. H. A. Martin Secker, 1917.Maurice Huret in his famous article gave an outline of Charles Strickland's life which was well calculated to whet the appetites of the inquiring. With his disinterested passion for art, he had a real desire to call the attention of the wise to a talent which was in the highest degree original; but he was too good a journalist to be unaware that the "human interest" would enable him more easily to effect his purpose. And when such as had come in contact with Strickland in the past, writers who had known him in London, painters who had met him in the cafes of Montmartre, discovered to their amazement that where they had seen but an unsuccessful artist, like another, authentic genius had rubbed shoulders with them there began to appear in the magazines of France and America a succession of articles, the reminiscences of one, the appreciation of another, which added to Strickland's notoriety, and fed without satisfying the curiosity of the public. The subject was grateful, and the industrious Weitbrecht-Rotholz in his imposing monograph(2) has been able to give a remarkable list of authorities.(2) "Karl Strickland: sein Leben und seine Kunst, " by Hugo Weitbrecht-Rotholz, Ph. D. Schwingel und Hanisch. Leipzig, 1914.The faculty for myth is innate in the human race. It seizes with avidity upon any incidents, surprising or mysterious, in the career of those who have at all distinguished themselves from their fellows, and invents a legend to which it then attaches a fanatical belief. It is the protest of romance against the commonplace of life. The incidents of the legend become the hero's surest passport to immortality. The ironic philosopher reflects with a smile that Sir Walter Raleigh is more safely inshrined in the memory of mankind because he set his cloak for the Virgin Queen to walk on than because he carried the English name to undiscovered countries. Charles Strickland lived obscurely. He made enemies rather than friends. It is not strange, then, that those who wrote of him should have eked out their scanty recollections with a lively fancy, and it is evident that there was enough in the little that was known of him to give opportunity to the romantic scribe; there was much in his life which was strange and terrible, in his character something outrageous, and in his fate not a little that was pathetic. In due course a legend arose of such circumstantiality that the wise historian would hesitate to attack it.But a wise historian is precisely what the Rev. Robert Strickland is not. He wrote his biography(3) avowedly to "remove certain misconceptions which had gained currency" in regard to the later part of his father's life, and which had "caused considerable pain to persons still living. " It is obvious that there was much in the commonly received account of Strickland's life to embarrass a respectable family. I have read this work with a good deal of amusement, and upon this I congratulate myself, since it is colourless and dull. Mr. Strickland has drawn the portrait of an excellent husband and father, a man of kindly temper, industrious habits, and moral disposition. The modern clergyman has acquired in his study of the science which I believe is called exegesis an astonishing facility for explaining things away, but the subtlety with which the Rev. Robert Strickland has "interpreted" all the facts in his father's life which a dutiful son might find it inconvenient to remember must surely lead him in the fullness of time to the highest dignities of the Church. I see already his muscular calves encased in the gaiters episcopal. It was a hazardous, though maybe a gallant thing to do, since it is probable that the legend commonly received has had no small share in the growth of Strickland's reputation; for there are many who have been attracted to his art by the detestation in which they held his character or the compassion withwhich they regarded his death; and the son's well-meaning efforts threw a singular chill upon the father's admirers. It is due to no accident that when one of his most important works, The Woman of Samaria, (4) was sold at Christie's shortly after the discussion which followed the publication of Mr. Strickland's biography, it fetched POUNDS 235 less than it had done nine months before when it was bought by the distinguished collector whose sudden death had brought it once more under the hammer. Perhaps Charles Strickland's power and originality would scarcely have sufficed to turn the scale if the remarkable mythopoeic faculty of mankind had not brushed aside with impatience a story which disappointed all its craving for the extraordinary. And presently Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz produced the work which finally set at rest the misgivings of all lovers of art.(3) "Strickland: The Man and His Work, " by his son, Robert Strickland. Wm. Heinemann, 1913.(4) This was described in Christie's catalogue as follows: "A nude woman, a native of the Society Islands, is lying on the ground beside a brook. Behind is a tropical Landscape with palm-trees, bananas, etc. 60 in. x 48 in. "Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz belongs to that school of historians which believes that human nature is not only about as bad as it can be, but a great deal worse; and certainly the reader is safer of entertainment in their hands than in those of the writers who take a malicious pleasure in representing the great figures of romance as patterns of the domestic virtues. For my part, I should be sorry to think that there was nothing between Anthony and Cleopatra but an economic situation; and it will require a great deal more evidence than is ever likely to be available, thank God, to persuade me that Tiberius was as blameless a monarch as King George V. Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz has dealt in such terms with the Rev. Robert Strickland's innocent biography that it is difficult to avoid feeling a certain sympathy for the unlucky parson. His decent reticence is branded as hypocrisy, his circumlocutions are roundly called lies, and his silence is vilified as treachery. And on the strength of peccadillos, reprehensible in an author, but excusable in a son, the Anglo-Saxon race is accused of prudishness, humbug, pretentiousness, deceit, cunning, and bad cooking. Personally I think it was rash of Mr. Strickland, in refuting the account which had gained belief of a certain "unpleasantness" between his father and mother, to state that Charles Strickland in a letter written from Paris had described her as "an excellent woman, " since Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz was able to print the letter in facsimile, and it appears that the passage referred to ran in fact as follows: God damn my wife. She is an excellent woman. I wish she was in hell. It is not thus that the Church in its great days dealt with evidence that was unwelcome. Dr. Weitbrecht-Rotholz was an enthusiastic admirer of Charles Strickland, and there was no danger that he would whitewash him. He had an unerring eye for the despicable motive in actions that had all the appearance of innocence. He was a psycho-pathologist, as well as a student of art, and the subconscious had few secrets from him. No mystic ever saw deeper meaning in common things. The mystic sees the ineffable, and the psycho-pathologist the unspeakable. There is a singular fascination in watching the eagerness with which the learned author ferrets out every circumstance which may throw discredit on his hero. His heart warms to him when he can bring forward some example of cruelty or meanness, and he exults like an inquisitor at the auto da fe of an heretic when with some forgotten story he can confound the filial piety of the Rev. Robert Strickland. His industry has been amazing. Nothing has been too small to escape him, and you may be sure that if Charles Strickland left a laundry bill unpaid it will be given you in extenso, and if he forebore to return a borrowed half-crown no detail of thetransaction will be omitted.老实说，我刚刚认识查理斯·思特里克兰德的时候，从来没注意到这个人有什么与众不同的地方，但是今天却很少有人不承认他的伟大了。

Foundations of Entrepreneurship

Ch. 1: The Foundations of Entrepreneurship
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education
1-4
What is an Entrepreneur?
One who creates a new business in the face of risk and uncertainty for the purpose of achieving profit and growth by identifying opportunities and assembling the necessary resources to capitalize on them.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education
Ch. 1: The Foundations of Entrepreneurship
1 - 11
The Cultural Diversity of Entrepreneurship

Young entrepreneurs
Ch. 1: The Foundations of Entrepreneurship
Ch. 1: The Foundations of Entrepreneurship
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education
1 - 10
Feeding the Entrepreneurial Fire
(continued)

Entrepreneurs as heroes Entrepreneurial education Demographic and economic factors Shift to a service economy Technology advancements Independent lifestyles E-commerce and the Internet International opportunities

