Terms in Translation Studies
《翻译研究入门理论与应用》总结笔记
Chapter1Translation can refer to the general subject field,the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original written text in the original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language.Three categories of translation by the Russian-American structuralist Roman Jakobson1intralingual translation语内翻译：Rewording,an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language;2interlingual translation语际翻译:Translation proper*,an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language;3intersemiotic translation语符翻译transmutation,an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems.History of the discipline1,From late eighteenth century to the1960s:part of language learning methodology Translation workshop,comparative literature,contrastive analysis2,James S Holmes“the name and nature of translation studies”(founding statement for the field)3,1970:Reiss:text typeReiss and Vermeer:text purpose(the skopos theory)Halliday:discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar4,1980The manipulation school:descriptive approach,polysystem5,1990Sherry Simon:Gender researchElse Vieira:Brazilian cannibalist schoolTejaswini Niranjana:Postcolonial translation theoryLawrence Venuti:cultural-studies-oriented analysisHolmes’s map of translation studiesThe objectives of the pure areas of research:1,descriptive translation theory:the description of the phenomena of translation2,translation theory:the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomenaPure:theoretical and descriptiveDTS:descriptive translation studies1,product-oriented DTS:existing translations,text(diachronic or synchronic)2,function-oriented DTS:the function of translations in the recipient sociocultural situation (socio-translation studies or cultural-studies-oriented translation)3,process-oriented DTS:the psychology of translation(later think-aloud protocols)Relation between Theoretical and descriptiveThe results of DTS research can be fed into the theoretical branch to evolve either a general theory of translation or,more likely,partial theories of translation.Partial theories1,Medium-restricted theories:translation by machine and humans2,Area-restricted theories:3,Rank-restricted theories:the level of word,sentence or text4,Text-type restricted theories:discourse types or genres5,Time-restricted theories:6,Problem-restricted theories:Applied branch of Holmes’s framework:translator training,translation aids and translation criticism.Translation policy:the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in societyChapter2translation theory before the twentieth centuryLiteral vs.free debateCicero(first century BCE):I did not hold it necessary to render word for word,but I preserved the general style and force of the language.Horace:producing an aesthetically pleasing and creative text in the TL.St Jerome:I render not word for word,but sense for sense.Martin Luther:1,non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.2,his infusion of the Bible with the language of ordinary people and his consideration of translation in terms focusing on the TL and the TT reader were crucial.“Louis Kelly:Fidelity: to both the words and the perceived senseSpirit:1, creative energy or inspiration of a text or language, proper to literature; 2, the Holy Spirit.Truth: content17 century:Early attempts at systematic translation theoryCowley: imitationCounter the inevitable loss of beauty in translation by using our wit or invention to create new beauty;he has ‘taken, left out and added what I please’John Dryden reduces all translation to three categories: the triadic model(约翰 德莱顿的三分法:“直译”、意译”与“仿译”) 1, metaphrase: word for word translation2, paraphrase : sense for sense translation3, imitation : forsake both words and senseEtienne Dolet: a French humanist, burned at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues.Five principles:① The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.②The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL , so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.③The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.④The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forma .⑤The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness.Alexander Fraser TytlerTL-reader-oriented definition of a good translation: That, in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.Three general rules:I. That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.II. That the style and manner of writing should be of t he same character with that of the original.III. That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.—— A. F. Tytler: Essay on the Principles of TranslationTytler ranks his three laws in order of comparative importance:Ease of composition would be sacrificed if necessary for manner,and a departure would be made from manner in the interests of sense.Friedrich Schleiermacher:the founder of modern Protestant theology and of modern hermeneuticsHermeneutics:a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.2types of translators:1,Dolmetscher:who translates commercial texts;2,Ubersetzer:who works on scholarly and artistic texts.2translation methods:1,translator leaves the reader in peace,as much as possible,and moves the author towards him. Alienating method2,translator leaves the writer alone,as much as possible,and moves the reader towards the writer. Naturalizing methodThe status of the ST and the form of the TLFrancis Newman:emphasize the foreignness of the workMatthew Arnold:a transparent translation method(led to the devaluation of translation and marginalization of translation)Chapter3Equivalence and equivalent effectRoman Jakobson:the nature of linguistic meaningSaussure:the signifier(能指)the spoken and written signalThe signified(所指)the concept signifiedThe signifier and signified form the linguistic sign,but that sign is arbitrary or unmotivated.1,There is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units.Interlingual translation involves substituting messages in one language not for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other language.2,for the message to be equivalent in ST and TT,the code-unit will be different since they belong to two different sign systems which partition reality differently.3,the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language.4,cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms.They occur at the level of gender,aspect and semantic fields.Eugene Nida1,an orthographic word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses accordingto culture.2,meaning is broke down into a,linguistic meaning,b,referential meaning(the denotative ‘dictionary’meaning指称，字面)and c,emotive meaning(connotative隐含).3,techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic itemsA,analyze the structure of wordsB,differentiate similar words in relaxed lexical fields3techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic items1，Hierarchical structuring,differentiates series of words according to their level,2，Techniques of componential analysis（成分分析法）identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words.3，Semantic structure analysis：Discriminate the sense of a complex semantic termChomsky:Generative-transformational model:analyze sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules.3features1,phrase-structure rules短语结构规则generate an underlying or deep structure which is2,transformed by transformational rules转换规则relating one underlying structure to another, to produce3,a final surface structure,which itself is subject to形态音位规则phonological and morphemic rules.The most basic of such structures are kernel sentences,which are simple,active,declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation.Three-stage system of translationAnalysis:the surface structure of the ST is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure Transfer:these are transferred in the translation processRestructuring:these are transferred in the translation process and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT.Back-transformation回归转换(Kernels are to be obtained from the ST structure by a reductive process)Four types of functional class:events,objects,abstracts and relationals.Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:literal transfer,minimal transfer最小单位转换and literary transfer.Formal equivalence:focuses attention on the message itself,in both form and content,the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Gloss translations释译Dynamic equivalence is based on what Nida calls the principle of equivalent effect,where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message.Four basic requirements of a translation1,making sense2,conveying the spirit and manner of the original3,having a natural and easy form of expression4,producing a similar response.NewmarkCommunicative translation attempts to produce on its reader an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render,as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow,the exact contextual meaning of the original.Literal translation is held to be the best approach in both communicative translation and semantic translation.One of the difficulties encountered by translation studies in systematically following up advances in theory may indeed be partly attributable to the overabundance of terminology.Werner KollerCorrespondence:contrastive linguistics,compares two language systems and describes contrastively differences and similarities.Saussure’s langue(competence in foreign language) Equivalence:equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts.Saussure’s parole (competence in translation)Five types of equivalenceDenotative equivalenceConnotative equivalenceText-normative equivalencePragmatic equivalence(communicative equivalence)Formal equivalence(expressive equivalence,the form and aesthetics of the text)A checklist for translationally relevant text analysis:Language functionContent characteristicsLanguage-stylistic characteristicsFormal-aesthetic characteristicsPragmatic characteristicsTertium comparationi in the comparison of an ST and a TTChapter5functional theories of translationKatharina Reiss:Text TypeBuilds on the concept of equivalence but views the text,rather than the word or sentence as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought.Four-way categorization of the functions of language(Karl Buhler,three)1,plain communication of facts,transmit information and content,informative text2,creative composition,expressive text3,inducing behavioral responses,operative text4,audiomedial text,supplement the other three functions with visual images,music,etc.Different translation methods for different texts1,transmit the full referentical or conceptual content of the ST in plain prose without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required.2,transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST,using the identifying method,with the translator adopting the standpoint of the ST author.3,produce the desired response in the TT receiver,employing the adaptive method,creating an equivalent effect among TT readers.4,supplementing written words with visual images and music.Intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria1,intralinguistic criteria:semantic,lexical,grammatical and stylistic features2,extralinguistic criteria:situation,subject field,time,place,receiver,sender and affective implications(humor,irony,emotion,etc.)Holz-Manttari:Translational actionTakes up concepts from communication theory and action theoryTranslation action views translation as purpose-driven,outcome oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer.Interlingual translation is described as translational action from a source text and as a communicative process involving a series of roles and players.The initiatorThe commissionerThe ST producerThe TT producerThe TT userThe TT receiverContent,structured by what are called tectonics,is divided into a)factual information and b) overall communicative strategy.Form,structured by texture,is divided into a)terminology and b)cohesive elements.Value:place of translation,at least the professional non-literary translation within its sociocultural context,including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution.Vermeer:Skopos theorySkopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation,which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result(TT,translatum).Basic rules of the theory:1,a translatum is determined by its skopos;2,a TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a source culture and SL.3,a TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way4a TT must be internally coherent5a TT must be coherent with the ST6the five rules above stand in hierarchical order,with the skopos rule predominating.The coherence rule,internally coherent,the TT must be interpretable as coherent with the TT receiver’s situation.The fidelity rule,coherent with the ST,there must be coherence between the translatum and the ST.1,the ST information received by the translator;2,the interpretation the translator makes of this information;3,the information that is encoded for the TT receivers.Intratextual coherence intertextual coherenceAdequacy comes to override equivalence as the measure of the translational action. Adequacy:the relations between ST and TT as a