Terms in Translation Studies
《翻译研究入门理论与应用》总结笔记
Chapter1Translation can refer to the general subject field,the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original written text in the original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language.Three categories of translation by the Russian-American structuralist Roman Jakobson1intralingual translation语内翻译：Rewording,an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language;2interlingual translation语际翻译:Translation proper*,an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language;3intersemiotic translation语符翻译transmutation,an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems.History of the discipline1,From late eighteenth century to the1960s:part of language learning methodology Translation workshop,comparative literature,contrastive analysis2,James S Holmes“the name and nature of translation studies”(founding statement for the field)3,1970:Reiss:text typeReiss and Vermeer:text purpose(the skopos theory)Halliday:discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar4,1980The manipulation school:descriptive approach,polysystem5,1990Sherry Simon:Gender researchElse Vieira:Brazilian cannibalist schoolTejaswini Niranjana:Postcolonial translation theoryLawrence Venuti:cultural-studies-oriented analysisHolmes’s map of translation studiesThe objectives of the pure areas of research:1,descriptive translation theory:the description of the phenomena of translation2,translation theory:the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomenaPure:theoretical and descriptiveDTS:descriptive translation studies1,product-oriented DTS:existing translations,text(diachronic or synchronic)2,function-oriented DTS:the function of translations in the recipient sociocultural situation (socio-translation studies or cultural-studies-oriented translation)3,process-oriented DTS:the psychology of translation(later think-aloud protocols)Relation between Theoretical and descriptiveThe results of DTS research can be fed into the theoretical branch to evolve either a general theory of translation or,more likely,partial theories of translation.Partial theories1,Medium-restricted theories:translation by machine and humans2,Area-restricted theories:3,Rank-restricted theories:the level of word,sentence or text4,Text-type restricted theories:discourse types or genres5,Time-restricted theories:6,Problem-restricted theories:Applied branch of Holmes’s framework:translator training,translation aids and translation criticism.Translation policy:the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in societyChapter2translation theory before the twentieth centuryLiteral vs.free debateCicero(first century BCE):I did not hold it necessary to render word for word,but I preserved the general style and force of the language.Horace:producing an aesthetically pleasing and creative text in the TL.St Jerome:I render not word for word,but sense for sense.Martin Luther:1,non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.2,his infusion of the Bible with the language of ordinary people and his consideration of translation in terms focusing on the TL and the TT reader were crucial.“Louis Kelly:Fidelity: to both the words and the perceived senseSpirit:1, creative energy or inspiration of a text or language, proper to literature; 2, the Holy Spirit.Truth: content17 century:Early attempts at systematic translation theoryCowley: imitationCounter the inevitable loss of beauty in translation by using our wit or invention to create new beauty;he has ‘taken, left out and added what I please’John Dryden reduces all translation to three categories: the triadic model(约翰 德莱顿的三分法:“直译”、意译”与“仿译”) 1, metaphrase: word for word translation2, paraphrase : sense for sense translation3, imitation : forsake both words and senseEtienne Dolet: a French humanist, burned at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues.Five principles:① The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.②The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL , so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.③The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.④The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forma .⑤The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness.Alexander Fraser TytlerTL-reader-oriented definition of a good translation: That, in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.Three general rules:I. That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.II. That the style and manner of writing should be of t he same character with that of the original.III. That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.—— A. F. Tytler: Essay on the Principles of TranslationTytler ranks his three laws in order of comparative importance:Ease of composition would be sacrificed if necessary for manner,and a departure would be made from manner in the interests of sense.Friedrich Schleiermacher:the founder of modern Protestant theology and of modern hermeneuticsHermeneutics:a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.2types of translators:1,Dolmetscher:who translates commercial texts;2,Ubersetzer:who works on scholarly and artistic texts.2translation methods:1,translator leaves the reader in peace,as much as possible,and moves the author towards him. Alienating method2,translator leaves the writer alone,as much as possible,and moves the reader towards the writer. Naturalizing methodThe status of the ST and the form of the TLFrancis Newman:emphasize the foreignness of the workMatthew Arnold:a transparent translation method(led to the devaluation of translation and marginalization of translation)Chapter3Equivalence and equivalent effectRoman Jakobson:the nature of linguistic meaningSaussure:the signifier(能指)the spoken and written signalThe signified(所指)the concept signifiedThe signifier and signified form the linguistic sign,but that sign is arbitrary or unmotivated.1,There is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units.Interlingual translation involves substituting messages in one language not for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other language.2,for the message to be equivalent in ST and TT,the code-unit will be different since they belong to two different sign systems which partition reality differently.3,the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language.4,cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms.They occur at the level of gender,aspect and semantic fields.Eugene Nida1,an orthographic word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses accordingto culture.2,meaning is broke down into a,linguistic meaning,b,referential meaning(the denotative ‘dictionary’meaning指称，字面)and c,emotive meaning(connotative隐含).3,techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic itemsA,analyze the structure of wordsB,differentiate similar words in relaxed lexical fields3techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic items1，Hierarchical structuring,differentiates series of words according to their level,2，Techniques of componential analysis（成分分析法）identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words.3，Semantic structure analysis：Discriminate the sense of a complex semantic termChomsky:Generative-transformational model:analyze sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules.3features1,phrase-structure rules短语结构规则generate an underlying or deep structure which is2,transformed by transformational rules转换规则relating one underlying structure to another, to produce3,a final surface structure,which itself is subject to形态音位规则phonological and morphemic rules.The most basic of such structures are kernel sentences,which are simple,active,declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation.Three-stage system of translationAnalysis:the surface structure of the ST is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure Transfer:these are transferred in the translation processRestructuring:these are transferred in the translation process and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT.Back-transformation回归转换(Kernels are to be obtained from the ST structure by a reductive process)Four types of functional class:events,objects,abstracts and relationals.Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:literal transfer,minimal transfer最小单位转换and literary transfer.Formal equivalence:focuses attention on the message itself,in both form and content,the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Gloss translations释译Dynamic equivalence is based on what Nida calls the principle of equivalent effect,where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message.Four basic requirements of a translation1,making sense2,conveying the spirit and manner of the original3,having a natural and easy form of expression4,producing a similar response.NewmarkCommunicative translation attempts to produce on its reader an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render,as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow,the exact contextual meaning of the original.Literal translation is held to be the best approach in both communicative translation and semantic translation.One of the difficulties encountered by translation studies in systematically following up advances in theory may indeed be partly attributable to the overabundance of terminology.Werner KollerCorrespondence:contrastive linguistics,compares two language systems and describes contrastively differences and similarities.Saussure’s langue(competence in foreign language) Equivalence:equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts.Saussure’s parole (competence in translation)Five types of equivalenceDenotative equivalenceConnotative equivalenceText-normative equivalencePragmatic equivalence(communicative equivalence)Formal equivalence(expressive equivalence,the form and aesthetics of the text)A checklist for translationally relevant text analysis:Language functionContent characteristicsLanguage-stylistic characteristicsFormal-aesthetic characteristicsPragmatic characteristicsTertium comparationi in the comparison of an ST and a TTChapter5functional theories of translationKatharina Reiss:Text TypeBuilds on the concept of equivalence but views the text,rather than the word or sentence as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought.Four-way categorization of the functions of language(Karl Buhler,three)1,plain communication of facts,transmit information and content,informative text2,creative composition,expressive text3,inducing behavioral responses,operative text4,audiomedial text,supplement the other three functions with visual images,music,etc.Different translation methods for different texts1,transmit the full referentical or conceptual content of the ST in plain prose without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required.2,transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST,using the identifying method,with the translator adopting the standpoint of the ST author.3,produce the desired response in the TT receiver,employing the adaptive method,creating an equivalent effect among TT readers.4,supplementing written words with visual images and music.Intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria1,intralinguistic criteria:semantic,lexical,grammatical and stylistic features2,extralinguistic criteria:situation,subject field,time,place,receiver,sender and affective implications(humor,irony,emotion,etc.)Holz-Manttari:Translational actionTakes up concepts from communication theory and action theoryTranslation action views translation as purpose-driven,outcome oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer.Interlingual translation is described as translational action from a source text and as a communicative process involving a series of roles and players.The