987, Chapter 2

Eliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)1. Article Citation (APA format)Eliot, J. (1987). Chapter 2: Some Philosophical Ideas About Space.In Models of psychological space: Psychometric, developmental,and experimental approaches. New York: Springer-Verlag.2. Topical FocusThe chapter traces "characterizations of space historically fromphilosophical through physical to psychological conceptions of space."philosophical conceptionsphysical conceptionspsychological conceptionstopical debates related to ideas of space are identifiedthe roots and battle ground dimensions of thenativist vs empiricist debate are introducedis space an all embracing unity or amultiplicity of spaces?nature between knowledge of the physicalworld and psychological space3. Breadth of content coveragestarting with "the early Greek conceptionof a single unitary cosmos""touched upon the controversies about the infinity of spaceand the relation between space and matter"described different conceptions of Plato and Aristotle"Descartes' distinction between thinkingmatter and extended matter"the absolute and relative distinction ofspace in Newton's theoryempiricism: Locke, Berkeley, and HumeKant's a-priori contentionsWilliam James' summary of spatial perceptionGestaltists and the nativism/empiricism debateneurophysiolocial ideas aboutpsychological space4. Article Summary/Contribution to Fieldreally sets the stage about the evolution of spatialconceptions and how historical context shapedthe development of those conceptions"points to some issues that continue to affecthow we think about psychological space""we are hindered in our thinking about alternatives to absolute or relativespaces by the lack of a language system that would enable us to talk aboutthe multiplicity of spaces without endangering the identity of the construct" Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical ConceptionsPart_2: Physical ConceptionsPart_3: Psychological ConceptionsEliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical Conceptions(1) Pre-Socratic(2) Plato(3) Aristotle(4) Middle Ages(5) Four Prominent Views(6) Scholasticism; Augustine (354-340)(7) Early Arab Philosophy(8) Mediaeval(9) 14th Century Scholastics(10) 15th and 16th Century(11) Renaissance philosophers(12) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Part_2: Physical Conceptions(13) Line of Development 1: space mainly as anobject of physics --Isaac Newton (1643-1727)Line of Development 2: space as anGNOSEOLOGICAL concept (works ofBritish empiricists)(14) Locke (1632-1704)(15) Berkeley (1685-1753)(16) Hume, Lambert (1728-1777), Leibniz (1646-1716)(17) Kant (1724-1804)Part_3: Psychological Conceptions(18) Transition(19) Consequences of Newtonianconception (19th century)(20) William James (1890)(21) Nativism; Hochberg (1962)Eliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical Conceptions(1) Pre-SocraticPre-Socratic Philosopherscosmos or "structured order" a single unitary world"the assumption that the whole universewas incorporated in one all-embracing orunified space (Gosztonyi, 1976, pp.55-57)""unity of space"finite or infinite?concept of infinity: Anaximandros(610-547 B.C.)"Space, still conceived as a unity,nonetheless, could contain an infinitenumber of worlds like our own.""the borders of our world did notnecessarily coincide with the border ofspace"Archytasplace (topos)"is would be possible at the end of theworld to stretch out one's hand...""one must agree that space is unlimited"Atomistsconcentrated on the problem of matter.The distinction between space and matterwas unclearPythagoreans...the existence of the void...Anaxagoras (c. 488-428 B.C.)tried to disprove the possibility of the voidby physical observationsmany pre-Socratic philosopherscontributed important ideas to ourunderstanding of space,ideas that have great influence over the centuries(2) PlatoThe Timaeusdescribed space (chora) as somethingwhich, in its potential form, alreadyexisted before our world.space is opposed to the real thingnamely the ideas (or forms)and provides a place in which faint copiesof the eternal ideas form our world ofbecoming and perishingdistinguishes betweenthinking (noesis)sensation (aisthesis)space (triton genos)in its potential form, provides thepossibility of rthe real being, the ideas, tocome together with the nonbeing and thusfrom the things of our world of becomingthings do not emerge OUT OF SPACE,but only IN space as faint copies of the ideasthe process of becoming in our world can(in part) be characterized as aspatialization of ideas.both in its potential and its actual form,space is not directly accessible to ourperception.we can only infer space from the spatiality of the objectsthe atoms are composed of triangles, and theelements differ in the number of triangles buildingup their respective atomsatmos of fire have the form of pyramids(composed of four triangle)atoms of water are composed of 20triangles, and therefore can roll easily see SACHS, 1917it applied geometric concepts to spatial phenomenaconcept of three-dimensionality(3) Aristotledid not use the term "space" (chora), butrather "place" (topos)place as the fifth of ten categoriesplace is a quantitydistinguishes between discrete andcontinuous quantities place is continuousin his Physics (especially Book IV)treated space as a category and as a physical realityfinal definition implied that the place of an object is theadjacentimmovableboundary of the containing bodyintroduced space as a categoryan accident of substanceplace is the boundary of the bodycan be viewed as the totality of all placesor as the boundary of all bodiesoccupying placesand thus as the boundary of our cosmosall places are relative to that boundarydescribed space as having three extensions andthus being three-dimensional thus space is unisotropichis doctrine of the "natural places" of theelements further implies that space is also inhomogeneousspace itself is immovablehis definition tied space to corporealityappears to be the first Greek philosopherwho dealt with spatial perception(4) Middle AgesWilliam of Occamstill treated space within the framework ofsubstance and accidentTheophrastus and Stratton denied the existence of the vacuum(5) Four Prominent Viewsclassic pre-Socratic philosophy of natureidentified the borders of the cosmos and spaceby postulating the unity of the cosmosintroducing the important idea of the unity of spaceAtomistic theoryclearly distinguished matter and spaceintroduced space as somethingimmaterial but realalso implied the importance ofhomogeneity of spaceimplicitly raised the problem of whetherspace is to be thought of asisotropicor unisotropicinitiated longstanding debates aboutthe infinity of spaceand the possibility of an empty space or vacuumPlatonic theorystressed the distinction betweenthe ideal worldand our (spatial) world of becomingand the distinction between space inits potentialand its actual form (the spatiality of things)elaborated on the Pythagorean thought of ananalysis of matter and space by geometric conceptsdeveloped the notion that we cannotperceive space directly,but can only know about it by inferenceAristotlehis view dominated the greater part ofmedieval philosophyimplied the view of space as a category which was later reinterpreted as a form of our experiencethe definition of place as the adjacentboundary of the containing bodyand the interpretation of space asthe totality of placesimmovableand limited by the outer spacehis theory denied the existence of a vacuumimplied the doctrine of "natural places"and of forces inherent in spaceassumed three-dimensionalityand regarded space as bothunisotropicand inhomogeneousregarded space as an accidentintroducing the tradition of treating spacewithin the categorical framework ofsubstanceaccidenthis interpretation of space as dependenton the physical bodies, as finite andimmovable as a wholehas been regarded by some authors as a hindrancefor the development of theorizing about space up tothe end of the Middle Ages and even later(6) Scholasticism; Augustine (354-340)space interpreted more and moremetaphysically and theologicallyargued that space could not be infinite since this wouldconflict with the concept of an almighty God(7) Early Arab Philosophy(8) Mediaeval(9) 14th Century Scholastics(10) 15th and 16th Century(11) Renaissance philosophers(12) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Part_2: Physical Conceptions(13) Line of Development 1: space mainly as anobject of physics --Isaac Newton (1643-1727)Line of Development 2: space as anGNOSEOLOGICAL concept (works ofBritish empiricists)(14) Locke (1632-1704)(15) Berkeley (1685-1753)(16) Hume, Lambert (1728-1777), Leibniz (1646-1716)(17) Kant (1724-1804)Part_3: Psychological Conceptions(18) Transition(19) Consequences of Newtonianconception (19th century)(20) William James (1890)(21) Nativism; Hochberg (1962)Eliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical Conceptions(1) Pre-Socratic(2) Plato(3) Aristotle(4) Middle Ages(5) Four Prominent Views(6) Scholasticism; Augustine (354-340)(7) Early Arab Philosophyalso dominated by theological interestsgreatly influenced by aristotletheir theory of space, however, differedfrom the doctrine of the Greek Atomists inthatthe atoms were held to have no extensionand were thought of as points in space.three-dimensionality of space and of thebodies in space was thus explained bythe relationsh of many atoms occupyingdifferent locaitons(8) MediaevalAquinas (1225-1274)added theological ideas to Aristotles viewsuch as the notion that God is spacelessand beyond any spatialitybut that space--like the whole cosmos--isnonetheless under his powerCouncil of the Doctors of the Sorbonne (1277)debates concluded by authoritarian verdictsdeclared the Aristotelian view that there isan absolutely immovable body in spaceto be heretical because this viewcontradicted the doctrine of an almightyGod.God could move the whole universeSilesian philosopher, Witelo (1220-1277)analyzed the sense of sight and decidedthat it is directed only at the perception oflight and colorthought that spatial perception could notrely on sight alonebut must involve an association andcombination of sensory elements(9) 14th Century ScholasticsHugh of St. Victor (1096-1141)tried to revive the Atomistic DoctrineNicholas of Autrecourt (died after 1350)tried to revive the Atomistic DoctrineJewish thinker, Hasdai Crescas (1340-1412)criticized Aristotle's view directlydescribed space as an empty dimensionalextension that is capable of taking up matterspace is a unity, homogeneous, immaterial,infinite, immovable and without "inner powers"thought to have contributed greatly to our modernview of physical space as being free ofmetaphysical forces and as being independent ofsubstanceformmatterand physical qualitieshis theory is central to the modern idea ofabstracting space from physical processesand his view on an immovable, "absolute"space reoccurs later in Newton(10) 15th and 16th CenturyItialian and German philosophersBernhardino Telesio (1508-1588)described space as a container of beingspace is incorporeal, immaterial,formless, free of inherent forces, andimmovable in its entirety(11) Renaissance philosophersGerman, Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464)Franciscus Patritius (1529-1597)developed a metaphysical theory of lightexplicity refused to treat space within thetraditional Aristotelian scheme ofsubstance and accident.space exists before matterthe study of space was fundamental to all natural scienceGiordano Bruno (1548-1600)appears to have been influenced by Crescasbut went far beyond empirically orientedconceptions by asserting the existence ofa countless number of worlds like our ownin endless spaceeventually sentenced to death for refusingto retract these ideasCopernicusassumed the existence of a system ofspheres (if a heliocentric one), not ofsingle planets.held a homocentric view by insisting thatthe earth has a special status as thehome of manKeplerheld a homocentric view by insisting thatthe earth has a special status as thehome of manGalileoarrived at a conclusion about space whichis evident in modern thoughtnoted that there is the space in oureveryday experience and our scientificobservations:the space of intuitionthe idea of an infinite space forces us totranscent intuitive space by mathematicaland geometrical constructioninto the concept of abstract orconstructive spacewhich is no longer fully accessible to oursense and experience(12) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Meditations (1641)struggling against skepticismargued that a special subjective evidence isboth certain and fundamental to knowledgeeach one of us is a "thinking matter" andtherefore must existspatial extension is an innate idea (ideae innatae)space must be involved when the objectsof the outer world are percieved"extended matter" in opposition to the"thinking matter"analytic geometry proceeds byCONSTRUCTING its elementary