consequence of observing a skopos during the translation process.In other words,if the TT fulfills the skopos outlined by the commission,it is functionally and communicatively adequate.Criticisms:1,valid for non-literary texts2,Reiss’s text type approach and Vermeer’s skopos theory are considering different functional phenomena3,insufficient attention to the linguistic nature of the ST nor to the reproduction of microlevel features in the TT.Christiane Nord:translation-oriented text analysisExamine text organization at or above sentence level.2basic types of translation product:1,documentary translation:serves as a document of a source culture communication between the author and the ST recipient.2,instrumental translation:the TT receiver read the TT as though it were an ST written in their own language.Aim:provide a model of ST analysis which is applicable to all text types and translation situations.Three aspects of functionalist approaches that are particularly useful in translator training1,the importance of the translation commission(translation brief)2,the role of ST analysis3,the functional hierarchy of translation problems.1,compare ST and TT profiles defined in the commission to see where the two texts may diverge Translation brief should include:The intended text functions;The addressees(sender and recipient)The time and place of text receptionThe medium(speech and writing)The motive(why the ST was written and why it is being translated)2,intratextual factors for the ST analysisSubject matterContent:including connotation and cohesionPresuppositions：real-world factors of the communicative situation presumed to be known to the participants;Composition:microstructure and macrostructure;Non-verbal elements:illustrations,italics,etc.;Lexic:including dialect,register and specific terminology;Sentence structure;Suprasegemtal features:stress,rhythm and stylistic punctuationIt does not matter which text-linguistic model is used3,the intended function of the translation should be decided(documentary or instrumental) Those functional elements that will need to be adapted to the TT addressee’s situation have to be determinedThe translation type decides the translation style(source-culture or target culture oriented)The problems of the text can then be tackled at a lower linguistic levelChapter6discourse and register analysis approachesText analysis:concentrate on describing the way in which texts are organized(sentence structure,cohesion,etc.)Discourse analysis looks at the way language communicates meaning and social and power relations.Halliday’s model of discourse analysis,based on systemic functional grammarStudy of language as communication,seeing meaning in the writer’s linguistic choices and systematically relating these choices to a wider sociocultural framework.Relation of genre and register to languageGenre:the conventional text type that is associated with a specific communicative function Variables of Register:1,field:what is being written about,e.g.a delivery2,tenor:who is communicating and to whom,e.g.a sales representative to a customer3,mode:the form of communication,e.g.written.Each is associated with a strand of meaning:Metafunctions:概念功能(ideational function)、人际功能(interpersonal function)和语篇功能(textual function)Realized by the lexicogrammar:the choices of wording and syntactic structureField--ideational meaning—transitivity patternsTenor—interpersonal meaning—patterns of modalityMode—textual meaning—thematic and information structures and cohesion及物性系统(transitivity)情态系统(modality)、主位结构(theme structure)和信息结构(information structure)。
文学翻译中译者的显身——以《孔乙己》三个英译本为例
谨以此论文献给我挚爱的父亲和美好的校园时光！————朱琼文学翻译中译者的显身——以《孔乙己》三个英译本为例摘要翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，有着绵延几千年历史。
译者作为翻译实践的主体，有着不可替代的桥梁作用，肩负着传递源语信息、解释源语与目的语所承载的文化差异、促进不同民族之间的交流和理解的重任。
然而纵观中西方翻译史，传统翻译研究对译者的研究始终处于边缘。
随着翻译理论的深化和发展，译者逐渐进行着从“隐身”到“显身”，从“幕后”到“台前”的角色转变。
译者的显身显然与不同时代、不同国别的翻译理论家及翻译实践家的贡献密不可分。
本文以美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂在其著作《译者的隐身——一部翻译史》中的理论为引导，对鲁迅作品《孔乙己》的三个英译本，即埃德加·斯诺（EdgarSnow）1936年译本，威廉·莱尔（WilliamA.Lyell）1990年译本和茱莉亚·罗威尔（JuliaLovell，中文名蓝诗玲）2009年译本进行个案分析，从译者的文本选择和翻译策略等角度详细论证译者的显身在鲁迅作品外译中的体现。
劳伦斯·韦努蒂倡导异化翻译理论，提出译者通过采用异化的翻译，不仅可以体现不同语言和文化的差异性，而且使译者的地位在翻译活动中得到凸显。
韦努蒂受解构主义和施莱尔马赫翻译理论的影响，并在当代后殖民主义背景下进一步发展了施莱尔马赫的理论。
他的异化翻译理论对于提高译者的地位、提高翻译文学在英语世界中的地位都起到了不可磨灭的推动作用，同时也为人们评论、赏析译作开辟了一条新的路径。
本文通过比较三个不同时期、不同国别的鲁迅小说《孔乙己》的英译本，试图实现三个层面的研究价值，第一，从中外文学交流史的大范畴中，通过分析和评价鲁迅作品在英语世界的译介，使人们对鲁迅思想和作品在世界文学和文化中的经典地位有更清醒的认识，为现代中国学的学科建设增加研究素材。
第二，在中国文化内部，置身于鲁迅思想及其作品在主流文化中逐渐式微的大背景下，通过重读鲁迅作品并对其经典作品的英译进行深入分析，试图反省和干预中国当代主流文化。
critical readings in translation studies pdf
critical readings in translationstudies pdfCritical Readings in Translation Studies PDF: A Comprehensive OverviewIntroduction:Translation studies is a multidisciplinary field that explores the theory, practice, and cultural implications of translation. As a crucial resource for scholars, students, and practitioners, the Critical Readings in Translation Studies PDF provides a comprehensive overview of this dynamic and evolving field. This article aims to delve into the key points covered in this influential work, highlighting its significance and relevance.I. Theoretical Foundations of Translation Studies:1.1 Historical Development of Translation Theory:- The emergence of translation theory as a distinct discipline.- The influence of linguistic and literary theories on translation studies.- The shift from equivalence-based approaches to more dynamic and cultural-oriented perspectives.1.2 Key Theoretical Approaches in Translation Studies:- The functionalist approach, emphasizing the purpose and function of translation.- The polysystem theory, focusing on the role of translation in literary systems.- The postcolonial perspective, exploring the power dynamics in translation.1.3 Challenges and Debates in Translation Theory:- The debate between domestication and foreignization strategies.- The role of gender, ideology, and identity in translation.- The ethical considerations in translation, such as censorship and manipulation.II. Translation Practice and Methodology:2.1 Translation Techniques and Strategies:- Literal translation, preserving the original text's structure and meaning.- Adaptation, modifying the source text to suit the target culture.- Localization, adjusting the translation to the linguistic and cultural context of the target audience.2.2 Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools:- The impact of technology on translation practice.- The use of CAT tools, such as translation memory and terminology management systems.- The benefits and limitations of CAT tools in maintaining translation quality.2.3 Translation Quality Assessment:- The criteria for evaluating translation quality, including accuracy, fluency, and cultural appropriateness.