initiatorThe commissionerThe ST producerThe TT producerThe TT userThe TT receiverContent,structured by what are called tectonics,is divided into a)factual information and b) overall communicative strategy.Form,structured by texture,is divided into a)terminology and b)cohesive elements.Value:place of translation,at least the professional non-literary translation within its sociocultural context,including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution.Vermeer:Skopos theorySkopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation,which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result(TT,translatum).Basic rules of the theory:1,a translatum is determined by its skopos;2,a TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a source culture and SL.3,a TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way4a TT must be internally coherent5a TT must be coherent with the ST6the five rules above stand in hierarchical order,with the skopos rule predominating.The coherence rule,internally coherent,the TT must be interpretable as coherent with the TT receiver’s situation.The fidelity rule,coherent with the ST,there must be coherence between the translatum and the ST.1,the ST information received by the translator;2,the interpretation the translator makes of this information;3,the information that is encoded for the TT receivers.Intratextual coherence intertextual coherenceAdequacy comes to override equivalence as the measure of the translational action. Adequacy:the relations between ST and TT as a consequence of observing a skopos during the translation process.In other words,if the TT fulfills the skopos outlined by the commission,it is functionally and communicatively adequate.Criticisms:1,valid for non-literary texts2,Reiss’s text type approach and Vermeer’s skopos theory are considering different functional phenomena3,insufficient attention to the linguistic nature of the ST nor to the reproduction of microlevel features in the TT.Christiane Nord:translation-oriented text analysisExamine text organization at or above sentence level.2basic types of translation product:1,documentary translation:serves as a document of a source culture communication between the author and the ST recipient.2,instrumental translation:the TT receiver read the TT as though it were an ST written in their own language.Aim:provide a model of ST analysis which is applicable to all text types and translation situations.Three aspects of functionalist approaches that are particularly useful in translator training1,the importance of the translation commission(translation brief)2,the role of ST analysis3,the functional hierarchy of translation problems.1,compare ST and TT profiles defined in the commission to see where the two texts may diverge Translation brief should include:The intended text functions;The addressees(sender and recipient)The time and place of text receptionThe medium(speech and writing)The motive(why the ST was written and why it is being translated)2,intratextual factors for the ST analysisSubject matterContent:including connotation and cohesionPresuppositions：real-world factors of the communicative situation presumed to be known to the participants;Composition:microstructure and macrostructure;Non-verbal elements:illustrations,italics,etc.;Lexic:including dialect,register and specific terminology;Sentence structure;Suprasegemtal features:stress,rhythm and stylistic punctuationIt does not matter which text-linguistic model is used3,the intended function of the translation should be decided(documentary or instrumental) Those functional elements that will need to be adapted to the TT addressee’s situation have to be determinedThe translation type decides the translation style(source-culture or target culture oriented)The problems of the text can then be tackled at a lower linguistic levelChapter6discourse and register analysis approachesText analysis:concentrate on describing the way in which texts are organized(sentence structure,cohesion,etc.)Discourse analysis looks at the way language communicates meaning and social and power relations.Halliday’s model of discourse analysis,based on systemic functional grammarStudy of language as communication,seeing meaning in the writer’s linguistic choices and systematically relating these choices to a wider sociocultural framework.Relation of genre and register to languageGenre:the conventional text type that is associated with a specific communicative function Variables of Register:1,field:what is being written about,e.g.a delivery2,tenor:who is communicating and to whom,e.g.a sales representative to a customer3,mode:the form of communication,e.g.written.Each is associated with a strand of meaning:Metafunctions:概念功能(ideational function)、人际功能(interpersonal function)和语篇功能(textual function)Realized by the lexicogrammar:the choices of wording and syntactic structureField--ideational meaning—transitivity patternsTenor—interpersonal meaning—patterns of modalityMode—textual meaning—thematic and information structures and cohesion及物性系统(transitivity)情态系统(modality)、主位结构(theme structure)和信息结构(information structure)。
文学翻译中译者的显身——以《孔乙己》三个英译本为例
谨以此论文献给我挚爱的父亲和美好的校园时光！————朱琼文学翻译中译者的显身——以《孔乙己》三个英译本为例摘要翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，有着绵延几千年历史。
译者作为翻译实践的主体，有着不可替代的桥梁作用，肩负着传递源语信息、解释源语与目的语所承载的文化差异、促进不同民族之间的交流和理解的重任。
然而纵观中西方翻译史，传统翻译研究对译者的研究始终处于边缘。
随着翻译理论的深化和发展，译者逐渐进行着从“隐身”到“显身”，从“幕后”到“台前”的角色转变。
译者的显身显然与不同时代、不同国别的翻译理论家及翻译实践家的贡献密不可分。
本文以美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂在其著作《译者的隐身——一部翻译史》中的理论为引导，对鲁迅作品《孔乙己》的三个英译本，即埃德加·斯诺（EdgarSnow）1936年译本，威廉·莱尔（WilliamA.Lyell）1990年译本和茱莉亚·罗威尔（JuliaLovell，中文名蓝诗玲）2009年译本进行个案分析，从译者的文本选择和翻译策略等角度详细论证译者的显身在鲁迅作品外译中的体现。
劳伦斯·韦努蒂倡导异化翻译理论，提出译者通过采用异化的翻译，不仅可以体现不同语言和文化的差异性，而且使译者的地位在翻译活动中得到凸显。
韦努蒂受解构主义和施莱尔马赫翻译理论的影响，并在当代后殖民主义背景下进一步发展了施莱尔马赫的理论。
他的异化翻译理论对于提高译者的地位、提高翻译文学在英语世界中的地位都起到了不可磨灭的推动作用，同时也为人们评论、赏析译作开辟了一条新的路径。
本文通过比较三个不同时期、不同国别的鲁迅小说《孔乙己》的英译本，试图实现三个层面的研究价值，第一，从中外文学交流史的大范畴中，通过分析和评价鲁迅作品在英语世界的译介，使人们对鲁迅思想和作品在世界文学和文化中的经典地位有更清醒的认识，为现代中国学的学科建设增加研究素材。
第二，在中国文化内部，置身于鲁迅思想及其作品在主流文化中逐渐式微的大背景下，通过重读鲁迅作品并对其经典作品的英译进行深入分析，试图反省和干预中国当代主流文化。
critical readings in translation studies pdf
critical readings in translationstudies pdfCritical Readings in Translation Studies PDF: A Comprehensive OverviewIntroduction:Translation studies is a multidisciplinary field that explores the theory, practice, and cultural implications of translation. As a crucial resource for scholars, students, and practitioners, the Critical Readings in Translation Studies PDF provides a comprehensive overview of this dynamic and evolving field. This article aims to delve into the key points covered in this influential work, highlighting its significance and relevance.I. Theoretical Foundations of Translation Studies:1.1 Historical Development of Translation Theory:- The emergence of translation theory as a distinct discipline.- The influence of linguistic and literary theories on translation studies.- The shift from equivalence-based approaches to more dynamic and cultural-oriented perspectives.1.2 Key Theoretical Approaches in Translation Studies:- The functionalist approach, emphasizing the purpose and function of translation.- The polysystem theory, focusing on the role of translation in literary systems.- The postcolonial perspective, exploring the power dynamics in translation.1.3 Challenges and Debates in Translation Theory:- The debate between domestication and foreignization strategies.- The role of gender, ideology, and identity in translation.- The ethical considerations in translation, such as censorship and manipulation.II. Translation Practice and Methodology:2.1 Translation Techniques and Strategies:- Literal translation, preserving the original text's structure and meaning.- Adaptation, modifying the source text to suit the target culture.- Localization, adjusting the translation to the linguistic and cultural context of the target audience.2.2 Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) Tools:- The impact of technology on translation practice.- The use of CAT tools, such as translation memory and terminology management systems.- The benefits and limitations of CAT tools in maintaining translation quality.2.3 Translation Quality Assessment:- The criteria for evaluating translation quality, including accuracy, fluency, and cultural appropriateness.- The role of professional translators and their expertise in ensuring high-quality translations.- The importance of revision and proofreading in the translation process.III. Cultural and Societal Implications of Translation:3.1 Translation as a Cultural Mediator:- The role of translation in promoting intercultural understanding.- The challenges of translating culturally-specific concepts and idioms.- The impact of translation on the preservation and dissemination of cultural heritage.3.2 Translation and Globalization:- The role of translation in facilitating international communication and exchange.- The challenges of translating globalized texts and concepts.- The emergence of World Englishes and its impact on translation practices.3.3 Translation and Power Dynamics:- The unequal distribution of power in translation, particularly in postcolonial contexts.- The role of translators as mediators and gatekeepers of knowledge.- The potential for resistance and subversion in translation practices.IV. Interdisciplinary Perspectives in Translation Studies:4.1 Translation and Linguistics:- The relationship between translation and linguistic theories, such as equivalence and contrastive analysis.- The study of translation phenomena, such as code-switching and intertextuality.- The application of corpus linguistics in translation research.4.2 Translation and Literature:- The translation of literary works and the challenges of capturing the author's style and voice.- The role of translation in the dissemination of world literature.- The impact of translation on the reception and interpretation of literary texts.4.3 Translation and Cultural Studies:- The intersection between translation and cultural studies, exploring the cultural and social dimensions of translation.- The role of translation in the construction and negotiation of cultural identities.- The study of translation as a site of cultural exchange and transformation.V. Future Directions and Emerging Trends in Translation Studies:5.1 Translation and Technology:- The impact of artificial intelligence and machine translation on the translation industry.- The potential for human-machine collaboration in translation.- The ethical considerations and challenges posed by technological advancements.5.2 Translation and Audiovisual Media:- The translation of audiovisual texts, such as films and TV series.- The challenges of subtitling, dubbing, and voice-over translation.- The role of translation in shaping the reception and interpretation of audiovisual works.5.3 Translation and Multimodality:- The study of translation in relation to other modes of communication, such as images and gestures.- The challenges and opportunities of translating multimodal texts.- The implications of multimodal translation for accessibility and inclusivity.Conclusion:In conclusion, the Critical Readings in Translation Studies PDF offers a comprehensive exploration of the theoretical foundations, practical methodologies,cultural implications, interdisciplinary perspectives, and emerging trends in the field of translation studies. By delving into these key points, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and significance of translation, making it an invaluable resource for scholars, students, and practitioners in the field.。
Introduction to translation studies
Definitions of translation
The target language should be easy and smooth for people to read. Communicate with people speaking different languages, eg. exchange ideas or culture.