objectslikecircletriangleplaneetcout of such innate ideas as spatialextension or shaperather than by abstracting them fromphysical objectsbelieved in the existence of innate ideasideas not derived from experiencebut which come to mind with suchcertainty that they cannot be ignored ordisputedthe famous "wax example" of his secondMEDITATION (1641)argued that our knowledge of all qualitiesof a piece of wax can be doubted, up tothe principle that it has spatial extensionspatial extension is a principle whichcannot be broken down into severalspecifications by our mind any attempt to do so would be an "idle abstraction"spatial extension is a necessary, basicpredicate of the physical worldAristotle's philosophy of space also had asimilar double aspectspace introduced as a category and, yet,it was also conceived of as a property ofphysical objectsnote to self: does this have anyconnections with Artaud's "Theatre and itsdouble?"Descartes' theory may be considered as the starting pointof the longstanding debate as to whether spaceis best considered as an ideaor as something real,that is, the discussion of ideality versus reality of spacePart_2: Physical Conceptions(13) Line of Development 1: space mainly as anobject of physics --Isaac Newton (1643-1727)Line of Development 2: space as anGNOSEOLOGICAL concept (works ofBritish empiricists)(14) Locke (1632-1704)(15) Berkeley (1685-1753)(16) Hume, Lambert (1728-1777), Leibniz (1646-1716)(17) Kant (1724-1804)Part_3: Psychological Conceptions(18) Transition(19) Consequences of Newtonianconception (19th century)(20) William James (1890)(21) Nativism; Hochberg (1962)Eliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical Conceptions(1) Pre-Socratic(2) Plato(3) Aristotle(4) Middle Ages(5) Four Prominent Views(6) Scholasticism; Augustine (354-340)(7) Early Arab Philosophy(8) Mediaeval(9) 14th Century Scholastics(10) 15th and 16th Century(11) Renaissance philosophers(12) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Part_2: Physical Conceptions(13) Line of Development 1: space mainly as anobject of physics --Isaac Newton (1643-1727)culminated in Newton's Principia (1687)distinguishes between two types of space,absolute and relative:absolute space"in its own nature, without relation toanything external, remains always similarand immovable"relative spaceis some moveable dimension or measureof the absolute space, which our sensesdetermine by its position to bodies"and Newton's Optics (1704)Newtons conception of space becamefundamental for classical physicsas a theory of physical space it marks theend of a tradition in natural philosophyphysical world consisted oftimespaceforcemasswith "space made up of points, timecomposed of instances, and both existingindependently of the bodies and eventswhich occupy them"in modern physics coordinate systems arenothing but a useful fiction not so for NewtonNewton argued that relative space as wellis accessible to us only via the relations ofthe objects in it.by contrast, absolute space is conceivedas immovable and homogenous.it was conceived as a container orframework which, like the Cheshire Cat'sgringwas something that remained after thecontents had been removed.Line of Development 2: space as anGNOSEOLOGICAL concept (works ofBritish empiricists)(14) Locke (1632-1704)if there were innate ideas, then everyonewould agree on themour mindis like "white paper void of all characters"into which all ideas enter "from experience;in that all our knowledge is founded,and from that it ultimately derives itself"the idea of space, is a simple one arrivedat by sight and touchspace differs from the body in that is itwithout soliditywithout resistance against moving bodiescontinuousimmovablespatial perception is not directed at spaceitself, but at the spatiality of the bodiesand at spatial relations(15) Berkeley (1685-1753)impression of spatiality, provided bysense of touch and spatial visionis only possible through the association ofthe impressions of vision with impressionsof touchfor our experience, we learn to associatecertain optic impressions with haptic orkinaesthetic ones,and thus arrive at spatial perceptionwhen discussing spatial vision, alluded to sensationsof tension when we adjust the muscles of our eyesto view distant objectsappears to have been the first to mentionboth the phenomenon of convergence inbinocular vision and the phenomenon ofaccommodationdenied the existence of absolute physicalspace and by asserting that nothing existsoutside our own thoughts.extended matter exists only in theperception and the imaginations of themindfor the outer world to exist means onlythat it is perceived (esse est percipi)the psychological treatment of traditional gnoseological problems byLocke and the further development of his theories by Berkeley thusprovided an empirical foundation to several of our modernpsychological theories of spatial perception.(16) Hume, Lambert (1728-1777), Leibniz (1646-1716)the empiricists claimed (especially Hume)their theory of knowledge to be valid both asa philosophical theoryand a psychological theoryGerman Mathematician Lambertinsisted the problem of a-priori conceptswas a logical and not a psychological oneLeibnizgenerally wrote of "virtually innate ideas"meaning that they were implied in thefunctions of mind but were not necessarily conscious in every caseHumewidened significantly the cleavage between empiricistsand nativists philosophers with respect to the questionof how we obtain our knowledge of the world(17) Kant (1724-1804)introduced a clear distinction between thephilosophical and the psychologicalinterpretations of the doctrine of innateideas.began his CRITIQUE OF PURE REASONwith an empiricist statement:"There is no doubt whatsoever that all ourknowledge begins with experience"However, he went on to add that"nevertheless, it does not necessarily allspring from experience."experience has temporal priority in ourknowledge, the bases of our knowledgehave logical a-priority over experiencesince without certain prerequisites ofknowledge, our experience would beimpossible.the only thing that can be said about these problems within aKantian framework is that the world is of indefinite magnitudePart_3: Psychological Conceptions(18) Transition(19) Consequences of Newtonianconception (19th century)(20) William James (1890)(21) Nativism; Hochberg (1962)Eliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical Conceptions(1) Pre-Socratic(2) Plato(3) Aristotle(4) Middle Ages(5) Four Prominent Views(6) Scholasticism; Augustine (354-340)(7) Early Arab Philosophy(8) Mediaeval(9) 14th Century Scholastics(10) 15th and 16th Century(11) Renaissance philosophers(12) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Part_2: Physical Conceptions(13) Line of Development 1: space mainly as anobject of physics --Isaac Newton (1643-1727)Line of Development 2: space as anGNOSEOLOGICAL concept (works ofBritish empiricists)Part_3: Psychological Conceptions(18) TransitionLocke, Berkeley, and Hume introduced the psychological point of viewKantdelineating the philosophical point of view against itwas an a-priorist, not a nativistKantian doctrine was not designed as an empirical modelthus reaching the point historically wherepsychological theories of spaceseparate from the more generalphilosophical traditionsand become important fields of researchin their own right(19) Consequences of Newtonianconception (19th century)Gibson (1950)Extensity, shape, and distance: thesewere the primary constituents of spacethe problem of how we apprehendthe Newtonian universebecame essentially the problem of howwe apprehend geometric spacethe question that confronted philosophersof the 19th century waswhether every point in the visual field wasintrinsically connected at birthor whether points in the visual field weredifferentiated through experienceand then associated with an appropriateretinal point in the eye.Allport (1955)"spatiality" as a capacity of mind--i.e. nativistsnativist doctrinelocal signs were intrinsically spatial in characterthe points of sensory stimulation were "directly labeled"in phenomenological experience as to their lociHering (1861-1864)signs were attached to the visualexperiences arising from each retinal pointthere were three such signs for each point,one for each of the three dimensionsto account for spatial perception it was notnecessary to bring in eye movement becausethe spatial aspect was immediately givenLotze, Helmholtz, and Wundt (allempiricists) held a different viewLotzethe signs which were connected withsensations, or were properties of them, werenot originally endowed with a spatial character but had to acquire itthe process of acquisition involved muscularsensations and the associative combination orfusion of sensory componentsEvery tactile and retinal point had its local label.the aspect of sensory experience whichcarried the spatial quality was, for Lotze,the attribute of intensityspecifically, it was the intensity ofmuscular sensation, and intensity patternfor the spot touched...with the continuous movement of thereceptor in relation to the surfacethe successive local signs areexperienced in proper sequenceof the two positions, empiricism appearedthe stronger for two reasonsno anatomical structures were found thatwere sensitive todepthformsdistanceobjectsnativists had difficulty explaining size invariancejust as empiricists had difficulty in explaining therelationship between sensation and perceptionwith respect to our understanding of illusionsor the fact that the distance of an object canvary without change in its perceived size shape/size constancy(20) William James (1890)(21) Nativism; Hochberg (1962)Eliot, 1987, Chapter 2pdf file [1.13m]research brief (Review Article)Some Philosophical Ideas About SpacePart_1: Philosophical Conceptions(1) Pre-Socratic(2) Plato(3) Aristotle(4) Middle Ages(5) Four Prominent Views(6) Scholasticism; Augustine (354-340)(7) Early Arab Philosophy(8) Mediaeval(9) 14th Century Scholastics(10) 15th and 16th Century(11) Renaissance philosophers(12) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Part_2: Physical Conceptions(13) Line of Development 1: space mainly as anobject of physics --Isaac Newton (1643-1727)Line of Development 2: space as anGNOSEOLOGICAL concept (works ofBritish empiricists)Part_3: Psychological Conceptions(18) Transition(19) Consequences of Newtonianconception (19th century)(20) William James (1890)commented on long history of interest inspatial perceptionsuggested it could be summarized interms of three main theoriesHelmholtz and Wundtspatial attributes reside in objects, notsensations, and are learned through inferenceswe use clues revealed through various sensorymodalities to form inferences about the natureof objects and object relationssenses respond directly to spatial stimuliand that spatial senses for vision, audition,and movement operate as distinctlydifferentiated modalitieswe use the various sensory excitations ascues to bring a given perceptioninto the stage of consciousnessour senses cooperate quite successfullyin giving us knowledge of the spatialcharacteristics of objects, such as theirlocationsizeshapestabilitymobilityfavored by Jamesspace is an innate form of all perception, neitherlearned nor inferred from experience not favored by James(21) Nativism; Hochberg (1962)Gestalt theory proposedthe ability to perceive spatialcharacteristics was inborn (nativist)spatial experiences are indeed as immediateas any of the so-called sensationsfixed relationships betweenstimulus and response do not exist and are not necessary for either (1) or (2) to be true.conceded that individual receptor organs couldnot be found for the experience of distanceGestalt movement in 1930s and1940s: Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffkaall visual perception wasthree-dimensional becauseexperienced order in space is alwaysstructurally identical with a functionalorder in the distribution of underlyingbrain processes (Kohler, p. 39)concept of an underlying brain organization for all perceptionwas an interesting psychological analogue to Kant's earliernotion of an a-priori framework imposed by intuitionGibson (1950)those three guys were not as explicitabout the perception of space as theywere about form.for the Gestalt theorists, the perception ofform was organized according to recurringtendencies or laws ofsegmentationrelational groupingsimplicityunderlying brain processes weresaid to seek out "good form"see Pizlosee David N. Perkinsand to impose organization and meaning upon itby emphasizing organizationalproperties, Gestaltists indicated one way in whichperception was more than the sum of our sensationsO'Keefe and Nadaladvanced the notion that brainorganizaiton might be an a-priori basis forperceiving spatial informaitonthe hippocampus provides us with ana-priori Euclidian framework for ourperception of the external worldthis is a closer analog to the Kantiandoctrine of a-priori forms of intuition thanthose of the Gestalt viewpoint。