- The role of professional translators and their expertise in ensuring high-quality translations.- The importance of revision and proofreading in the translation process.III. Cultural and Societal Implications of Translation:3.1 Translation as a Cultural Mediator:- The role of translation in promoting intercultural understanding.- The challenges of translating culturally-specific concepts and idioms.- The impact of translation on the preservation and dissemination of cultural heritage.3.2 Translation and Globalization:- The role of translation in facilitating international communication and exchange.- The challenges of translating globalized texts and concepts.- The emergence of World Englishes and its impact on translation practices.3.3 Translation and Power Dynamics:- The unequal distribution of power in translation, particularly in postcolonial contexts.- The role of translators as mediators and gatekeepers of knowledge.- The potential for resistance and subversion in translation practices.IV. Interdisciplinary Perspectives in Translation Studies:4.1 Translation and Linguistics:- The relationship between translation and linguistic theories, such as equivalence and contrastive analysis.- The study of translation phenomena, such as code-switching and intertextuality.- The application of corpus linguistics in translation research.4.2 Translation and Literature:- The translation of literary works and the challenges of capturing the author's style and voice.- The role of translation in the dissemination of world literature.- The impact of translation on the reception and interpretation of literary texts.4.3 Translation and Cultural Studies:- The intersection between translation and cultural studies, exploring the cultural and social dimensions of translation.- The role of translation in the construction and negotiation of cultural identities.- The study of translation as a site of cultural exchange and transformation.V. Future Directions and Emerging Trends in Translation Studies:5.1 Translation and Technology:- The impact of artificial intelligence and machine translation on the translation industry.- The potential for human-machine collaboration in translation.- The ethical considerations and challenges posed by technological advancements.5.2 Translation and Audiovisual Media:- The translation of audiovisual texts, such as films and TV series.- The challenges of subtitling, dubbing, and voice-over translation.- The role of translation in shaping the reception and interpretation of audiovisual works.5.3 Translation and Multimodality:- The study of translation in relation to other modes of communication, such as images and gestures.- The challenges and opportunities of translating multimodal texts.- The implications of multimodal translation for accessibility and inclusivity.Conclusion:In conclusion, the Critical Readings in Translation Studies PDF offers a comprehensive exploration of the theoretical foundations, practical methodologies,cultural implications, interdisciplinary perspectives, and emerging trends in the field of translation studies. By delving into these key points, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and significance of translation, making it an invaluable resource for scholars, students, and practitioners in the field.。
Introduction to translation studies
Definitions of translation
The target language should be easy and smooth for people to read. Communicate with people speaking different languages, eg. exchange ideas or culture.
Characteristics of translation
Translate what is written or what is spoken. No right to change and correct the source language. To understand the source text and to express in the target text . Should not stick to the original meaning in translate and make your translation meet the customary expressions in the target language.
Translation Studies (Translatology)
Translatology is a general term of translation studies Translation Studies is the top level of translation Elements of social science and the humanities Dealing with the systematic study of the theory The Description and the application of translation, interpreting Translation can be Normative and Descriptive
Lecture 01 Main issues of translation studies
IntroductionTranslation studies is the new academic discipline related to the study of the theory and phenomena of translation. By its nature it is multilingual and also interdisciplinary, encompassing languages, linguistics, communication studies, philosophy and a range of types of cultural studies.“Readers” of key writings on translation:1) Andrew Chesterman’s Readings in Translation Theory (1989)2) Andre Lefevere’s Translation/History/Culture: A Sourcebook (1992)3) Rainer Schulte and John Biguener’s Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays fromDryden to Derrida (1992)4) Douglas Robinson’s Western Translation Theory from Herodotus to Nietzsche (1997)5) Lawrence Venuti’s The Translation Studies Reader (2000)6) 罗新璋《翻译论集》(商务印书馆,1984)7) 杨自俭和刘学云《翻译新论》(湖北教育出版社, 1994)8) 刘靖之’s《翻译论集》（香港:三联书店(香港)有限公司, 1981）9) The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (Baker 1997)10) The Dictionary of Translation Studies (Shuttleworth and Cowie 1997)11)《中国翻译词典》(湖北教育出版社，1997)11 lectures included in this course:Lecture 1 Main issues of translation studiesLecture 2 Translation theory before the twentieth centuryLecture 3 Equivalence and equivalent effectLecture 4 The translation shift approachLecture 5 Functional theories of translationLecture 6 Discourse and register analysis approachesLecture 7 Systems theoriesLecture 8 Varieties of cultural studiesLecture 9 Translating the foreign: the (in)visibility of translationLecture 10 Philosophical theories of translationLecture 11 Translation studies as an interdisciplineThe format of each lecture:◆an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas;◆the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion;◆an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the lecture;◆suggestions for further reading;◆a brief evaluative summary of the lecture;◆a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research.Lecture 1 Main issues of translation studiesContents1.1 The concept of translation1.2 What is translation studies?1.3 A brief history of the discipline1.4 The Holmes/Toury ‘map’1.5 Developments since the 1970s1.6 Aim of this course and a guide to lectures1.1 The concept of translationTranslation:the general subject field;the product: the text that has been translatedthe process: the act of producing the translation, or translatingThe process of translation (or translating) involves the translator changing an original written text or the source text (ST) in the original verbal language or the source language(SL) into a written text or the target text (TT) in a different verbal language or the target language (TL).