Characteristics of translation
Translate what is written or what is spoken. No right to change and correct the source language. To understand the source text and to express in the target text . Should not stick to the original meaning in translate and make your translation meet the customary expressions in the target language.
Translation Studies (Translatology)
Translatology is a general term of translation studies Translation Studies is the top level of translation Elements of social science and the humanities Dealing with the systematic study of the theory The Description and the application of translation, interpreting Translation can be Normative and Descriptive
Lecture 01 Main issues of translation studies
IntroductionTranslation studies is the new academic discipline related to the study of the theory and phenomena of translation. By its nature it is multilingual and also interdisciplinary, encompassing languages, linguistics, communication studies, philosophy and a range of types of cultural studies.“Readers” of key writings on translation:1) Andrew Chesterman’s Readings in Translation Theory (1989)2) Andre Lefevere’s Translation/History/Culture: A Sourcebook (1992)3) Rainer Schulte and John Biguener’s Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays fromDryden to Derrida (1992)4) Douglas Robinson’s Western Translation Theory from Herodotus to Nietzsche (1997)5) Lawrence Venuti’s The Translation Studies Reader (2000)6) 罗新璋《翻译论集》(商务印书馆,1984)7) 杨自俭和刘学云《翻译新论》(湖北教育出版社, 1994)8) 刘靖之’s《翻译论集》（香港:三联书店(香港)有限公司, 1981）9) The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (Baker 1997)10) The Dictionary of Translation Studies (Shuttleworth and Cowie 1997)11)《中国翻译词典》(湖北教育出版社，1997)11 lectures included in this course:Lecture 1 Main issues of translation studiesLecture 2 Translation theory before the twentieth centuryLecture 3 Equivalence and equivalent effectLecture 4 The translation shift approachLecture 5 Functional theories of translationLecture 6 Discourse and register analysis approachesLecture 7 Systems theoriesLecture 8 Varieties of cultural studiesLecture 9 Translating the foreign: the (in)visibility of translationLecture 10 Philosophical theories of translationLecture 11 Translation studies as an interdisciplineThe format of each lecture:◆an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas;◆the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion;◆an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the lecture;◆suggestions for further reading;◆a brief evaluative summary of the lecture;◆a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research.Lecture 1 Main issues of translation studiesContents1.1 The concept of translation1.2 What is translation studies?1.3 A brief history of the discipline1.4 The Holmes/Toury ‘map’1.5 Developments since the 1970s1.6 Aim of this course and a guide to lectures1.1 The concept of translationTranslation:the general subject field;the product: the text that has been translatedthe process: the act of producing the translation, or translatingThe process of translation (or translating) involves the translator changing an original written text or the source text (ST) in the original verbal language or the source language(SL) into a written text or the target text (TT) in a different verbal language or the target language (TL).→‘interlingual translation’.Jakobson’s (1959) categories of translation:1. intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of othersigns of the same language’;2. interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means ofsome other language’;3. intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’: ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signsof non-verbal sign systems’).1.2 What is translation studies?James S. Holmes (“The Name and Nature of Translation Studies”, 1972): Translation Studies is concerned with ‘the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations’ (Holmes 1988/2000: 173).Mary Snell-Hornby (Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach, 1988): ‘the demand that translation studies should be viewed as an independent discipline . . . has come from several quarters in recent years’.Snell-Hornby (1995): ‘the breathtaking development of translation studies as an independent discipline’and the ‘prolific international discussion’ on the subject.Mona Baker (The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation, 1997): ‘exciting new discipline, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s’Two ways translation studies has become more prominent:1) A proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate level.In the UK in the 1960s: the first specialized university postgraduate courses in interpreting and translating established.In the UK in the academic year 1999/2000: at least 20 postgraduate translation courses and several designated ‘Centres of Translation’.250 university-level bodies in over 60 countries offering four-year undergraduate degrees and/or postgraduate courses in translation, training professional commercial translators and interpreters. (Caminade & Pym, 1995)2) Courses focusing on the practice of literary translation:In the UK: (1) Middlesex University; (2) the University of East Anglia (Norwich) (which houses the British Centre for Literary Translation).In Europe: a network of centres where literary translation is studied, practised and promoted, including Norwich, Amsterdam (the Netherlands), Arles (France), Bratislava (Slovakia), Dublin (Ireland), Rhodes (Greece), Sineffe (Belgium), Strälen (Germany), Tarazona (Spain) and Visby (Sweden).The 1990s also saw a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages.Long-standing international translation studies journals:Babel (the Netherlands)Meta (Canada)Across Languages and Cultures (Hungary)Literature in Translation (UK)Perspectives: Studies in Translatology (Denmark)Target (Israel/Belgium)The Translator (UK)Parallèles (Switzerland) and Traduire (France)Cadernos de Tradução (Brazil)Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione (Italy)Turjuman (Morocco)The main European publishers publishing books in translation studies:John BenjaminsMultilingual MattersRodopiRoutledgeSt JeromeProfessional publications dedicated to the practice of translation in the UKThe Linguist of the Institute of LinguistsThe ITI Bulletin of the Institute for Translating and InterpretingIn Other Words, the literary-oriented publication of the Translators’ AssociationTRANSST (Israel)BET (Spain)Key themes of international translation conferences (1999–2000):• translation and training translators (Bratislava, Slovakia);• literary translation (Mons, Belgium);• research models in translation studies (UMIST, Manchester, UK);• gender and translation (Norwich, UK);• translation as/at the crossroads of culture (Lisbon, Portugal);• translation and globalization (Tangiers, Morocco);• legal translation (Geneva, Switzerland);• translation and meaning (Maastricht, the Netherlands and Lodz, Poland);• the history of translation (Leon, Spain);• transadaptation and pedagogical challenges (Turku, Finland);• translation-focused comparative literature (Pretoria, South Africa and Salvador, Brazil).From being a little-established field a relatively short time ago, translation studies has now become one of the most active and dynamic new areas of research encompassing an exciting mix of approaches.1.3 A brief history of the disciplineWritings on the subject of translating go far back in recorded history.Cicero and Horace (first century BCE) and St Jerome (fourth century CE)The Greek Septuagint BibleStudy of translation developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the 20th century.The grammar-translation method fell into increasing disrepute with the rise of the direct method or communicative approach to English language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s.▲Translation workshopIn the US, translation was promoted in universities in the 1960s by the translation workshop concept. The translation workshops were first established in the universities of Iowa and Princeton with the intention of introducing new translations into the target culture and for the discussion of the finer principles of the translation process and of understanding a text.▲Comparative literatureIn comparative literature, literature is studied and compared transnationally and transculturally, necessitating the reading of some literature in translation. This would later link into the growth of courses of the cultural studies type.▲Contrastive analysisContrastive analysis is the study of two languages in contrast in an attempt to identify general and specific differences between them. It developed into a systematic area of research in the USA from the 1930s onwards and came to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s. The contrastive approach heavily influenced other studies, such as Vinay and Darbe lnet’s (1958) and Catford’s (1965), which overtly stated their aim of assisting translation research. However, contrastive analysis does not incorporate sociocultural and pragmatic factors, nor the role of translation as a communicative act.Nevertheless, the continued application of a linguistic approach in general, and specific linguistic models such as generative grammar or functional grammar, has demonstrated an inherent and gut link with translation.The evolving field of translation studies can point to its own systematic models that have incorporated other linguistic models and developed them for its own purposes.The construction of the new discipline does not consider translation as primarily connected to language teaching and learning, but as the specific study of what happens in and around translating and translation.The more systematic approach to the study of translation began in the 1950s and 1960s:• Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet’s contrastive approach(1958): categorizing what they saw happening in the practice of translation between French and English;• Alfred Malblanc (1963) did the same for translation between French and German;• Georges Mounin(1963): examining linguistic issues of translation;• Eugene Nida (1964): incorporating elements of Chomsky’s generative grammar as a theoretical underpinning of his books.The word ‘science’ was used by Nida in Toward a Science of Translating (1964).The German equivalent, ‘Übersetzungswissenschaft’, was taken up by Wolfram Wilss, Koller and the Leipzig school (where Kade and Neubert became active).1.4 The Holmes/Toury ‘map’A seminal paper in the development of the field as a distinct discipline was James S. Holmes’s (1972) ‘The name and nature of translation studies’. Gentzler describes it as ‘generally accepted as the founding statement for the field’ (1993: 92).Figure 1.1Two objectives of the ‘pure’ areas of research:1. The description of the phenomena of translation (descriptive translation theory);2. The establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomena (translationtheory). (Holmes 1988b/2000: 176–81)The ‘theoretical’ branch is divided into general and partial theories:‘General’ theoretical studies: describing or accounting for every type of translation and makinggeneralizations that will be relevant for translation as a whole.