Contemporary American Culture and Society

Contemporary American Culture and SocietyIdentification of Key Terms, Ideas, and People(Be prepared not only to define key terms and recognize concepts or individuals but also to explain their significance and utilize the information in discussion of key points about American culture and society.)Chapter 1 –Introduction:Thomas Jefferson, Boston Tea Party, slavery, Civil War, Abraham Lincoln, Gilded Age, Depression Era, Franklin D. RooseveltChapter 2 –The Constitution and System of Governmen t: legislative article, executive article, judicial article, separation of powers, checks and balances, Federalist papers, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, republicanism, federalism, two-chamber system.Chapter 3 – The Amendments: Bill of Rights, freedom of ideas, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to bear arms, symbolic speech, Miranda rights.Chapter 4 –Education: self-government, decentralization, universality, compulsory education (elementary & secondary), public taxation for schools, G.I. Bill of Rights. Chapter 5 –Immigration and Ethnicity: Hispanics, Asian Americans, Afro-Americans, Native Americans, melting pot, salad bowl, xenophobia, Immigrations Act (1965), affirmative action.Chapter 6 –Family and Personal Relationships: traditional family, heterosexual marriage, no fault divorce, no-family household, cohabitationChapter 7 – Domestic Economy: fiscal policy, GDP, federal budget, surplus, deficit, monetary policy, Federal Reserve System, NAFTA, WTO, Dow Jones Industrial Average, NASDAQ.Chapter 8 –Social Welfare: poverty line, welfare state, social insurance v. public assistance, unemployment compensation, Medicare, Medicaid, AFDC v. TANF. Chapter 9 –Political Parties and Interest Groups: two-party system, Republican Party, Democratic Party, the electoral college, traditional images of the two parities, lobbying, interest groupsChapter 10 –Work: minimum wage, unemployment rate, structural unemployment, telecommuting, graying workforce, structural change in the US labor market, employment trend, blue collar, white collarChapter 11 –Print Media: top five newspapers, freedom of the press, censorship, top ten consumer magazines, Watergate, concentration of ownership, online mediaChapter 12 –Electronic media: maturity of TV, TV’s influence on elections, three giant commercial TV networks, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), invasion of privacy, copyright protection/infringement, obscenity and pornographyChapter 13 – Leisure and recreation: theme parks, Disneyland, family-oriented travel attractionsChapter 14 – Tourism and Holidays: official national holidays.Chapter 15 –Justice and the Law: Supreme Court, nine justices, judicial review, judicial independence, Courts of appeals (circuit courts), district courts, common law, public vs. private law, selection of Supreme Court JusticesChapter 16 –Crime and the Police: violent crimes, nonviolent/property crimes, Uniform Crime Report (UCR), National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), gun control, the Second Amendment, the Brady Act。

高考英语双文阅读与学习：了不起的盖茨比-Chapter 1-02

高考英语双文阅读与学习：了不起的盖茨比-Chapter 1-02Chapter 1第五段：My family have been prominent, well-to-do people in this Middle Western city for three generations.笔记：this Middle Western city：美国中西部的一个城市。

美国中西部具体指的是美国纵贯南北的阿巴拉契亚山脉以西、密西西比河盆地以北的地区, 那里集聚着许多来自北欧的移民。

这个地区包括美国北达科他州（North Dakota）、明尼苏达州（Minnesota）、俄亥俄州（Ohio）、密苏里州（Missouri）、印第安纳州（Indiana）等。

prominent /ˈprɑmənənt /重要的; 著名的 well-to-do富裕的（be better off经济状况较以前（或较大多数人）好）翻译：在这座中西部城市，我家连续三代都算是有头有脸的上流人士。

The Carraways are something of a clan, and we have a tradition that we're descended from the Dukes of Buccleuch, but the actual founder of my line was my grandfather's brother, who came here in fifty-one, sent a substitute to the Civil War, and started the wholesale hardware business that my father carries on today.笔记：something of a(an)既可与表物的名词连用，亦可与表人的名词连用。

它表示不确定的程度(多少，有点，在某种程度上)： I'm something of a carpenter.我会点儿木工。

Unit10

Unit 10 The Virtues of Ambition
critical of conservatism and the Republican Party, and a registered independent supporting impeachment of President George W. Bush.
Unit 10 The Virtues of Ambition
3. participatory democracy Participatory democracy is a process emphasizing the broad participation (decision making) of constituents in the direction and operation of political systems. While etymological roots imply that any democracy would rely on the participation of its citizens, traditional representative democracies tend to limit citizen participation to voting, leaving actual governance to politicians. Participatory democracy strives to create opportunities for all members of a political group to make meaningful contributions to decision-making, and seeks to broaden the range of people who have access to such opportunities.

了不起的盖茨比-CHAPTER TWO

PART 2
Characters introduction
Tom
Nick
Mrs.Wilson（Myrtle） Mr.Wilson McKees Catherine
The dog vendor
spousal relationship
McKees
Tom:
and his determination to have my company bordered on violence. 他硬要我陪他的做法近乎暴力行为 "Go and buy ten more dogs with it.” 给你钱。拿去再买十只狗。 “Daisy! Daisy! Daisy!” shouted Mrs. Wilson. “I’ll say it whenever I want to! Daisy! Dai——” Making a short deft movement, Tom Buchanan broke her nose with his open hand. "黛西！黛西！黛西！"威尔逊太太大喊大叫，"我什么时候想叫就叫！黛西！黛……" 汤姆· 布坎农动作敏捷，伸出手一巴掌打破了威尔逊太太的鼻子。
pride violence conceit self-righteousness but rational
Mrs.Wilson（Myrtle）:
Mrs. Wilson gathered up her dog and her other purchases, and went haughtily in. 威尔逊太太向四周扫视一番，俨然一副皇后回宫的神气，一面捧起小狗和其他买来的东西，趾高气扬地走了进去。 “I married him because I thought he was a gentleman,” she said finally. “I thought he knew something about breeding, but he wasn’t fit to lick my shoe.” "我嫁给了他，是因为我以为他是个上等人，"她最后说， "我以为他还有点教养，不料他连舔我的鞋都不配。"

第二章个体行为的基础

2-30 © 2005 Prentice-Hall
工作满意度与组织公民行为Satisfaction and OCB
结果公平、待遇公平、程序公平
工作满意感
组织公民行为
2-31 © 2005 Prentice-Hall
工作满意度与客户满意感
• 员工的工作满意度会带来客户满意感吗？
有证据表明，感到满意的员工会提高顾客的满意感和忠诚度。
© 2005 Prentice-Hall
2-20
• 工作满意度（Job satisfaction ）指个人
对他所从事工作的总体态度。 • 工作投入度（Job involvement）指一个人从心理上对其工作的认同程度以及认为他的绩效水平对自我价值的重要程度。 • 组织承诺（Organizational commitment）指员工认同特定的组织及其目标，并且愿意留在该组织中的一种心态。
2-32 © 2005 Prentice-Hall
工作满意度与缺勤率
• 工作满意度和缺勤率负相关，但这种关联比较微弱。
工作满意度与离职率
• 工作满意度和离职率负相关，其相关关系强于缺勤率的关系。
工作满意度与工作场所越轨行为
• 工作不满意会预示工作场所越轨行为。
© 2005 Prentice-Hall
© 2005 Prentice-Hall
2-29
工作满意度与组织公民行为Satisfaction and OCB
• 早期对于组织公民行为的讨论假定它们与满意度密切相关。 • 近年来越来越多的研究证据表明，工作满意度对于组织公民行为的影响是通过公平感发生作用的。 • 总体上，工作满意感与组织公民行为之间的关系中等相关，但是，如果控制公平这一因素，满意感与组织公民行为不相关。