→‘interlingual translation’.Jakobson’s (1959) categories of translation:1. intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of othersigns of the same language’;2. interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means ofsome other language’;3. intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signsof non-verbal sign systems’).1.2 What is translation studies?James S. Holmes (“The Name and Nature of Translation Studies”, 1972): Translation Studies is concerned with ‘the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations’ (Holmes 1988/2000: 173).Mary Snell-Hornby (Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach, 1988): ‘the demand that translation studies should be viewed as an independent discipline . . . has come from several quarters in recent years’.Snell-Hornby (1995): ‘the breathtaking development of translation studies as an independent discipline’and the ‘prolific international discussion’ on the subject.Mona Baker (The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation, 1997): ‘exciting new discipline, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s’Two ways translation studies has become more prominent:1) A proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate level.In the UK in the 1960s: the first specialized university postgraduate courses in interpreting and translating established.In the UK in the academic year 1999/2000: at least 20 postgraduate translation courses and several designated ‘Centres of Translation’.250 university-level bodies in over 60 countries offering four-year undergraduate degrees and/or postgraduate courses in translation, training professional commercial translators and interpreters. (Caminade & Pym, 1995)2) Courses focusing on the practice of literary translation:In the UK: (1) Middlesex University; (2) the University of East Anglia (Norwich) (which houses the British Centre for Literary Translation).In Europe: a network of centres where literary translation is studied, practised and promoted, including Norwich, Amsterdam (the Netherlands), Arles (France), Bratislava (Slovakia), Dublin (Ireland), Rhodes (Greece), Sineffe (Belgium), Strälen (Germany), Tarazona (Spain) and Visby (Sweden).The 1990s also saw a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages.Long-standing international translation studies journals:Babel (the Netherlands)Meta (Canada)Across Languages and Cultures (Hungary)Literature in Translation (UK)Perspectives: Studies in Translatology (Denmark)Target (Israel/Belgium)The Translator (UK)Parallèles (Switzerland) and Traduire (France)Cadernos de Tradução (Brazil)Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione (Italy)Turjuman (Morocco)The main European publishers publishing books in translation studies:John BenjaminsMultilingual MattersRodopiRoutledgeSt JeromeProfessional publications dedicated to the practice of translation in the UKThe Linguist of the Institute of LinguistsThe ITI Bulletin of the Institute for Translating and InterpretingIn Other Words, the literary-oriented publication of the Translators’ AssociationTRANSST (Israel)BET (Spain)Key themes of international translation conferences (1999–2000):• translation and training translators (Bratislava, Slovakia);• literary translation (Mons, Belgium);• research models in translation studies (UMIST, Manchester, UK);• gender and translation (Norwich, UK);• translation as/at the crossroads of culture (Lisbon, Portugal);• translation and globalization (Tangiers, Morocco);• legal translation (Geneva, Switzerland);• translation and meaning (Maastricht, the Netherlands and Lodz, Poland);• the history of translation (Leon, Spain);• transadaptation and pedagogical challenges (Turku, Finland);• translation-focused comparative literature (Pretoria, South Africa and Salvador, Brazil).From being a little-established field a relatively short time ago, translation studies has now become one of the most active and dynamic new areas of research encompassing an exciting mix of approaches.1.3 A brief history of the disciplineWritings on the subject of translating go far back in recorded history.Cicero and Horace (first century BCE) and St Jerome (fourth century CE)The Greek Septuagint BibleStudy of translation developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the 20th century.The grammar-translation method fell into increasing disrepute with the rise of the direct method or communicative approach to English language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s.▲Translation workshopIn the US, translation was promoted in universities in the 1960s by the translation workshop concept. The translation workshops were first established in the universities of Iowa and Princeton with the intention of introducing new translations into the target culture and for the discussion of the finer principles of the translation process and of understanding a text.▲Comparative literatureIn comparative literature, literature is studied and compared transnationally and transculturally, necessitating the reading of some literature in translation. This would later link into the growth of courses of the cultural studies type.▲Contrastive analysisContrastive analysis is the study of two languages in contrast in an attempt to identify general and specific differences between them. It developed into a systematic area of research in the USA from the 1930s onwards and came to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s. The contrastive approach heavily influenced other studies, such as Vinay and Darbe lnet’s (1958) and Catford’s (1965), which overtly stated their aim of assisting translation research. However, contrastive analysis does not incorporate sociocultural and pragmatic factors, nor the role of translation as a communicative act.Nevertheless, the continued application of a linguistic approach in general, and specific linguistic models such as generative grammar or functional grammar, has demonstrated an inherent and gut link with translation.The evolving field of translation studies can point to its own systematic models that have incorporated other linguistic models and developed them for its own purposes.The construction of the new discipline does not consider translation as primarily connected to language teaching and learning, but as the specific study of what happens in and around translating and translation.The more systematic approach to the study of translation