‘Partial’ theoretical studies: (to be discussed below).Three possible foci of descriptive translation studies (DTS): examination of (1) the product, (2) the function and (3) the process:1. Product-oriented DTS examines existing translations, including the description or analysis ofa single ST–TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST (into one or moreTLs). These smaller-scale studies can build up into a larger body of translation analysis looking at a specific period, language or text/discourse type. Larger-scale studies can be either diachronic (following development over time) or synchronic (at a single point or period in time). ‘One of the eventual goals of product-oriented DTS might possibly be a general history of translations – however ambitious such a goal might sound at this time’. (Holmes, 1988/2000: 177)2. Function-oriented DTS refers to the description of the ‘function[of translations] in therecipient sociocultural situation: it is a study of contexts r ather than texts’ (Holmes, 1988/2000: 177). Issues that may be researched include which books were translated when and where, and what influences they exerted. This area (then termed ‘socio-translation studies’, but now called cultural-studies-oriented translation) was less researched at that time, but is more popular in current work on translation studies.3. Process-oriented DTS is concerned with the psychology of translation, trying to find out whathappens in the mind of a translator, but has still not yet been systematically analyzed.The results of DTS research can be fed into the theoretical branch to evolve either a general theory of translation or partial theories of translation ‘restricted’ according to the following subdivisions:• Medium-restricted theories: subdividing according to translation by machine and humans, with further subdivisions according to whether the machine/computer is working alone or as an aid to the human translator, to whether the human translation is written or spoken and to whether spoken translation (interpreting) is consecutive or simultaneous.• Area-restricted theories:restricted to specific languages or groups of languages and/or cultures. It is closely related to work in contrastive linguistics and stylistics.• Rank-restricted theories: restricted to a specific level of the word or sentence or text.• Text-type restricted theories:related to specific discourse types or genres, such as literary, business and technical translation. Text-type approaches came to prominence with the work of Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s.• Time-restricted: referring to theories and translations limited according to specific time frames and periods (i.e. the history of translation).• Problem-restricted theories: referring to specific problems (such as equivalence) or whether universals of translated language exist.Several different restrictions can apply at any one time. For example, the study of the translation of novels would be area restricted, text-type restricted and time restricted.The ‘applied’ branch of Holmes’s framework concerns:• translator training: teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design;• translation aids: such as dictionaries, grammars and information technology;•translation criticism: the evaluation of translations, including the marking of student translations and the reviews of published translations.Translation policy: the translation scholar advise on the place of translation in society, including what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.Figure 1.2The merit of Holmes’s divisions: they allow a clarification and a division of labour between the various areas of translation studies which, in the past, have often been confused (Toury, 1995: 9) The crucial role of Holmes’s paper: delineating the potential of translation studies.‘Translation policy’ would nowadays far more likely be related to the ideology that determines translation than was the case in Holmes’s description.The restrictions of Holmes’s divisions:1) A discourse-type and a text-type restriction2) Inclusion of interpreting as a sub-category of human translation3) Omission of any mention of the individuality of the style, decision-making processes andworking practices of human translators involved in the translation process (Pym, 1998: 4) 1.5 Developments since the 1970sThe surge in translation studies since the 1970s has seen different areas of Holmes’s map come to the fore.◆Contrastive analysis has fallen by the wayside.◆The linguistic-oriented ‘science’ of translation has continued strongly in Germany, but theconcept of equivalence associated with it has declined.◆Germany has seen the rise of theories centred around text types (Reiss) and text purpose (theskopos theory of Reiss and Vermeer).◆The Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar has beenprominent over the past decades, especially in Australia and the UK, and has been applied to translation in works by Bell (1991), Baker (1992) and Hatim and Mason (1990, 1997).◆The descriptive approach (originating in comparative literature and Russian Formalism) rose inthe late 1970s and the 1980s.◆In Tel Aviv, Itamar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury have pursued the idea of the literarypolysystem in which different literatures and genres, including translated and non-translated works, compete for dominance.◆The polysystemists have worked with a Belgium-based group (including José Lambert and thelate André Lefevere), and with the UK-based scholars Susan Bassnett and Theo Hermans.◆The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation (Hermans, 1985) gave rise tothe name of the ‘Manipulation School’ and held sway for much of the following decade.◆The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools and concepts:●Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon;●The Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira;●Postcolonial translation theory, with the prominent figures of the Bengali scholarsTejaswini Niranjana and Gayatri Spivak;●In the USA, the cultural-studies-oriented analysis of Lawrence Venuti, who champions thecause of the translator.1.6 Aim of this course and a guide to LecturesLecture 2 describes some of the major issues discussed in writings about translation up to the middle of the 20th century. This huge range of over two thousand years, beginning with Cicero in the first century BC, focuses on the ‘literal vs. free’ translation debate. It aims to initiate discussion on some of the key issues.Lecture 3deals with the concepts of meaning, equivalence and ‘equivalent effect’, encompassing Nida’s generative-influenced model of translation transfer and his concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Newmark’s categories of semantic translation and communicative translation are also discussed, as is Koller’s analysis of equivalence.Lecture 4 details attempts that have been made to provide a taxonomy of the linguistic changes or ‘shifts’ which occur in translation. The main model described here is Vinay and Darbelnet’s classic taxonomy, but reference is also made to Catford’s linguistic model and van Leuven-Zwart’s translation shift approach from the 1980s.Lecture 5 covers Reiss and Vermeer’s text-type and skopos theory of the 1970s and 1980s and Nord’s text-linguistic approach. Translation is analyzed according to text type and function in the TL culture, and concepts of text analysis –such as word order, information structure and thematic progression – are employed.Lecture 6 considers House’s register analysis model and the development of discourse-oriented approaches in the 1990s by Baker and Hatim and Mason, who make use of Hallidayan linguistics to examine translation as communication within a sociocultural context.Lecture 7 investigates systems theories and the field of target-oriented ‘descriptive’ translation studies, following Even-Zohar, Toury and the work of the Manipulation School.Lecture 8 examines varieties of cultural studies approaches in translation studies. These start with Lefevere’s work of the 1980s and early 1990s and move on to more recent developments in gender studies and translation (in Canada) and to postcolonial translation theories (in India, Brazil and Ireland).Lecture 9 follows Berman and Venuti in examining the foreign element in translation and the ‘invisibility’ of the translator. The idea is explored that the practice of translation, especially in the English-speaking world, is considered to be a derivative and second-rate activity, and that the prevailing method of translation is ‘naturalizing’. The role of literary translators and publishers is also described.Lecture 10 investigates a selection of philosophical issues of language and translation, ranging from Steiner’s ‘hermeneutic motion’, Pound’s use of archaisms, Walter Benjamin’s ‘pure’ language, and Derrida and the deconstruction movement.Lecture 11sets out an interdisciplinary approach to translation studies. It discusses Snell-Hornby’s‘integrated approach’and looks at recent studies that have combined linguistic andcultural analysis. The future of translation studies and the role of modern technologies, including the internet, are also discussed.SummaryTranslation studies is a relatively new academic research area that has expanded explosively in recent years. While translation was formerly studied as a language-learning methodology or as part of comparative literature, translation ‘workshops’ and contrastive linguistics courses, th e new discipline owes much to the work of James S. Holmes, whose ‘The name and nature of translation studies’ proposed both a name and a structure for the field. The interrelated branches of theoretical, descriptive and applied translation studies have structured much recent research and have assisted in bridging the gulf that had grown between the theory and practice of translation.Discussion and research points1. How is the practice of translation (and interpreting) structured in China? How many universities offer first degrees in the subject? How many postgraduate courses are there? How do they differ? Isa postgraduate qualification a prerequisite for working as a professional translator?2. Find out how research-based translation studies fits into the university system in China. How many universities offer ‘translation studies’ (or similar) courses? In what ways do they differ from or resemble each other? In which university departments are they housed? What do you conclude is the status of translation studies in China?3. What specific research in translation studies is being carried out in China? How do you find out? Is the work being carried out by isolated researchers or by larger and coordinated groups? How, if at all, would it fit in with Holmes’s‘map’ of translation studies?4. Trace the history of translation and translation studies in China. Has the focus been mainly on the theory or on the practice of translation? Why do you think this is so?Key textsHolmes, J. S. (1988b/2000) ‘The name and nature of translation studies’, in L. Venuti (ed.) (2000), pp. 172–85.Jakobson, R. (1959/2000) ‘On linguistic aspects of translation’, in L. Venuti (ed.) (2000),pp. 113–18.Leuven-Zwart, K. van and T. Naaijkens (eds) (1991) Translation Studies: State of the Art, Amsterdam: Rodopi.Toury, G. (1991) ‘What are descriptive studies in translation likely to yield apart from isolated descriptions?’, in K. van Leuven-Zwart and T. Naaijkens (eds) (1991), pp. 179–92.。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies《翻译学的名与实》
I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
其次，霍姆斯是一个同性恋诗人。
霍姆斯的诗作既有韵律诗又有自由体诗，绝大多数都是同性恋题材。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies翻译的名与实
2.3 “translation studies” term
❖ Indeed, for disciplines that within the old distinction of the universities tend to fall under the humanities or arts, the word would be active.