英语国家概况练习

《英语国家概况》练习夜大06英语专科学生用；2008年3月Chapter 1 Land and People1. the British Isles (p.3)2. On the island of Great Britain, how many political divisions are there ? (p.3)3. What is the official name of U.K. ? (p.3)4 What are the four political divisions of the United Kingdom? (P.3)5. Describe the geographical position of Britain. (p.4)6. About a hundred years ago, what is the result of the Britain’s imperialist expansion ?(p.4)7. The British Commonwealth p.48. What were the English people and the English language born? (p.12)Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation (5000 BC—1066)1.What religion did the Anglo-Saxons bring to Britain ? (p.21)2. Who laid the foundation of the English State ? (p.22)3. Who is known as “the father of British navy” ? Why ? (p.23)4 What were the main consequences of the Norman Conquest? (p.26)Chapter 3 The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)1. <The Canterbury Tales> (p.32)2. the Great Charter (p.33)3. What were the causes of the Hundred Yea rs’ War between France and England ?(p.36)4. What harm did the Black Death do to the English society? (p.37)Chapter 4 Transition to the Modern Age (1455—1688)1. Between whom was the War of Roses in the British history fought ? (p.41)2. Elizabeth I (p,45)3. In 1588 what did the English fleet defeat and what result did it produce ? (p.47)4. The English Renaissance (p.49)5. What were the m ost famous Shakespeare’s comed ies and tragedies? (p.49)6. The English Civil War (pp.56 – 57)Chapter 5 The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)1. What were considered the characteristics of farming in England in the late 18th and early 19th centuries ? (p.65)2. the Industrial Revolution (p.66，p.69)3. In which industry did the Industrial Revolution in Britain first begin ? (p.67)4. In 1836, who formed the London Working Men’s Association ?(p.71)5. What contributed to the decline of the British Empire ? (p.84)Chapter 6 The Economy1. British Disease (p.88)2. What are the three periods as far as the evolution of the British economy is concerned? (P.89)3. Visible and invisible Trade in Britain (p.104)Chapter 7 Government and Administration1. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Who is the head of the State ?(p.106)2. the British Constitution (p.106)3. What does the British Parliament consist of? (P.110)4. What are the main functions of the British Parliament? (p.110)Chapter 8 Justice and the Law1. What are the three divisions of the High Court of Britain ? (p.128)2. What is the ultimate court of appeal in civil cases throughout the UK ? (p.129) Chapter 9 Social Affairs1. What are the two established churches in Britain ? (p.145)2. What are the Christian festivals of the year in Britain ? (p.149)3. What are the public holidays in Great Britain? (p.153)4. What day is the National Day in Britain ? (p.153)Chapter 10 Cultural Affairs1. The Open University (p.159)2. What distinguishes the Open University from all other British universities? (pp.159-160)3. What is the most popular sport in England ? (p.166)4. What is the most typically English of sports, which has been in existence since the 16th century ? (p.167)5. What is the most famous art festival in Britain? (p.176)Part two The Republic of IrelandChapter 11 Geography and History1. Why is Ireland also called the Emerald Isle? (p.181)2. What are the characteristics of Irel and’s climate? (p.183)3. What are the most significant feature of Irish landscape? (p. 183)4. the Great Famine in Ireland (p.186)5. What are the reasons of Ireland’s century long population decline? (p.186) Chapter 12 Ireland TodayPart Three The United States of AmericaChapter 13 Geography1. Why does the United States have an ideal location for trade? (p.209)2. What are the two newest states which joined the United States ? (p.210)3. Where does Hawaii locate ? (p.209)4. How many states are there in the United States? Which one is the largest in areaand which one is the smallest? (p.210)5. Which is the backbone of the North American continent and it is also known as the Continental Divide ? (p.211)6. the Old Man River (p.211)7. the Great Lakes (pp.212-213)8. Among the five of the Great Lakes in the US and Canada, which is the largest fresh water lake in the world ? (p.212)9. Of the Great Lakes, which is the only one entirely located in the United States ?(p.212)10. What place is America’s most important agricultural area ? (p.217)11. Which is known as the automobile capital of the world ? (p.217)12. What city is known as the agricultural capital of the U. S. ? (p.217)Chapter 14 Population, Race and Ethnic Groups1. How does the United States rank among the countries of the worldIn population and area? (p.209; p.224)2. What is the major source of population growth in the U. S. afterWorld War II ? (p.224)3. Recently from what places has most of the immigration to the United States been ?(p.225)4. Where do most of the Americans live? (p.225)5. What are the biggest cities in the U.S.? (p.225)6. Which is the biggest city in USA ? How many people are there in it in 1990?(p.225)7. From which countries did the first immigrants in American history come from ?(p.226)8. What does the Old World refer to ? (p.226)9. Why are people moving so often in the U. S. ? (p.227)10. What is the largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S.? How manypersons are there in the minority ? (p.228)11. How did the first black people come to the United States ? (p.228)12. What was the black fate in U. S. in the past? (pp.228-229)13. What are the two novels giving a vivid description of the miserable life of theblack slaves in America ? (p.229)14. What explanation do experts give for the success of Asian-Americans? (P.232) Chapter 15 American History (I) (1600-1900)1. When did Christopher Columbus discover the New World ? (p.236)2. When and where was the first English colony in the America founded ? (p.236)3. Why did the early settlers come to America? (P.237)4 Why did the Civil War of the United States break out ? (p.248)5. The Emancipation Proclamation (p.248)6. the Gettysburg Address (p.248)Chapter 16 American History (II) (1900—1945)1. When did the American women have voting right ? (p.254)2. The Great Depression in the United States (p.258)3. Who were hit hardest in America during the Great Depression ?(p.259)Chapter 17 American History (III)American in Post-w. w. II Era (1945-1980s)1. When did Truman send the 7th Fleet to the Taiwan Straits to prevent the PLA from liberating Taiwan ? (p.269)2. Who was Martin Luther King, Jr. ? (p.272)3. When was the normal U.S. –China diplomatic relation established ?. (p.277)Chapter 18 The Economy1. What has contributed to the fast growth of the U. S. economy? (p.284)2. What kind of economic system does the U.S. have? What are its characteristics? (pp.285-286)3. What has helped make U. S. farms the most efficient in the world? (p.289)4. What is the Midwest famous for? (pp.289-292)5. Briefly discuss the factors that contributed to the fast growth the American economy. (p.297)6.What are the problems the U. S. economy has faced from time to time? (p.297) Chapter 19 Political Institutions1. Federal System (p.300)2. Separation of powers (p.300)3. What did the Bill of Rights Amendments include? (p.302)4. What is the most central functions of the Congress in America? (p.308)5. Which branch of the American government has the power to interpret the Constitution? (p.309)6. What are the two major political parties in the United States? (p.310) Chapter 20 Education1. What is the general view of the Americans on education? (p.316)2. What is considered to be an outstanding characteristic of American education ?(p.317)3. How many years does elementary and secondary education in the United Statescover ? (p.318)4. What are the “basics” taught in American elementary schools? (p.319)5. What are the three types of high schools in U. S.? (p.319)6. What are the three principal functions of institution of higher education in US?(P.321)7. What role does the community college play? (p.326)8. What is the guiding principle of the community college? (p.327)Chapter 21 Literature, Architecture and Music1. What is Mark Twain’s best known work ? (p.335)2. What is Ernest Hemingway ? (p.340)3. What is the Harlem Renaissance ? (p.341)4. Jazz (p.346)Chapter 22 Holidays and Festivals1. Valentine’s Day (p.351)2. Thanksgiving Day (p.357)Part Four CanadaChapter 23 Geography and History1. What are the geographical features in much of northern Canada ? (p.363)2. What is Canada’s largest city ? (p.364)Chapter 24 The EconomyChapter 25 Government and Politics1. How many provinces and territories is Canada made up of ? (p.387)2. the official opposition of Canada (p.390)3. What are the two main political parties in Canada? (p.392)4. In what way does Quebec differ from other provinces ? (p.395)Chapter 26 Society and Culture1. What kind of history do people often say is the history of Canada? (p.402)2. What are the two official languages in Canada ? (p.403)3. Multiculturalism In Canada (p.404)Part Five AustraliaChapter 27 Land and People1.What are the geological features of Australia? (p.417)2. Why is Australia a dry land? (p.420)3. What kind of climate does Australia have? (p.420)4. Why is Australia regarded as one of the most urbanized countries in the world?(p.423)5. Why has Australia always been a continent with few people ? (p.423)6. Where is New South Wales located ? (p.426)7. What is the largest city of Australia ? (p.426)Chapter 28 Australian History (I) Australia to FederationChapter 29Australian History (II) Australia Since FederationChapter 30 The Economy1. Why has the service industry been growing so fast in Australia in recent decades? (p.467)2. What is the main feature of Australia’s trade? (p.468)3. What kind of the problems are about the Australian economy? (p.474)Chapter 31 Government and PolitiesChapter 32 Society and CulturePart Six New ZealandChapter 33 The Making of New Zealand1. What islands do New Zealand consist of? (p.509)2. Why is New Zealand the first country in the world to get the new day ? (p.509)3. What are the most serious potential natural disasters in New Zealand ? (p.511)4. The Treaty of Waitangi (p.515)5. What is Maoritanga ? (p.518)Chapter 34 New Zealand Today1. Why does nearly three-quarters of the population of New Zealand live in the North Island? (p.524)2. How many houses do the parliament of New Zealand have? (p.525)3. What is the most widespread religion in New Zealand ? (p.527)4. What is New Zealand’s livelihood ? (p.531)5. What are New Zealand’s main exports ? (p.531)。