began in the 1950s and 1960s:• Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet’s contrastive approach(1958): categorizing what they saw happening in the practice of translation between French and English;• Alfred Malblanc (1963) did the same for translation between French and German;• Georges Mounin(1963): examining linguistic issues of translation;• Eugene Nida (1964): incorporating elements of Chomsky’s generative grammar as a theoretical underpinning of his books.The word ‘science’ was used by Nida in Toward a Science of Translating (1964).The German equivalent, ‘Übersetzungswissenschaft’, was taken up by Wolfram Wilss, Koller and the Leipzig school (where Kade and Neubert became active).1.4 The Holmes/Toury ‘map’A seminal paper in the development of the field as a distinct discipline was James S. Holmes’s (1972) ‘The name and nature of translation studies’. Gentzler describes it as ‘generally accepted as the founding statement for the field’ (1993: 92).Figure 1.1Two objectives of the ‘pure’ areas of research:1. The description of the phenomena of translation (descriptive translation theory);2. The establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomena (translationtheory). (Holmes 1988b/2000: 176–81)The ‘theoretical’ branch is divided into general and partial theories:‘General’ theoretical studies: describing or accounting for every type of translation and makinggeneralizations that will be relevant for translation as a whole.‘Partial’ theoretical studies: (to be discussed below).Three possible foci of descriptive translation studies (DTS): examination of (1) the product, (2) the function and (3) the process:1. Product-oriented DTS examines existing translations, including the description or analysis ofa single ST–TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST (into one or moreTLs). These smaller-scale studies can build up into a larger body of translation analysis looking at a specific period, language or text/discourse type. Larger-scale studies can be either diachronic (following development over time) or synchronic (at a single point or period in time). ‘One of the eventual goals of product-oriented DTS might possibly be a general history of translations – however ambitious such a goal might sound at this time’. (Holmes, 1988/2000: 177)2. Function-oriented DTS refers to the description of the ‘function[of translations] in therecipient sociocultural situation: it is a study of contexts r ather than texts’ (Holmes, 1988/2000: 177). Issues that may be researched include which books were translated when and where, and what influences they exerted. This area (then termed ‘socio-translation studies’, but now called cultural-studies-oriented translation) was less researched at that time, but is more popular in current work on translation studies.3. Process-oriented DTS is concerned with the psychology of translation, trying to find out whathappens in the mind of a translator, but has still not yet been systematically analyzed.The results of DTS research can be fed into the theoretical branch to evolve either a general theory of translation or partial theories of translation ‘restricted’ according to the following subdivisions:• Medium-restricted theories: subdividing according to translation by machine and humans, with further subdivisions according to whether the machine/computer is working alone or as an aid to the human translator, to whether the human translation is written or spoken and to whether spoken translation (interpreting) is consecutive or simultaneous.• Area-restricted theories:restricted to specific languages or groups of languages and/or cultures. It is closely related to work in contrastive linguistics and stylistics.• Rank-restricted theories: restricted to a specific level of the word or sentence or text.• Text-type restricted theories:related to specific discourse types or genres, such as literary, business and technical translation. Text-type approaches came to prominence with the work of Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s.• Time-restricted: referring to theories and translations limited according to specific time frames and periods (i.e. the history of translation).• Problem-restricted theories: referring to specific problems (such as equivalence) or whether universals of translated language exist.Several different restrictions can apply at any one time. For example, the study of the translation of novels would be area restricted, text-type restricted and time restricted.The ‘applied’ branch of Holmes’s framework concerns:• translator training: teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design;• translation aids: such as dictionaries, grammars and information technology;•translation criticism: the evaluation of translations, including the marking of student translations and the reviews of published translations.Translation policy: the translation scholar advise on the place of translation in society, including what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.Figure 1.2The merit of Holmes’s divisions: they allow a clarification and a division of labour between the various areas of translation studies which, in the past, have often been confused (Toury, 1995: 9) The crucial role of Holmes’s paper: delineating the potential of translation studies.‘Translation policy’ would nowadays far more likely be related to the ideology that determines translation than was the case in Holmes’s description.The restrictions of Holmes’s divisions:1) A discourse-type and a text-type restriction2) Inclusion of interpreting as a sub-category of human translation3) Omission of any mention of the individuality of the style, decision-making processes andworking practices of human translators involved in the translation process (Pym, 1998: 4) 1.5 Developments since the 1970sThe surge in translation studies since the 1970s has seen different areas of Holmes’s map come to the fore.◆Contrastive analysis has fallen by the wayside.◆The linguistic-oriented ‘science’ of translation has continued strongly in Germany, but theconcept of equivalence associated with it has declined.◆Germany has seen the rise of theories centred around text types (Reiss) and text purpose (theskopos theory of Reiss and Vermeer).◆The Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar has beenprominent over the past decades, especially in Australia and the UK, and has been applied to translation in works by Bell (1991), Baker (1992) and Hatim and Mason (1990, 1997).◆The descriptive approach (originating in comparative literature and Russian Formalism) rose inthe late 1970s and the 1980s.