1lexicographicalandterminological词典编纂和术语2grammars语法323translationpolicy翻译政策?itisdeterminedbywhatkindofsocialandeconomicpositionthetranslatorshouldbein?orwhatparttranslatingshouldplayintheteachingandlearningofforeignlanguages主要解释译者及译本的角色和地位研究某社会应引进和翻译哪些作品研究翻译在外语教学中的作用translationcriticism翻译批评?translationcriticism翻译批评theevaluationofthetargettexts即对译文进行评价331conclusion?therelationsamongdescriptivetheoreticalandappliedtranslationstudiesaredialecticalattentiontoallthreebranchesisrequiredifthedisciplineistogrowandflourish?三者的关系是辩证统一的缺少其中任何一个分支这一学科都不能发展和繁荣
introducting translation studies
introducting translation studies
Introducing Translation Studies是一本介绍翻译研究领域的书籍，涵盖了翻译理论、方法和实践等方面的内容。
这类书籍旨在向读者介绍翻译的基本概念、历史、理论和相关研究方法。
这本书通常包括以下主题
翻译理论：介绍不同的翻译理论，例如等价理论、功能对等理论、文化转换理论等，以及这些理论如何影响和指导翻译实践。
翻译方法：探讨翻译的不同方法和策略，例如直译、意译、文化调整、语体转换等，在不同语言和文化背景下的应用。
翻译的社会和文化影响：探讨翻译对社会、文化、政治和经济领域的影响，以及在全球化时代的重要性。
历史和发展：介绍翻译研究领域的历史演变，从传统的观点到现代研究的发展和趋势。
这类书籍旨在为读者提供一个全面的入门，使他们能够了解翻译的基本概念、关键理论和实践方法。
不同的书籍可能在深度和内容上有所不同，因此可以选择适合自己需求和兴趣的那本来阅读。
dictionary of translation studies 提取码
dictionary of translation studies 提取码1. 引言1.1 概述翻译研究作为一门学科，探讨着语言之间的传递和转换过程，并对跨文化交流起着重要的角色。
它涵盖了广泛的范畴，从文学、商务到政治和科技领域。
随着全球化进程的加速发展，翻译学在不同行业中扮演着越来越重要的角色。
1.2 文章结构本文主要包括五个部分：引言、翻译研究概念及定义、翻译流派和理论框架、翻译实践与技巧探讨以及当代翻译研究趋势及展望。
在引言部分，我们将讨论文章整体框架，并简要介绍每个章节的内容。
接下来，我们将深入探讨翻译学科的定义和范围。
1.3 目的本篇长文旨在提供一个权威且全面的“Dictionary of Translation Studies”，帮助读者更好地了解和掌握这个专业领域。
该字典将涵盖各种相关概念、理论、方法和技巧，并通过案例研究和实践经验来丰富读者的知识和认知。
我们希望通过本文的撰写，能够激发读者对翻译学科的兴趣，并为他们在学术研究或实际应用中提供有益的参考资料。
2. 翻译研究概念及定义2.1 翻译的涵义与范畴翻译是一种将一种语言的意义转化为另一种语言的行为。
它旨在通过保持原始信息的准确性和完整性，将一个文本从源语言转换为目标语言。
翻译不仅仅是简单地替换单词和句子，而是涉及到转移文化、背景知识和上下文等方面。
翻译可以分为口译和笔译两种形式。
口译是指在口头交流中即时传递信息，而笔译则是通过书面形式将源语言文本转化为目标语言文本。
2.2 翻译研究的历史发展翻译作为一门学科已经有着悠久的历史。
早在古代，人们就开始进行文字之间的翻译。
随着社会的发展和交流的增加，翻译也开始被广泛应用于各个领域。
20世纪以来，翻译作为一门学科得到了更加深入的研究，并出现了许多理论框架和方法论。
这些理论包括功能对等理论、结构主义翻译观点和功能翻译学派等。
这些理论提供了不同的视角来分析和理解翻译过程和现象。
2.3 翻译研究的重要性与意义翻译研究在文化交流、知识传播和跨语言交流等方面起着重要作用。
Empirical Research in Translation Studies
?
The empirical nature of translation studies
“Translation studies is to be understood as a collective and inclusive designation for all research activities taking the phenomena of translating and translation as their basis or focus.” (Werner Koller, as cited in Holmes,1988:71) From this delineation, it follows that translation studies is an empirical discipline (Holmes,1988:71).
Such research is conducted in case studies, from objective descriptions concerning the analysis of the characteristics of the source or target text, translating methods, choices made and strategies adopted by the translator, and the norms he complies with in the translating process, to all aspects in the world of our experience.
The theoretical basis: The theory of recall General assumptions: • In verbal reporting, the information needed, activated and used in the performance of a task is held in the shortterm memory and accessible to the subject •
最新Introducing-Translation-Studies《翻译研究入门--知识点总结》
Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsName: Zhu MiClass: English 1122013/12/24Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsI.Main issues of translation studies1.1T he concept of translationThe term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language.—interlingual translationThe Russian-American structuralist Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper”On linguistic aspects of translation’gave his categories as intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation.1.2W hat are translation studies?Written and spoken translations traditionally were for scholarship and religious purposes.Yet the study of translation as an academic subject has only really begun in the past fifty years, thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S.Holmes.Reasons for prominence: first, there has been a proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both and undergraduate and postgraduate level; second, other courses, in smaller numbers, focus on the practice of literary translation; the 1990s also saw a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages; in addition, various translation events were held in India, and an on-line translation symposium was organized.1.3A brief history of the disciplineThe practice of translation was discussed by, for example, Cicero and Horace and St Jerome;their writings were to exert an important influence up until the twentieth century.The study of translation of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century.Before that, translation had normally been merely an element of language learning in modern language courses, known for the grammar-translation method.With the rise of the direct method or communicative approach to English language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s, the grammar-translation method fell into increasing disrepute.In the USA, translation was promoted in universities in the 1960s by the translation workshop concept. Running parallel to it was that of comparative literature.Another area in which translation become the subject of research was contrastive analysis.The continued application of a linguistic approach in general, and specific linguistic models such as generative grammar or functional grammar, has demonstrated an inherent and gutlink with translation. And it began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s.—Eugene Nida1.4T he Holmes/Toury “map”James S.Holems’s” The name and nature of translation studies” was regarded as “generally accepted as the founding statement for the field”. He puts forward an overall framework, describing what translation studies covers. It has been subsequently presented by Gideon Toury.Another area Holmes mention is translation policy, where he sees the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in society, including what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.“Translation policy”would nowadays far more likely be related to the ideology that determines translation than was the case in Holmes description.1.5D evelopments since the 1970sContrastive analysis has fallen by the way side. The linguistic-oriented “science”of translation has continued strongly in Germany, but the concept of equivalence associated with it has declined.Germany has seen the rise of theories centred on text types and text purpose, while the Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar, which vies language as a communicative act in a sociocultural context, has been prominent over the past decades, especially in Australia and the UK.The late 1970s and 1980s also saw the rise of a descriptive approach that had its origins in comparative literature and Russian Formalism.The polysystemists have worked with a Belgium-based group and the UK-based scholars.The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools and concepts, with Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon, the Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira, postcolonial translation theory.II.Translation theory before the twentieth century2.1“Word-for-word” or “sense-for-sense”?Up until the second half of the twentieth century, translation theory seemed locked in what George Steiner calls a ”sterile” debate over the “triad” of“literal”, ”free”and “faithful”translation. The distinction goes back to Cicero and St Jerome.Cicero said,”…keeping the same ideas and forms…but in language which conforms to our usage…I preserved the general style and force of the language.”He disparaged word-for-word translation.St Jerome said,”…where even the syntax contains a mystery—I render not word-for-word, but sense-for-sense.”2.2Martin LutherLuther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would beunable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would sometimes be incomprehensible. He focuses on the TL and the TT reader and his famous quote:” You must ask the mother at home, the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market and look at their mouths, how they speak, and translate that way; then they’ll understand and see that you’re speaking to them in German.”2.3Faithfulness, spirit and truthFlora Amos notes that early translators often differed considerably in the meaning they gave to terms such as “faithfulness”, “accuracy” and even the word “translation” itself.Louis Kelly in The True Interpreter calls the “inextricably tangled”terms “fidelity”, ”spirit”and“truth”.Kelly considers that it was not until the twelfth century that truth was fully equated with “content”. By the seventeenth century, fidelity had come to be generally regarded as more than just fidelity to words, and spirit lost the religious sense and was thenceforth used solely in the sense of the creative energy of a text or language.2.4Early attempts at systematic translation theory: Dryden, Dolet andTytlerFor Amos, the England of the seventeenth century—with Denham, Cowley and Dryden—marked an important step forward in translation theory with” deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and meaning”.John Dryden reduces all translations to three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation be avoided. He is author-oriented.Etienne Dolet is TL-reader-oriented and sets out five principles in his 1540 manuscript The Way of Translating Well from One Language into Another”:1.The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.2.