研究生公共英语教材阅读B第3、4、10、11、14课文原文及翻译

Unite 3 Doctor’s Dilemma: Treat or Let Die?Abigail Trafford1. Medical advances in wonder drugs, daring surgical procedures, radiation therapies, and intensive-care units have brought new life to thousands of people. Yet to many of them, modern medicine has become a double-edged sword.2. Doctor’s power to treat with an array of space-age techniques has outstripped the body’s capacity to heal. More medical problems can be treated, but for many patients, there is little hope of recovery. Even the fundamental distinction between life and death has been blurred.3. Many Americans are caught in medical limbo, as was the South Korean boxer Duk Koo Kim, who was kept alive by artificial means after he had been knocked unconscious in a fight and his brain ceased to function. With the permission of his family, doctors in Las Vegas disconnected the life-support machines and death quickly followed.4. In the wake of technology’s advances in medicine, a heated debate is taking place in hospitals and nursing homes across the country --- over whether survival or quality of life is the paramount goal of medicine.5. “It gets down to what medicine is all about, ” says Daniel Callahan, director of the Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. “Is it really to save a life? Or is the larger goal the welfare of the patient?”6. Doctors, patients, relatives, and often the courts are being forced to make hard choices in medicine. Most often it is at the two extremes of life that these difficultyethical questions arise --- at the beginning for the very sick newborn and at the end for the dying patient.7. The dilemma posed by modern medical technology has created the growing new discipline or bioethics. Many of the country’s 127 medical s chools now offer courses in medical ethics, a field virtually ignored only a decade ago. Many hospitals have chaplains, philosophers, psychiatrists, and social workers on the staff to help patients make crucial decisions, and one in twenty institutions has a special ethics committee to resolve difficult cases.Death and Dying8. Of all the patients in intensive-care units who are at risk of dying, some 20 percent present difficult ethical choices --- whether to keep trying to save the life or to pull back and let the patient die. In many units, decisions regarding life-sustaining care are made about three times a week.9. Even the definition of death has been changed. Now that the heart-lung machine can take over the functions of breathing and pumping blood, death no longer always comes with the patient’s “last gasp” or when the heart stops beating. Thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have passed brain-death statutes that identify death as when the whole brain ceases to function.10. More than a do zen states recognize “living wills” in which the patients leave instructions to doctors not to prolong life by feeding them intravenously or by other methods if their illness becomes hopeless. A survey of California doctors showed that 20 to 30 percent were following instructions of such wills. Meanwhile, the hospicemovement, which its emphasis on providing comfort --- not cure --- to the dying patient, has gained momentum in many areas.11. Despite progress in society’s understanding of death and dying, t heory issues remain. Example: A woman, 87, afflicted by the nervous-system disorder of Parkinson’s disease, has a massive stroke and is found unconscious by her family. Their choices are to put her in a nursing home until she dies or to send her to a medical center for diagnosis and possible treatment. The family opts for a teaching hospital in New York city. Tests show the woman’s stroke resulted from a blood clot that is curable with surgery. After the operation, she says to her family: “Why did you bring me back to this agony?” Her health continues to worsen, and two years later she dies.12. On the other hand, doctors say prognosis is often uncertain and that patients, just because they are old and disabled, should not be denied life-saving therapy. Ethicists also fear that under the guise of medical decision not to treat certain patients, death may become too easy, pushing the country toward the acceptance of euthanasia.13. For some people, the agony of watching high-technology dying is too great. Earlier this year, Woodrow Wilson Collums, a retired dairyman from Poteet, Texas, was put on probation for the mercy killing of his older brother Jim, who lay hopeless in his bed at a nursing home, a victim of severe senility resul ting from Alzheimer’s disease. After the killing, the victim’s widow said: “I think God, Jim’s out of his misery. I hate to think it had to be done the way it was done, but I understand it. ”Crisis in Newborn Care14. At the other end of the life span, technology has so revolutionized newborn carethat it is no longer clear when human life is viable outside the womb. Newborn care has got huge progress, so it is absolutely clear that human being can survive independently outside the womb. Twenty-five years ago, infants weighting less than three and one-half pounds rarely survived. The current survival rate is 70 percent, and doctors are “salvaging” some babies that weigh only one and one-half pounds. Tremendous progress has been made in treating birth deformities such as spina bifida. Just ten years ago, only 5 percent of infants with transposition of the great arteries --- the congenital heart defect most commonly found in newborns --- survived. Today, 50 percent live.15. Yet, for many infants who owe their lives to new medical advances, survival has come at a price. A significant number emerge with permanent physical and mental handicaps.16. “The question of treatment and nontreatment of seriously ill newborns is not a single one,”says Thomas Murray of the Hastings Center. “But I feel strongly that retardation or the fact that someone is going to be less than perfect is not good grounds for allowing an infant to die.”17. For many parents, however, the experience of having a sick newborn becomes a lingering nightmare. Two years ago, an Atlanta mother gave birth to a baby suffering from Down’s Syndrome, a form of mental retardation; the child also had blocked intestines. The doctors rejected the parents’ plea not to operate, and today the child, severely retarded, still suffers intestinal problems.18. “Every time Melanie has a bowel movement, she cries,” explains her mother.“She’s not able to take care of herself, and we won’t live forever. I wanted to save her from sorrow, pain, and suffering. I don’t understand the emphasis on life at all costs, and I’m very angry at the doctors and the hospital. Who will take care of Melanie after we’re gone? Where will you doctors be then?”Changing Standards19. The choices posed by modern technology have profoundly changed the practice of medicine. Until now, most doctors have been activists, trained to use all the tools in their medical arsenals to treat disease. The current trend is toward nontreatment as doctors grapple with questions not just of who should get care but when to take therapy away.20. Always in the background is the threat of legal action. In August, two California doctors were charged with murdering a comatose patient by allegedly disconnecting the respirator and cutting off food and water. In 1981, a Massachusetts nurse was charged with murdering a cancer patient with massive doses of morphine but was subsequently acquitted.21. Between lawsuits, government regulations, and patients’ rights, many doctors feel they are under siege. Modern technology actually has limited their ability to make choices. More recently, these actions are resolved by committees.Public Policy22. In recent years, the debate on medical ethics has moved to the level of national policy. “It’s just beginning to hit us that we don’t have unlimited resources,” says Washington Hospital Center’s Dr. Lynch. “You can’t talk about ethics without talkingethics without talking about money.”23. Since 1972. Americans have enjoyed unlimited access to a taxpayer-supported, kidney dialysis program that offers life-prolonging therapy to all patients with kidney failure. To a number of police analysts, the program has grown out of control --- to a $1.4billion operation supporting 61,000 patients. The majority are over 50, and about a quarter have other illness, such as cancer or heart disease, conditions that could exclude them from dialysis in other countries.24. Some hospitals are pulling back from certain lifesaving treatment. Massachusetts General Hospital, for example, has decided not perform heart transplants on the ground that the high costs of providing such surgery help too few patients. Burn units --- through extremely effective --- also provide very expensive therapy for very few patients.25. As medical scientists push back the frontiers of therapy, the moral dilemma will continue to grow for doctors and patients alike, making the choice of to treat the basic question in modern medicine.1. 在特效药、风险性手术进程、放疗法以及特护病房方面的医学进展已为数千人带来新生。

英国文学Chapter 2 Renaissance

Hamlet
Discussion questions(请回答下列问题): 1. what are his four greatest tragedies ? Shakespeare's greatest tragedies are: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. 2. What are the characteristics of the four tragedies in common? Each portrays some noble hero, who faces the injustice of human life and is caught in a difficult situation and whose fate is closely connected with the fate of the whole nation.
*2. The Essence: Humanism
Man: the measure of all. To exalt human nature
Emphasis: the dignity of men; the importance of
the present life. Advocating: Men are glorious creatures capable of perfecting themselves, and performing wonders. To see the human values and arts of splendor and enlightenment in Greek and Roman civilization.
Sonnet 18
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? a Thou art more lovely and more temperate; b Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, a And summer's lease hath all too short a date; b Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, c And often is his gold complexion dimm'd; d And every fair from fair sometime declines, c By chance or nature's changing course untrimm'd; d But thy eternal summer shall not fade, e Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st; f Nor shall Death brag thou wander'st in his shade, e When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st: f So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, g So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. g

《基地》每章读后感

《基地》每章读后感English Answer:Chapter 1: Psychohistory.Psychohistory is a fascinating concept that attempts to predict the future based on mathematical and statistical analysis of past events. This chapter introduces us to Hari Seldon, the father of psychohistory, as he shares hisvision of a society that can guide its own destiny through foresight. The chapter also explores the ethicalimplications of manipulating the future, raising questions about the balance between free will and societal well-being.Chapter 2: The Encyclopedists.The Encyclopedists are a group of scholars who are tasked with preserving the knowledge of humanity after the fall of the Galactic Empire. Their quest to compile all available knowledge highlights the importance of preservingcultural and scientific heritage for future generations. This chapter also introduces us to Gaal Dornick, a talented young mathematician who joins the Encyclopedists' project.Chapter 3: The Merchant Princes.The Merchant Princes are powerful economic players who control the trade routes in the aftermath of the Galactic Empire. Their influence and greed pose a significant challenge to the Foundation, a group established by Seldon to guide humanity through the perilous time of transition. This chapter highlights the tensions between political power and economic interests.Chapter 4: The General.Bel Riose, the formidable general, is a symbol of the military strength that can both protect and threaten civilization. His unwavering loyalty and strategicbrilliance make him a valuable asset to the Foundation, but his ambition and desire for conquest raise concerns about the misuse of power. This chapter explores the delicatebalance between military strength and civilian control.Chapter 5: The Mule.The Mule, an enigmatic and powerful figure, emerges as a major threat to the Foundation's plans. His ability to control people's minds and manipulate their emotions poses a significant challenge to the predictability of psychohistory. This chapter highlights the dangers of unchecked power and the vulnerability of even the most advanced societies to unforeseen events.Chapter 6: The Foundation.The Foundation is a society established by Hari Seldon to navigate the decline of the Galactic Empire and ensure the survival of humanity. Led by Salvor Hardin, the Foundation's mission is to protect the knowledge and wisdom of the past while shaping the future. This chapter delves into the complexities of governance and the challenges of balancing short-term interests with long-term goals.Chapter 7: The Second Foundation.The Second Foundation is a secret organization created by Hari Seldon as a fail-safe against any threats to the Foundation. Its members possess the ability to manipulate people's minds and use it to steer history in the Foundation's favor. This chapter introduces a new layer of complexity to the narrative and raises questions about the limits of power and the ethics of manipulating events from the shadows.Chapter 8: The Whirlwind.The Whirlwind is a period of chaos and upheaval that threatens to tear the Foundation apart. External threats and internal divisions put the Foundation's survival to the test. This chapter showcases the resilience of the human spirit and the importance of unity in times of crisis.Chapter 9: The Triumph.The Foundation emerges from the Whirlwind stronger thanever, having overcome the challenges and threats that plagued it. The end of the novel highlights the power of foresight and the human capacity to shape the future.Chinese Answer:第一章，心理史。