◆In Tel Aviv, Itamar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury have pursued the idea of the literarypolysystem in which different literatures and genres, including translated and non-translated works, compete for dominance.◆The polysystemists have worked with a Belgium-based group (including José Lambert and thelate André Lefevere), and with the UK-based scholars Susan Bassnett and Theo Hermans.◆The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation (Hermans, 1985) gave rise tothe name of the ‘Manipulation School’ and held sway for much of the following decade.◆The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools and concepts:●Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon;●The Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira;●Postcolonial translation theory, with the prominent figures of the Bengali scholarsTejaswini Niranjana and Gayatri Spivak;●In the USA, the cultural-studies-oriented analysis of Lawrence Venuti, who champions thecause of the translator.1.6 Aim of this course and a guide to LecturesLecture 2 describes some of the major issues discussed in writings about translation up to the middle of the 20th century. This huge range of over two thousand years, beginning with Cicero in the first century BC, focuses on the ‘literal vs. free’ translation debate. It aims to initiate discussion on some of the key issues.Lecture 3deals with the concepts of meaning, equivalence and ‘equivalent effect’, encompassing Nida’s generative-influenced model of translation transfer and his concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Newmark’s categories of semantic translation and communicative translation are also discussed, as is Koller’s analysis of equivalence.Lecture 4 details attempts that have been made to provide a taxonomy of the linguistic changes or ‘shifts’ which occur in translation. The main model described here is Vinay and Darbelnet’s classic taxonomy, but reference is also made to Catford’s linguistic model and van Leuven-Zwart’s translation shift approach from the 1980s.Lecture 5 covers Reiss and Vermeer’s text-type and skopos theory of the 1970s and 1980s and Nord’s text-linguistic approach. Translation is analyzed according to text type and function in the TL culture, and concepts of text analysis –such as word order, information structure and thematic progression – are employed.Lecture 6 considers House’s register analysis model and the development of discourse-oriented approaches in the 1990s by Baker and Hatim and Mason, who make use of Hallidayan linguistics to examine translation as communication within a sociocultural context.Lecture 7 investigates systems theories and the field of target-oriented ‘descriptive’ translation studies, following Even-Zohar, Toury and the work of the Manipulation School.Lecture 8 examines varieties of cultural studies approaches in translation studies. These start with Lefevere’s work of the 1980s and early 1990s and move on to more recent developments in gender studies and translation (in Canada) and to postcolonial translation theories (in India, Brazil and Ireland).Lecture 9 follows Berman and Venuti in examining the foreign element in translation and the ‘invisibility’ of the translator. The idea is explored that the practice of translation, especially in the English-speaking world, is considered to be a derivative and second-rate activity, and that the prevailing method of translation is ‘naturalizing’. The role of literary translators and publishers is also described.Lecture 10 investigates a selection of philosophical issues of language and translation, ranging from Steiner’s ‘hermeneutic motion’, Pound’s use of archaisms, Walter Benjamin’s ‘pure’ language, and Derrida and the deconstruction movement.Lecture 11sets out an interdisciplinary approach to translation studies. It discusses Snell-Hornby’s‘integrated approach’and looks at recent studies that have combined linguistic andcultural analysis. The future of translation studies and the role of modern technologies, including the internet, are also discussed.SummaryTranslation studies is a relatively new academic research area that has expanded explosively in recent years. While translation was formerly studied as a language-learning methodology or as part of comparative literature, translation ‘workshops’ and contrastive linguistics courses, th e new discipline owes much to the work of James S. Holmes, whose ‘The name and nature of translation studies’ proposed both a name and a structure for the field. The interrelated branches of theoretical, descriptive and applied translation studies have structured much recent research and have assisted in bridging the gulf that had grown between the theory and practice of translation.Discussion and research points1. How is the practice of translation (and interpreting) structured in China? How many universities offer first degrees in the subject? How many postgraduate courses are there? How do they differ? Isa postgraduate qualification a prerequisite for working as a professional translator?2. Find out how research-based translation studies fits into the university system in China. How many universities offer ‘translation studies’ (or similar) courses? In what ways do they differ from or resemble each other? In which university departments are they housed? What do you conclude is the status of translation studies in China?3. What specific research in translation studies is being carried out in China? How do you find out? Is the work being carried out by isolated researchers or by larger and coordinated groups? How, if at all, would it fit in with Holmes’s‘map’ of translation studies?4. Trace the history of translation and translation studies in China. Has the focus been mainly on the theory or on the practice of translation? Why do you think this is so?Key textsHolmes, J. S. (1988b/2000) ‘The name and nature of translation studies’, in L. Venuti (ed.) (2000), pp. 172–85.Jakobson, R. (1959/2000) ‘On linguistic aspects of translation’, in L. Venuti (ed.) (2000),pp. 113–18.Leuven-Zwart, K. van and T. Naaijkens (eds) (1991) Translation Studies: State of the Art, Amsterdam: Rodopi.Toury, G. (1991) ‘What are descriptive studies in translation likely to yield apart from isolated descriptions?’, in K. van Leuven-Zwart and T. Naaijkens (eds) (1991), pp. 179–92.。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies《翻译学的名与实》
I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
其次，霍姆斯是一个同性恋诗人。
霍姆斯的诗作既有韵律诗又有自由体诗，绝大多数都是同性恋题材。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies翻译的名与实
2.3 “translation studies” term
❖ Indeed, for disciplines that within the old distinction of the universities tend to fall under the humanities or arts, the word would be active.