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen themajesty of the language.3.The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.4.The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.5.The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness. Alexander Fraser Tytler has three general “laws” or “rules”:1.The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2.The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3.The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.2.5Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreignWhile the 17th century had been about imitation and the 18th century about the translator’sduty to recreate the spirit of the ST for the reader of the time, the Romanticism of the early nineteenth century discussed the issues of translatability or untranslatability.In 1813, the German theologian and translator Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote On The Different Methods of Translating and put forward a Romantic approach to interpretation based on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.He first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text:1.the “Dolmetscher”, who translates commercial texts;2.the “übersetzer”, who works on scholarly and artistic texts.How to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together is the real question. He considers there to be only two paths open for the “true”translator: Either the translator leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader toward the writer, or he leaves the reader alone as much as and moves the writer toward the reader.Schleiermacher’s consideration of different text type becomes more prominent in Reiss’s text typology.The “alienating”and “naturalizing”opposites are taken up by Venuti as “foreignization”and “domestication”.Additionally, the vision of a “language of translation”is pursued by Walter Benjamin and the description of the hermeneutics of translation is apparent in George Steiner’s “hermeneutic motion”.2.6Translation theory of the ninetieth and early twentieth centuries inBritainIn Britain, the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century focused on the status of the ST and the form of the TL.Francis Newman emphasized the foreignness of the work by a deliberately archaic translation.Matthew Arnold advocated a transparent translation method.2.7Towards contemporary translation theoryGeorge Steiner lists a small number of 14 writers who represent “very nearly the sum total of those who have said anything fundamental or new about translation”, includes St Jerome, Luther, Dryden and Schleiermacher and also takes us into the 20th century with Ezra Pound and Walter Benjamin, amongst others.He covers a range of theoretical ideas in this period: We have seen how much of the theory of translation—if there is one as distinct from idealized recipes—pivots monotonously around undefined alternatives: ”letter”or “spirit”, ”word”or “sense”. The dichotomy is assumed to have analyzable meaning. This is the central epistemological weakness and sleight of hand.Translation theory in the second half of the 20th century made various attempts to redefine the concepts “literal”and “free”in operational terms, to describe “meaning”in scientific terms, and to put together systematic taxonomies of translation phenomena.Case studiesThe criteria for assessing the translations are given:1.accuracy: the correct transfer of information and evidence of complete comprehension.2.the appropriate choice of vocabulary, idiom, terminology and register;3.cohesion, coherence and organization;4.accuracy in technical aspects of punctuation, etc.III.Equivalence and equivalent effect3.1Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalenceIn his paper “On linguistic aspects of translation”, he describes three kinds of translation: intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation and he goes on to examine key issue of interlingual translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence.Jakobson approaches a now-famous definition: “Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics.”He thinks poetry is “untranslatable”, which requires “creative” transposition.3.2Nida and “the science of translating”3.2.1The nature of meaning: advances in semantics and pragmaticsMeaning is broken down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. There are three techniques: hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis.3.2.2The influence of ChomskyNoam Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules. The key features of this model can be summarized:1.Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is2.transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another,to produce.3. a final surface structure,which itself is subject to phonological and morphemicrules.Nida presents a three-stage system of translation (analysis, transfer and restructuring).This involves analysis using generative-transformational grammar’s four types of functional class: events, objects, abstracts and relationals.3.2.3Formal and dynamic equivalence and the principle of equivalent effectFor Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the “four basic requirements of a translation”, which are1making sense;2conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3having a natural and easy form of expression;4producing a similar response.3.3Newmark: semantic and communicative translationIn Newmark’s Approaches to Translation and A Textbook of Translation,he suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of “semantic” and “communicative”translation.3.4Koller: Korrespondenz and AquivalenzWerner Koller examines more closely the concept of equivalence and its linked term correspondence. And he also goes on to describe five different types of equivalence: denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic and formal equivalence.IV.The translation shift approach4.1Vinay and Darbelnet’s modelThe two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation, which hark back to the “literal vs. free” division.The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition and modulation and of which oblique translation includes are equivalence and adaptation.The seven main translation categories are described as operating on three levels; these three levels reflect the main structural elements of the book. They are: the lexicon, syntactic structure and the message.A further more important parameter taken into account by Vinay and Darbelnet is that ofservitude and option.They continued by giving s list of five steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT:1.Identity the units of translation.2.Examine the SL text, evaluating the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of theunits.3.Reconstruct the metalinguistic context of the message.4.Evaluate the stylistic effects.5.Produce and revise the TT.They consider the unit of translation to be a combination of a“lexicological unit”and a “unit of thought”.4.2Catford and translation “shifts”Catford makes an important distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence, which was developed by Koller.Catford considers two kinds of shift: shift of level and shift of category.Most of Catford’s analysis is given over to category shifts. These are subdivided into four kinds: structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts/rank shifts and intra-system shifts.4.3Czech writing on translation shiftsIn the 1960s and 1970s some writing introduces a literary aspect, that of the “expressive function”or style of a text.4.4Van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative-descriptive model of translationshiftsKitty van Leuven-Zwart applies shift analysis to the descriptive analysis of a translation, attempting both to systematize comparison and to build in a discourse framework above the sentence level.The model is “intended for the description of integral translations of fictional texts”and comprises a comparative model and a descriptive model.Shifts are divided into three main categories with numerous subcategories. The three main categories are modulation, modification and mutation.V.Functional theories of translation5.1Text typeKatharina Reiss’s work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence, as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. Her functional approach aims initially at systematizing the assessment of translation.Three text types—informative, expressive and operative types—are given by Reiss and presented visually by Cheserman.Reiss also lists a series of intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria by which the adequacy of a TT may be assessed.5.2Translational actionTranslation action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter, compounds involving intercultural transfer.5.3Skopos theoryHans J. Vermeer introduces skopos into translation theory in the 1970s as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating, as it deals with a translational action that is ST-based.5.4Translation-oriented text analysisChristiane Nord’s Text Analysis in Translation makes a distinction between two basic types of translation production —documentary translation and instrumental translation. VI.VII.Discourse and register analysis approachesVIII.Systems theoriesIX.Varieties of cultural studiesX.Translating the foreign: the (in)visibility of translationXI.Philosophical theories of translationXII.XIII.Translation studies as an interdiscipline。
thenameandnatureoftranslationstudies《翻译学的名与实》
thenameandnatureoftranslationstudies《翻译学的名与实》I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
introducing translation study
introducing translation study
翻译研究（Translation Studies）是一门跨学科的学科，旨在研究翻译的本质、过程、方法和结果。
它涉及语言学、文学、文化学、心理学等多个领域，旨在深入理解翻译现象和翻译过程中涉及的各种因素。
翻译研究的主要目标是提高翻译质量和效果，促进跨文化交流和理解。
它不仅关注翻译的文本转换过程，还关注翻译与其他文化、社会和政治因素之间的关系。
翻译研究的发展经历了多个阶段，从早期的语言学转向到文学和文化的转向，再到近年来跨学科和多维度的研究方法。
在这一过程中，翻译研究逐渐成为一门独立的学科，并与其他学科领域进行了深入的交叉研究。
在翻译研究中，研究者会采用多种方法和技术，包括实证研究、文献综述、案例分析等。
他们还会使用各种工具和资源，例如语料库、计算机辅助翻译工具等，以深入探索翻译的本质和过程。
总的来说，翻译研究是一个不断发展和演进的领域，其研究成果不仅有助于提高翻译的质量和效果，也有助于促进跨文化交流和理解。
issues in translation studies
• 2. when the going gets tough, the tough gets going. • 狭路相逢勇者胜。 • 沧海横流，方显英雄本色。
• 3. 此地无银三百两 • The more is concealed, the more is revealed.
• Conclusion: 直译的前提是不能过分影
• Literal translation refers to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on. Translation would be fluent and easy to comprehend by target language readers. • ♥ 直译
• “翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形 似而在神似” 。
• 1964年，钱钟书先生提出了翻译的“化 境”（sublimation/perfection）之说。 ——对“传神”论的进一步发展，最高 的翻译标准。 • “文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’。把作 品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能 不因语言习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的 痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风味，那就 算得入于‘化境’。”
化遗产的：
• 3. No feast lasts forever. • 天下没有不散的筵席。 • 英文已有All good things must end. 还有 The best of friends must part.