研究生英语阅读教程(基础级2版)课文06及其翻译

Thank God It's MondayBy Jyoti Thottam[1] As researchers in psychology, economics and organizational behavior have been gradually discovering, the experience of being happy at work looks very similar across professions. People, who love their jobs, feel challenged by their work but in control of it. They have bosses who make them feel appreciated (enjoyed) and co-workers they like. They can find meaning (interest/And they aren't just lucky. It takes real effort to reach that[2] An even bigger obstacle, though （however）, may be our low expectations on the job. Love, family, community (society) — those are supposed (thought) to be the true sources of happiness, while work simply (only) gives us the means (tools) to enjoy them. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who coined the term flow (happiness<->ebb), which adherents (supporter) of positive psychology would use to describe the job-induced highs (high spirit/ happiness), says that distinction (difference) is a false one. "Anything can be enjoyable if the elements of flow are present," he writes in his book Good Business." Within that framework, doing a seemingly boring job can be a source of greater fulfillment (achievement) than one (anybody) ever thought possible."[3] Csikszentmihalyi encourages (urge) us to reach a state (level/ status) in which work is an extension of what we naturally want to do. Immersed (absorbed) in the pleasure of work, we don't worry about its ultimate (final) reward. If that sounds out of reach, take heart (try one’s best). You may soon get some encouragement from the head office (headquarters). A growing (increasing) body (amount) of research is demonstrating (showing) that happy workers not only are happier in life but are also crucial (most important) to the health of a company.[4] Thirty-five years ago, the Gallup Organization started researching why people in certain work groups, even within the same company, were so much more effective (->efficient) than others. Donald Clifton, the Gallup researcher who pioneered that work, conducted (directed) a series of extensive interviews with highly productive teams of workers. From those interviews, Gallup developed a set of 12 statements (rules/ points) designed to measure employees' overall (general) level of happiness with their work, which Gallup calls "engagement". Some of the (criterion->) criteria reflect the obvious requirements of any worker (Do you have what you need to do your job? Do you know what's expected of you at work?), while others reveal (show) more subtle variables (Do you have a best friend at work? Does your supervisor (boss) or someone else at work care about you as a person?). Gallup started the survey in 1998, and it now includes 5. 4 million employees at 474 organizations; Gallup also does periodic random polls of workers in different countries.[5] The polls paint a picture of a rather disaffected (unpleasant/ unsatisfying) U.S. work force. In the most recent poll, from September 2004, only 29% of workers said they were engaged with their work. More than half, 55%, were not engaged, and 16% were actively disengaged. Still (Furthermore), those numbers are better than those (figures) in many other countries. The percentage of engaged workers in the U. S. is more than twice as large as Germany's and three times as great as Singapore's. But neither the late 1990s boom nor the subsequent （following）bust (depression) had much impact (influence) in either direction, indicating (showing/ implying) that the state of worker happiness goes much deeper than the swings (waves) of the economy.[6] James Harter, a psychologist directing (conducting) that research at Gallup, says manycompanies are simply misreading (->misled/ don’t know) what makes people happy at work. Beyond a certain minimum level, it isn't pay or benefits; it's strong relationships with co-workers and a supportive boss. "These are basic human needs in the workplace, but they're not the ones thought by managers to be very important." Harter says. Gallup has found that a strong positive response to the statement (question on questioner) "I have a best friend at work", for example, is a powerful predictor for engagement at work and is correlated with profitability and connection with customers. "It indicates (shows) a high level of belonging," Hatter says.[7] Without it, a job that looks (seems) good on paper (theoretically) can make a worker miserable [to live/lead a miserable/ happy life]. Martina Radix, 41, traded a high-pressure job as an executive assistant at a company where she liked her colleagues for a less taxing position as a clerical worker (clerk) in a law firm six years ago. She has more (free) time and flexibility but feels stifled (depressed) by her co-workers and unappreciated by her boss. "I am a misfit (mismatch) in that department," she says. "No matter how good your personal life is, if you go in to a bad (atom->) atmosphere at work, it takes away from it."In fact, engagement at workHarter estimates thatonly about 30% of the difference between employees who are highly engaged and those who are not. The rest of it is shaped (decided) by the hundreds of interactions that employees have every day with co-workers, supervisors and customers.[9] The most direct fix (remedy/ cure/ solution), then, is to seek out (look for) a supportive (positive) workplace. Finding a life calling (need) unlocks the door to happiness. Lissette Mendez, 33, says her job coordinating the annual book fair at Miami Dade College is the one she was born to do. "Books are an inextricable (inseparable) part of my life," she says.[10] Even if your passion (->passionate) does not easily translate into a profession (job->career), you can still find happiness on the job. Numerous studies have shown correlations between meaningful work and happiness, job satisfaction and even physical health. That sense (feeling/ significance) of meaning, however, can take many different forms. Some people find it in the work itself; others take pride in (be proud of) their company's mission (task) rather than in their specific job. People can find meaning in anything.[11] The desire for meaning is so strong that sometimes people simply (only) create it, especially to make sense (make sth. meaningful) of difficult or unpleasant work. In a recently completed six-year study of physicians (->surgeon) during their surgical residency, for example, it was found that the surgeons were extremely dissatisfied in the first year, when the menial (slave) work they were assigned, like (such as) filling out endless copies of patient records, seemed pointless (meaningless). Once they started to think of (regard) the training as part of the larger process of joining an elite group of doctors, their attitude changed. They're able to reconstruct (reconsider) and make sense of their work and what they do. By the end of year one, they've started to create (feel) some meanings.[12] While positive psychology has mostly focused on (stressed/ emphasized) the individual (pursue->)pursuit of happiness, a new field — positive organizational scholarship — has begun to examine the connection between happy employees and happy (successful) businesses. Instead of focusing on profitability and competition to explain success, researchers in this field are studying meaningfulness, authentic leadership and emotional competence (ability). Not the typical B-school buzzwords, but they may soon become part of the language spoken by every M. B. A.domain (field) and kind of (a little/ somewhat) fringe-ish", says Thomas Wright, a professor of organizational behavior at the University of Nevada, Reno. Early hints (clues) of the importance of worker happiness were slow (dull/ stupid) to be accepted (admitted/ understood). A 1920s study on the topic at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Co. in Cicero. It looked at (examined) whether increased lighting, shorter workdays and other worker-friendly fixes (measures) would improve (increase) productivity. While (Although) the workplace changes boosted (improved) performance, the experimenters eventually (finally) discovered (found) that the differences workers were responding to not in the physical environment but in the social one (factor). In other words, the attention they were getting was what made them happier and more effective. This phenomenon came to be known as the Hawthorne effect. "The researchers came to realize that it was people'ssays. But later studies that looked at job-satisfaction ratings were inconsistent. Broader measures (degree) of happiness, it turns out, are better predictors[14] Making any of those changes depends on the boss, although not necessarily, the CEO. So a handful of (many) business schools are trying to create (educate) a new kind of frontline manager, based on the idea of "authentic leadership". Instead of imposing faddish (fashionable) management techniques on each supervisor, authentic leadership begins with self-awareness. Introverted bosses have to know their own style and then find strategies to manage (administrate) people that feel natural (friendly). In other words, by figuring out (working out) their strengths (advantages), they[15] The goal (objective->purpose->aim) not necessarily a world (field) in which people love their work above everything else. Work, by definition, is somewhat (a little) unpleasant relative to all the other things we could be doing. That's why we still expect to get paid for doing it. But at the very least, businesses (companies or organizations) could do better just by paying attention to what their employees want and need (financially and spiritually). Then more of us could find a measure (degree) of fulfillment (achievement) in what we do. And once in a while (now and then/ occasionally), we might hope to transcend (surpass) it all. It can happen on the basketball court (field), in front of a roaring crowd, or in a classroom, in front of just one grateful (thankful) student. (1, 669 words)ABOUT THE AUTHORJyoti Thottam is a writer and a business reporter for Time magazine in New York. She was the president of the South Asian Journalists' Association from 2001-2002.EXERCISESI . Reading ComprehensionAnswer the following questions or complete the following statements.1. By the title "Thank God It's Monday", the author wanted to convey the idea that _____.A. people love their work above everything elseB. people can find happiness in their workC. most people have the experience of being happy at workD. people can find meaning in whatever they do2. According to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, _____.A. love, family and community are not supposed to be the true sources of happinessB. work simply gives us the means to enjoy the happiness we get from love, family and communityC. even a seemingly boring job can be a source of happiness for usD. the positive psychology that is used to describe the job-induced highs is false3. According to the research made by the Gallup Organization, what makes people happy at work?A. Reasonable pay or benefits.B. Positive relationship with co-workers and boss.C. People's engagement with their work.D. Both A and B.4. According to the research made by the Gallup Organization, the number of engaged workers in Singapore was about _____.A.10%B. 14.5%C.16%D.29%5. Now Martina Radix _____.A. has a high-pressure job but she has positive relationship with her co-workersB. has a less demanding job but she has a bad relationship at workC. has more time and flexibility so she is satisfied with her personal lifeD. is an executive assistant at a company but she feels she is a misfit in that department6. People can find meaning in their work in the following situations EXCEPT _____.A. if they love their job very muchB. if their work itself is very importantC. if their company's mission is very importantD. if they are paid at a minimum level7. By the end of year one, surgical residents can find their menial work meaningful because _____.A. in the past year, they have become accustomed to the workB. they can stop doing such pointless jobs as filling out endless copies of patient recordsC. they realize that the menial work is a necessary step to become a doctorD. they're able to construct their fame if they deal with patients more often8. What made the workers happier and more effective, according to the study at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Co. in Cicero, in the 1920s?A. The attention paid to the workers.B. The new worker-friendly measures.C. The improvement of the physical environment.D. The improvement of the social environment.9. According to the article, which of the following statements is true?A. The better productivity of a company depends on its CEO.B. Authentic leaders should learn more management techniques.C. Bosses should find strength in both themselves and their employees.D. The results of the studies on job-satisfaction ratings were all similar.10. The author's purpose in writing this article is _____.A. to make more people enjoy their workB. for people to find fulfillment in what they doC. to reevaluate some theories in positive psychologyD. to help business be more effective and productiveII. VocabularyA. Read the following sentences and decide winch of the four choices below each sentence is closest in meaning to the underlined word.1. I advocate a holistic recognition that biology and in an inextricable manner (way).A. complicatedB. unavoidableC. customarylove of the picturesque and sublime nature.A. immenseB. fascinating (attractive)C. magnificent (great/ noble)D. enchanting (attractive)3. One important feature (property/ character) of the period was the growth (development) of Buddhism. Its adherents honored the Buddha in order to be reborn in his paradise.A. sponsors C. advocators D. advisors4. As censorship was extremely strict in that period, little authentic news came out of the country.A. negativeB. disastrousC. officialD. reliable5. If a block of wood is completely immersed in water, the upward force is greater than the weight of the wood.A. dippedB. pressedC. forcedD. pushed6. According to Zhuangzi, a Daoist (道家) philosopher of the late 4th century B.C., through mystical union with the Dao the individual could transcend nature and even life and death.A. dissolveB. upraise (bring up)C. surpassD. depress (->suppress)7. As economic growth ground to a halt (stop), the local populations grew (became) more and more disaffected.A. indifferentB. resentfulC. unvaluedD. (dignity->)indignant (>angry)8. Capitalism was beset (be troubled) by cycles of "boom and bust", periods of expansion and prosperity followed by economic collapse [->collapsible] and waves of unemployment. [beheaded= killed]A. failureB. transitionC. (lose->)lossD. depression [the Great Depression]9. At that time (=then), life was nearly as taxing (burdensome) for all-black bands: black musicians were required to use kitchen entrances and service elevators (=lift), which forced them to confront the ugly realities of racial discrimination. [Hard Times]A. miserableB. hard (=difficult)C. unbearableD. harsh10. Modern and implicit (<->explicit) censorship has nothing like the power of the old system and contrary opinion is never entirely stifled.A. releasedB. arrestedC. retarded (->retardant)D. prohibited [pro-: (1)officially; (2)forward]B. Choose the best word or expression from the list given for each blank. Use each word orexpression only once and make proper changes where necessary.in control of within the framework variables it turns out on papertake away from once in a while trade... for make sense take heartattended by those who can afford (=pay for) the fees (->fare). [(1)border; (2)](now and then/ occasionally).if the expression on theof the Security Council. [city council]5. He lost his confidence after he lost the first two trails, but his coach told him to(<->lose one’s heart), so that he could win at last.his success in writing it.7. The presentation of his paper was highly praised, but that the paper was copied from the Internet. [think great/ much of sb./ think highly of sb.<->think little of sb./ look down upon sb.; Turn out: (1)The police turned out to the site of the crime; (2)The produce or product turned out;(3) It has been proved that…;]to her. [She doesn’t understand it].the meeting, and after singing and prayer she10. The early settlers copper for corn from natives. [to settle in somewhere/ ~ an argument][scorn (look down upon sb.;)]IV. ClozeThere are ten blanks in the following passage. Read the passage carefully and choose theright word or phrase from the list given below for each of the blanks. Change the form if necessary. supposed to be unless all too often which externalthoroughly that on the other hand in return ironically Although, as we have seen, people generally long (want/ desire) to leave their places of workand get home, ready (=willing) to put their hard-earned free time to good use, 1 all too often (frequently)they have no idea (=don’t know) what to do there. 2 Ironically , jobs are actually easier to enjoy than free time, because like flow activities they (work) have built-in goals, feedback, rulesencourage one (anybody) to become involved (join) in one's work, to concentrate and lose oneself (be absorbed) in it. Free time, 4 on the other hand, is unstructured (unorganized), and requires much greater effort to be shaped into something (meaningful) that can and especially inner discipline, help to make leisure (free time) what it is 5chance for "re-creation" . But on the whole (in general), people miss the opportunity to enjoy leisureeven more 6 thoroughly (completely)than they do with working time. It is in the improvidentthe greatest wastes of American life occur. [tourism and recreation industry]Mass leisure, mass culture, arid even high culture when only attended to (actively<->)8 external Reasons — such as the wish to display (show) one's status — are parasites of the mind. They absorb (=exhaust) psychic energy without providing substantive (considerable) strength (energy) 9 in return. They leave (=make) us more exhausted, more disheartened (depressed) than we were before. 10and free time are likely (possible) to be disappointing. Most jobs and many leisure activities —especially those involving the passive consumption of mass media — are not designed (intended) to make us happy and strong, or to make us learn to enjoy our work. [attend a meeting/ a class]IV. TranslationPut the following party into Chinese.1. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who coined the term flow, which adherents of positive psychology would use to describe the job-induced highs, says that distinction is a false one. "Anything can be enjoyable if the elements of flow are present," he writes in his book Good Business. "Within that framework, doing a seemingly boring job can be a source of greater fulfillment than one ever thought possible."米哈里·奇凯因特米哈里认为这种区分是错误的。