1lexicographicalandterminological词典编纂和术语2grammars语法323translationpolicy翻译政策?itisdeterminedbywhatkindofsocialandeconomicpositionthetranslatorshouldbein?orwhatparttranslatingshouldplayintheteachingandlearningofforeignlanguages主要解释译者及译本的角色和地位研究某社会应引进和翻译哪些作品研究翻译在外语教学中的作用translationcriticism翻译批评?translationcriticism翻译批评theevaluationofthetargettexts即对译文进行评价331conclusion?therelationsamongdescriptivetheoreticalandappliedtranslationstudiesaredialecticalattentiontoallthreebranchesisrequiredifthedisciplineistogrowandflourish?三者的关系是辩证统一的缺少其中任何一个分支这一学科都不能发展和繁荣
introducting translation studies
introducting translation studies
Introducing Translation Studies是一本介绍翻译研究领域的书籍，涵盖了翻译理论、方法和实践等方面的内容。
这类书籍旨在向读者介绍翻译的基本概念、历史、理论和相关研究方法。
这本书通常包括以下主题
翻译理论：介绍不同的翻译理论，例如等价理论、功能对等理论、文化转换理论等，以及这些理论如何影响和指导翻译实践。
翻译方法：探讨翻译的不同方法和策略，例如直译、意译、文化调整、语体转换等，在不同语言和文化背景下的应用。
翻译的社会和文化影响：探讨翻译对社会、文化、政治和经济领域的影响，以及在全球化时代的重要性。
历史和发展：介绍翻译研究领域的历史演变，从传统的观点到现代研究的发展和趋势。
这类书籍旨在为读者提供一个全面的入门，使他们能够了解翻译的基本概念、关键理论和实践方法。
不同的书籍可能在深度和内容上有所不同，因此可以选择适合自己需求和兴趣的那本来阅读。
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翻译学基本用语
源语/译出语source language(SL), original language
译语/译入语target language(TL), receptor language, receiving language
原作者SL author, original author
译者(笔译者)translator
译者(口译者)interpreter
读者/接受者reader, receptor, audience
文本text
原文/原著source text (ST), SL text, original text, original version/original work
译文target text, translation, target version, rendering, rendition
译本/译著translated text/translational work
源语读者source-language reader/SL reader
源语文化source-language culture/source culture
译语读者target-language reader/TL reader/receiving audience
译语文化target-language culture/target culture/receiving culture 语境context
笔译written translation
口译oral interpretation/oral translation/interpreting
同声传译simultaneous interpreting
交替口译consecutive interpreting
翻译原则translation principle
标准translation criterion (复数形式为criteria)
翻译过程translation process
翻译程序/步骤translationprocedures
反应/读者翻译response/reader’s response
对应(部分对应/完全对应)(partial /full )correspondence
等值/对等equivalence
对等物(词语)equivalent
形式对等formal equivalence
功能对等functional equivalence
动态对等dynamic equivalence
等效equivalent effect
充分性adequacy
可接受性acceptability(acceptable, unacceptable, unacceptability) 可读性readability(readable)
可译性translatability(translatable)
不可译性untranslatability(untranslatable)
表层结构surface structure
深层结构deep structure
理解understanding/comprehension
表达expression
再现reproduction/representation
转换transformation
传译/转移transferral/transfer
误解misunderstanding
误译mis-translation
异化foreignization/alienation/exoticization/ exogenization/source-oriented translation
归化domestication/naturalization/adaptation/endogenization/target-accommodating translation
词汇空缺lexical gap
文化沟(空缺/非对应)cultural gap
直译literal translation/direct translation
意译free translation/liberal translation/semantic translation
直译派a literalist/a sourcerer
意译派a free-hander/a targeteer
重复法repetition
增译法/增词法/增译amplification/addition
减译法/减词法/省略法/省译omission
词类转移法/词性转换conversion
反译法/正反译法/反正译法negation
移植法transplant(ing)/transplantation
音译法transliteration
具体化specification
概括化generalization
抽象化abstracting
明析化explicitation
译借(语义转借)calque(loan translation)
加注法annotation
夹注intratextual note
脚注footnote
尾注/文后注endnote
注释性翻译annotated/commented translation 释义法/解释法explanation/paraphrase
引申法extension
替代法substitution/replacement
借用borrowing
推演法deduction
缀合法combination
分译法division
逆序法/倒置法reversing
合译法combination
综合法mixture of methods
包孕embedding
切断/分切cutting
拆离splitting-off
插入inserting
重组recasting
回译back translation
还原法finding the original
原汁原味essence of the original, original flavor 词序调整inversion
选词diction
补偿compensation
视点转换shift of perspective
套译/仿译/仿拟imitation
信/忠实faithfulness/fidelity
达/易懂intelligibility/expressiveness
通顺smoothness
流畅fluency
自然naturalness /idiomaticity
雅/优美elegance/gracefulness
简洁brevity
明析clarity
简明conciseness
内涵connotation
含义implication
言外之意allocution
本文意义(文本固有之意)inherent meaning (of the text)
译者隐形translator’s invisibility
透明(度)transparency
宁信而不顺(鲁迅语) rahter to be faithful than smooth (“I’d rather be faithful than smooth”)
神似(傅雷语) spiritual resemblance
化境(钱钟书语)sublimation
信、达、切(刘重德语)faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness (to the original style)
三美: 音美,形美,意美(许渊冲语)the three beauties: beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in meaning
东方语言Oriental languages
西方语言Occidental languages
佛经Buddhist Scriptures/sutra
梵语Sanskrit
鸠摩罗什Kumarajiva
泰特勒(Alexander Fraser )Tytler
奈达(Eugene A.) Nida
机器翻译machine translation(MT)
人工智能artificial intelligence(AI)
翻译translate, render, rephrase, reword, transmit, re-express, transmute, transmogrify, interpret, convert, transform, transpose, express, transfer, turn
翻译学translatology/Translation Studies
翻译体/翻译腔translationese
死译/硬译mechanical translation
逐字译word-for-word translation/word-to-word substitution/verbatim translation
乱译/胡译excessively free translation
歪译(意义扭曲)distortion
惯用法usage
搭配collocation
约定俗成convention
形合hypotaxis
意合parataxis。