translation studies中文版
translation studies中文版“Translation Studies”是关于翻译的学科领域，研究着的是翻译的原则、方法、技巧以及其在不同文化背景下的运用。
而在这个学科领域中，汉语版的“Translation Studies”也逐渐得到了越来越多的关注。
因为汉语世界，无论是在传播影响力还是在实际运用方面，都具有重要的地位。
因此，如何将这一研究领域的成果分享出来，供汉语读者参考和学习，逐渐成为了学术界关注的一个问题。
第一步：建立翻译学的汉语版框架将“Translation Studies”译成汉语版本并建立其框架是一个必不可少的步骤。
在这一步之中，需要把英文版的教材、论文等进行翻译和整理。
同时，为了针对汉语读者的需求，对其中的翻译范畴和理论进行精细化的调整，如果有必要，还需要进行重新开发。
因为在英文版的“Translation Studies”中，比如说译者的标准，翻译过程的参数等理论，都需要进一步进行科学性校准，以适应汉语的阅读方式和语言习惯。
第二步：完善翻译学的汉语版教材在“Translation Studies”诞生的早期，翻译学习者只能从谷歌学术、WOS等渠道寻找那些应用翻译理论的实践案例。
而现在，随着汉语版“Translation Studies”的逐渐建立，可以通过将中国的研究成果和经验结合到英文版中，完善其教学实践。
同时，对于教材中的指导，也需要逐步与汉语的文化背景进行融合。
这样，学生在学习中就可以更加直接地在翻译的实践中积累知识，进而更加了解翻译过程中的被翻译文本的表达习惯、翻译运用场景、文化意义等。
第三步：扩大汉语翻译交流有了汉语版“Translation Studies”后，可以鼓励更多的汉语读者参与翻译交流活动。
如扩大国内翻译会议和研讨会的举办范围和覆盖面，邀请著名翻译学家分享其经验等等。
同时，在国际翻译界与汉语翻译学的交流中，也需要进行倡导。
可以透过国际大型会议、期刊等媒介播报汉语翻译成果的案例，来表明这一学科领域的发展趋势和所在的重要地位。
1-Tertium Comparationis
Tertium Comparationis译名商榷冉诗洋（山东济南山东大学外国语学院；重庆涪陵长江师范学院）摘要：翻译译名问题是一个不容忽视的问题，许多译名往往让人看不懂，带有明显的翻译腔，这在很大程度上限制人们对该术语的理解和阻碍该理论该领域的发展。
在几个文本翻译研究方面的书籍中，Tertium Comparationis汉译名不仅译名不统一，且其译名并没有体现该术语的基本含义和特征。
根据译名规范要求，结合翻译研究学科语境，在此基础上提出新的参考译名，希望通过该译名问题的探讨让人们意识到翻译术语进一步规范的重要性和必要性，促进译名研究甚至翻译研究的发展。
关键词：Tertium Comparationis，术语规范化，术语翻译Discussion on the Chinese Translations of “Tertium Comparationis”Abstract:Naming in translation is a problem that cannot be neglected, as many translated names are unkown and unacceptable with the sense of translationese, which to some degree hinders the understanding to the terms and the development of the theory even the whole field. According to the different texts containing the terms “Tertium Comparationis”and their different Chinese translations, their Chinese translations are different from each other and some of them do not represent the basic characteristics and contents of the terms. Based on the requirements and norms of naming in translation, combining with the discipline context of translation studies, it is to put up a new referent name for them, and by this way to help others to realize the importance and necessity of standadization or normalization of translation terms, which will improve the development of study on naming in translation as well as translation studies.Key Words: Tertium Comparationis, standardization of terms, translation of terms很多读者特别是非专业研究者和初学者在阅读或研究中往往会碰上大量术语，尤其是从外文翻译的术语，由于很难理解其意义，给阅读和研究造成困难，“术语系统的成熟是一门学科理论形成的重要标志”[1]。
translation studies回国考编
translation studies回国考编摘要：一、翻译研究的意义与现状1.翻译的重要性2.翻译研究的现状二、翻译研究的分支领域1.文学翻译2.商务翻译3.影视翻译4.官方文件翻译三、翻译理论及方法1.直译与意译2.功能翻译理论3.文化翻译理论4.翻译技巧四、翻译考试与评估1.翻译考试的类型2.翻译考试的评分标准3.提高翻译考试技巧的方法五、翻译职业发展及前景1.翻译行业的发展趋势2.翻译职业的晋升途径3.翻译行业的挑战与机遇正文：翻译研究在我国具有重要的地位，随着全球化的推进，翻译已成为国际间交流的桥梁。
本文将探讨翻译研究的现状、分支领域、翻译理论及方法、翻译考试与评估以及翻译职业发展及前景。
首先，翻译的重要性不容忽视。
无论是文化传播、商务交流还是科技创新，翻译都发挥着关键作用。
我国自古以来就有着丰富的翻译传统，如玄奘取经、严复的《天演论》等，都是翻译的典范。
在现代社会，翻译更是成为国际交流不可或缺的一环。
翻译研究作为一门学科，涵盖了许多分支领域。
文学翻译是将一种语言的文学作品转换成另一种语言，使得原文的魅力得以在另一种文化中传承；商务翻译涉及商务合同、企业文件、产品说明等方面的翻译，对准确性和专业性有较高要求；影视翻译包括字幕翻译、配音翻译等，需要将源语言的视听元素在目标语言中得以再现；官方文件翻译则要求翻译者具备严谨的措辞和规范的格式处理能力。
翻译理论及方法是翻译研究的重要组成部分。
直译与意译是两种基本的翻译方法，前者强调保持原文的形式和风格，后者则更注重传达原文的意义；功能翻译理论强调翻译的目的和功能，提倡根据翻译的语境和目的选择合适的翻译策略；文化翻译理论则强调跨文化交际中的文化因素，主张在翻译过程中充分考虑文化差异。
此外，翻译技巧也是翻译研究者关注的焦点，如词汇替换、句子重构等，都是提高翻译质量的有效手段。
翻译考试与评估是检验翻译水平的重要途径。
我国设有多种翻译考试，如全国翻译专业资格（水平）考试、全国外语翻译证书考试等。
feminist translation studies
feminist translation studiesfeminist translation studies，即女性主义翻译研究，是翻译研究领域中一个新兴的分支。
它将女权主义观念引入翻译研究，旨在探讨翻译过程中性别、权力、文化等多元维度的问题。
一、feminism与翻译研究的关联女性主义翻译研究起源于20世纪70年代的女性主义运动。
随着女性主义理论的发展，学者们逐渐意识到翻译实践中存在着性别不平等的问题，从而将feminism引入翻译研究，以期消除性别歧视，实现真正的性别平等。
二、女性主义翻译研究的核心理念女性主义翻译研究的核心理念是强调翻译过程中的主体性和文化意识。
学者们认为，翻译不仅仅是语言之间的转换，更是意识形态的传递。
因此，女性主义翻译研究关注如何在翻译过程中克服性别、种族、阶级等歧视，促进多元文化的交流与融合。
三、女性主义翻译实践的应用在女性主义翻译实践中，译者致力于消除原文中的性别歧视现象，关注女性形象的重塑，以及女性声音的再现。
这种翻译实践在文学、影视、广告等领域均有广泛应用。
例如，译者在翻译女性作家的作品时，会特别关注她们在作品中表现出的独特视角和女性主义观念，以期在翻译过程中实现性别平等。
四、对传统翻译观念的挑战与突破女性主义翻译研究对传统翻译观念提出了挑战。
在传统观念中，翻译被视为一种纯粹的语言技能，忽略了翻译过程中的意识形态问题。
而女性主义翻译研究则强调翻译的政治性和文化属性，为翻译研究提供了新的视角。
五、女性主义翻译研究的发展趋势随着全球化的推进，女性主义翻译研究在我国的发展趋势日益明显。
未来，女性主义翻译研究将继续关注性别、文化、权力等多元维度，推动翻译领域的创新与发展。
同时，女性主义翻译研究也将与其他翻译理论相结合，形成更为丰富和多元的翻译理论体系。
总之，女性主义翻译研究为翻译领域带来了新的思考和挑战。
通过关注性别、文化、权力等问题，女性主义翻译研究旨在实现真正的性别平等，促进多元文化的交流与融合。
第一章翻译研究名与实
第⼀章翻译研究名与实21内容提要霍姆斯的这篇⽂章⼀直被翻译研究界视为具有划时代的重要意义。
两千多年以来，⼈们对翻译的⽅⽅⾯⾯进⾏了不懈的探讨，但对翻译研究作为⼀门学科的研究对象、研究范围以及研究⽅法却不甚明了，或莫衷⼀是。
⾸先，霍姆斯提出将翻译研究（Translation Studies ）作为学科的称谓，并强调翻译研究是⼀门经验学科，研究对象是翻译活动（过程）和翻译作品；翻译研究的功能是不仅要探讨如何翻译，同时还要描述翻译现象和⾏为，解释、甚⾄预测未来的翻译。
更重要的是，霍姆斯第⼀次详尽地描绘出翻译研究的结构图（见下页）。
对照这个图可以发现，翻译研究的领域⽐我们传统想像的要宽阔得多。
⿊体是我国研究较为深⼊的领域，⽽下划线表⽰还有待加强。
此外，还有⼀些未开垦的处⼥地。
这个结构图同时表⽰了翻译研究⾃下⽽上的发展路径：⾸先作者简介詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes )，著名的翻译理论家。
⽣于美国艾奥⽡中部，曾就读于威廉·潘学院和布朗⼤学；1949年作为富布赖特交换教师到荷兰国际学院任教，1950年移居阿姆斯特丹，以⾃由编辑和诗歌翻译为业。
1956年以⾮本族语使⽤者⾝份荣获翻译⼤奖，1964年任阿姆斯特丹⼤学翻译研究⾼级讲师。
发表多篇有关翻译的论⽂，《翻译研究名与实》（The Name and Nature of Translation Studies, 1972)第⼀次⽐较完整系统地界定了翻译研究作为⼀个跨学科的研究领域，成为当代翻译研究划时代的重要⽂献，得到国际译界的普遍认可。
本篇选⾃James Holmes 的Translated! Papers on Literary and Translation Studies ，由Rodopi 出版社于1994年出版。
第⼀章翻译研究名与实The Name and Nature of Translation Studies 1 James S. Holmes当代西⽅翻译研究原典选读22翻译史与翻译研究⽅法论是翻译实践和翻译活动本⾝，然后是对翻译现象的客观描述，然后是概括出规律，形成翻译原则，抽象成为翻译理论。
中外翻译理论
. Brief Introduction of Eugene NidaDr. Eugene A. Nida (1914--) is one of the most distinguished contemporary translation theorists in the west. During his past fifty years of study in translation theory and practice, he has achieved great success in this field. His translation theory has exerted a tremendous influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries, especially in China. He is generally recognized as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists.He develops the communicative translation theory put forward by Newmark, who is a famous translation theorist of England. The communicative translation theory not only emphasizes language meaning transform, but also functional equivalence. Spreading and becoming popular in China in early 1980s, Nida’s translation theory is the debut for most of Chinese translators to contact the western systematic translation theories and has deeply influenced the translation theory research in China. In spite of the doubts on his theory appearing in late 1980s and early 1990s, it is certain that Nida’s translation theory gives significant inspiration to translation researchers.With the research fruits of modern linguistics, Nida has carries out a descriptive research on translation and contemplated deeply on the major problems of the practice and research of the translation theory. With an active mind, he frequently renews the translation theory and keeps rectifying and developing his thoughts and ideas about translation theory. His translation theory is mainly on the basis of the developments of contemporary linguistics, communication theory, information theory and semiotics.2. Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory2.1 Conception of Functional EquivalenceFunctional equivalence theory was first put forward in 1964. This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information instead of the direct formal equivalence in translation so as to keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. The functional feature of the translation depends on the balance of two relationships, that is, the relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to the relationship between the source language receptor and the source text, and it is the two relationships that provide the basis for functional equivalence.2.2 Literal Translation, Free Translation and Functional EquivalenceNida is the first person to handle the disputable problem between literal translation and free translation. He holds that effect is the most important element in translation. Regardless of the method of literal translation or free translation is followed, as long as the response of both source language reader and target language reader is somewhat equivalent, the best translation can be achieved.In traditional translation theory, literal translation focusing on form is called faithful, while translation emphasizing meaning is free. Nida insists translator focusing on form, especially in verses, sentences and concepts equivalence, is formal equivalence. It is dangerous in reproducing intention and meaning of original author, even worse, to result in reader’s misunderstanding. In his opinion, the translator following functional equivalence will be more faithful to the original text than following literal translation, for that the former strategy requires more fully and comprehensively understanding of the meaning of original text. Moreover.2.3 Four Levels of Functional Equivalence.Translation involves message transmission between two languages and cultures, and therestill exists lots of similarity among different language cultures, which is the objective basis. Because of the different location, history, cultural ground and education level, it is hard to be objective. The