美国文学——红字Unit-4-the-Scarlet-Letter

disintegration.
◆ He hides his sin and suffet and
his soul is purified.
◆ He undergoes the tragic experience of physical and spiritual
large scale. She had dark and abundant hair, so glossy that it threw off the sunshine with a gleam, and a face which， besides being beautiful from regularity of feature and richness of complexion, had the impresiveness belonging to a marked brow and deep black eyes.(p30) ﹡She was lady-like, too, after the manner of the feminine gentility of those days; characterized by a certain state and dignity, rather than by the delicate, evanescent, and indescribable grace, which is now recognized as its indication.(p30) ﹡Had there been a Papist among the crowd of Puritans, he might have seen in this beautiful woman, so picturesque in her attire and mien, and with the infant at her bosom, an object to remind him of the image of Divine Maternity,… (p31)

ch11组织结构和控制South-WesternCollege战略讲义111页PPT

工程
会计
销售 & 营销
人力资源
多分部结构
首席执行官
公司研究与开发
公司财务
战略计划
公司营销
公司人力资源
分部
分部
分部
分部
财务
生产
Transparency 11-21
工程
会计
销售 & 营销
人力资源
多分部结构
多分部结构有三种不同的组合形式
多分部形式
合作型结构战略经营单位 (SBU) 结构
竞争型结构
Transparency 11-25
合作型的多分部结构
每个分部独立经营经营适合相关多元化经营公司经理的关键任务是开拓分部的综合效益经理同时使用战略控制控制和财务控制手段
Transparency 11-26
战略类别相关限制型相关联系型非相关/控股公司
Transparency 11-22
合作型的多分部结构
每个分部独立经营经营
Transparency 11-23
合作型的多分部结构
每个分部独立经营经营适合相关多元化经营
Transparency 11-24
合作型的多分部结构
每个分部独立经营经营适合相关多元化经营公司经理的关键任务是开拓分部的综合效益
任务专业化分工
* 生产 * 财务
* 工程 * 会计
* 销售与营销 * 人力资源
Transparency 11-15
职能结构
从简单结构过渡的第一阶段
适合单一或单一主业经营的企业
任务专业化分工
* 生产
* 工程
* 销售与营销
* 财务
* 会计

黑格尔美学第二卷英语版

黑格尔美学第二卷英语版Hegel's Aesthetics: Volume IIIn the second volume of Hegel's seminal work on aesthetics, the renowned German philosopher delves deeper into the intricate realm of art and its philosophical implications. Hegel's profound insights have long been celebrated as a cornerstone of Western intellectual tradition, and this volume stands as a testament to his unparalleled depth of understanding.At the heart of Hegel's aesthetic theory lies the notion that art is a manifestation of the Absolute Spirit the ultimate expression of the human experience and the collective consciousness of humanity. Through the lens of art Hegel explores the development of human civilization and the evolution of the human spirit itselfHegel's analysis begins with a comprehensive examination of the various forms of art ranging from the symbolic to the romantic and the classical. He meticulously dissects each artistic medium exploring its unique characteristics and the ways in which it reflects the underlying spirit of the age. From the grand architectural works of antiquity to the transcendent masterpieces of painting and sculptureHegel unravels the complex interplay between form and content revealing the deeper philosophical truths that lie beneath the surfaceOne of the central tenets of Hegel's aesthetic theory is the idea that art serves as a bridge between the material and the spiritual realms. He posits that through the creative process the artist is able to give tangible form to the abstract ideas and emotions that lie within the human psyche. In this way art becomes a means of expressing the inexpressible a language that can convey the profound and the ineffableHegel's discussion of the historical development of art is particularly insightful as he traces the evolution of artistic expression from its earliest manifestations in ancient civilizations to its modern incarnations. He examines how the changing social political and cultural landscapes have shaped the artistic impulse and how artists have in turn influenced the course of human historyThe philosopher's analysis of the nature of beauty is equally compelling as he grapples with the question of what constitutes the essence of the beautiful. Hegel rejects the notion of beauty as a purely subjective experience arguing instead that it is a synthesis of the objective and the subjective a harmonious unity of form and content that transcends individual taste and preferenceThroughout the volume Hegel's erudition and intellectual rigor are on full display as he weaves together strands of philosophy history and art in a tapestry of profound insight. His writing is at once accessible and deeply thought-provoking as he challenges the reader to engage with the fundamental questions that lie at the heart of the human experienceUltimately Hegel's Aesthetics Volume II stands as a monumental contribution to the field of philosophical aesthetics a work that has left an indelible mark on the way we perceive and understand the role of art in the human condition. Whether one agrees with Hegel's conclusions or not his ideas have undoubtedly helped to shape the course of Western intellectual thought and will continue to inspire and provoke critical discourse for generations to come。