definition of translation Nida proposed shows that translation is not only related to equivalence of lexical meaning, but also the equivalence of text connotation and style, message translated in translation includes surface lexical message and deep cultural message. Functional equivalence includes four levels: lexical equivalence, sentence equivalence, passage equivalence and style equivalence.2.3.1 Lexical equivalenceThe meaning of a word lies in its usage in language. In translation practice, what confuse us is how to find the corresponding meaning in target language. Take Tension is building up as an example, tension and build up both have different explanations without consideration of context. Thus this sentence can be translated as several different editions:In English—Chinese translation, completely lexical equivalence lies in special terms and terminology, besides which there are five correspondences, word equivalence, synonymy, polysemy, lexical meaning overlap and zero equivalence.2.3.2 Sentence EquivalenceSentence equivalence is more complicated than lexical equivalence. In English- Chinese translation, singular and plural form is an important and evident problem. Plural meaning in Chinese is not expressed with any evident plural form, which is different in English. Moreover, for different target language, tender, number and tense should be taken into consideration in translation. Thus, translator should be clear about whether such a sentence grammar exists in the target language or not, and be clear about the frequency of such sentence grammar.2.3.3 Passage EquivalenceIn order to achieve passage equivalence, language is not the unique element we should consider, what we should also take into consideration is how the language represents meaning and performs its function in a specific context. Passage equivalence consists of three parts, passage context, scene context and cultural context. Passage context lies in analysis of language, which aims to judge the meaning of words and semantic units in original text, and is based on analysis of meaning and connotation of the passage. Scene context includes the concrete person and things involved in communication, the channel of communication, the relationship among participants and mental emotions.3. ConclusionNida’s translation theory has been popular in the world for nearly sixty years and it has become an indispensable part of translation studies. Holding a panoramic view of all the important points in Nida’s theory, we can conclude that the essence of his theory is that he insists the translator should pay prior attention to the meaning of the source text and should not be curbed by the expression form of the source text. Moreover, Nida’s translation theory is a genuine breakthrough and its influence and contribution to the translation field cannot be underestimated, and it dose render us a profound enlightenment that the excellent translation comes from practice.Nida has been a pioneer in the fields of translation theory and linguistics.His Ph.D. dissertation, A Synopsis of English Syntax, was the first full-scale analysis of a major language according to the "immediate-constituent" theory. His most notable contribution to translation theory is Dynamic Equivalence, also known as Functional Equivalence. For more information, see "Dynamic and formal equivalence." Nida also developed the"componential-analysis" technique, which split words into their components to help determine equivalence in translation (e.g. "bachelor" = male + unmarried). This is, perhaps, not the best example of the technique, though it is the most well-known.Nida's dynamic-equivalence theory is often held in opposition to the views of philologists who maintain that an understanding of the source text(ST) can be achieved by assessing theinter-animation of words on the page, and that meaning is self-contained within the text (i.e. much more focused on achieving semantic equivalence).This theory, along with other theories of correspondence in translating, are elaborated in his essay Principles of Correspondence,[6]where Nida begins by asserting that given that “no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Hence, there can be no fully exact translations.”[7] While the impact of a translation may be close to the original, there can be no identity in detail.Nida then sets forth the differences in translation, as he would account for it, within three basic factors: (1) The nature of the message: in some messages the content is of primary consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority. (2) The purpose of the author and of the translator: to give information on both form and content; to aim at full intelligibility of the reader so he/she may understand the full implications of the message; for imperative purposes that aim at not just understanding the translation but also at ensuring no misunderstanding of the translation. (3) The type of audience: prospective audiences differ both in decoding ability and in potential interest.Nida brings in the reminder that while there are no such things as “identical equivalents” in translating, what one must in translating seek to do is find the “closest natural equivalent”. Here he identifies two basic orientations in translating based on two different types of equivalence: Formal Equivalence (F-E) and Dynamic Equivalence (D-E).F-E focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. Such translations then would be concerned with such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept. Such a formal orientation that typifies this type of structural equivalence is called a “gloss translation” in which the translator aims at reproducing as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original.The principles governing an F-E translation would then be: reproduction of grammatical units; consistency in word usage; and meanings in terms of the source context.D-E on the other hand aims at complete “naturalness” of expression. A D-E translation is directed primarily towards equivalence of response rather than equivalence of form. The relationship between the target language receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original (source language) receptors and the message.The principles governing a D-E translation then would be: conformance of a translation to the receptor language and culture as a whole; and the translation must be in accordance with the语言学派翻译理论奥古斯丁发展了亚里士多德的“符号”理论，提出了语言符号的“能指”、“所指”和译者“判断”的三角关系，开创了西方翻译理论的语言学传统。
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翻译学基本用语
源语/译出语source language(SL), original language
译语/译入语target language(TL), receptor language, receiving language
原作者SL author, original author
译者(笔译者)translator
译者(口译者)interpreter
读者/接受者reader, receptor, audience
文本text
原文/原著source text (ST), SL text, original text, original version/original work
译文target text, translation, target version, rendering, rendition
译本/译著translated text/translational work
源语读者source-language reader/SL reader
源语文化source-language culture/source culture
译语读者target-language reader/TL reader/receiving audience
译语文化target-language culture/target culture/receiving culture 语境context
笔译written translation
口译oral interpretation/oral translation/interpreting
同声传译simultaneous interpreting
交替口译consecutive interpreting
翻译原则translation principle
标准translation criterion (复数形式为criteria)
翻译过程translation process
翻译程序/步骤translationprocedures
反应/读者翻译response/reader’s response
对应(部分对应/完全对应)(partial /full )correspondence
等值/对等equivalence
对等物(词语)equivalent
形式对等formal equivalence
功能对等functional equivalence
动态对等dynamic equivalence
等效equivalent effect
充分性adequacy
可接受性acceptability(acceptable, unacceptable, unacceptability) 可读性readability(readable)
可译性translatability(translatable)
不可译性untranslatability(untranslatable)
表层结构surface structure
深层结构deep structure
理解understanding/comprehension
表达expression
再现reproduction/representation
转换transformation
传译/转移transferral/transfer
误解misunderstanding
误译mis-translation
异化foreignization/alienation/exoticization/ exogenization/source-oriented translation
归化domestication/naturalization/adaptation/endogenization/target-accommodating translation
词汇空缺lexical gap
文化沟(空缺/非对应)cultural gap
直译literal translation/direct translation
意译free translation/liberal translation/semantic translation
直译派a literalist/a sourcerer
意译派a free-hander/a targeteer
重复法repetition
增译法/增词法/增译amplification/addition
减译法/减词法/省略法/省译omission
词类转移法/词性转换conversion
反译法/正反译法/反正译法negation
移植法transplant(ing)/transplantation
音译法transliteration
具体化specification
概括化generalization
抽象化abstracting
明析化explicitation
译借(语义转借)calque(loan translation)
加注法annotation
夹注intratextual note
脚注footnote
尾注/文后注endnote
注释性翻译annotated/commented translation 释义法/解释法explanation/paraphrase
引申法extension
替代法substitution/replacement
借用borrowing
推演法deduction
缀合法combination
分译法division
逆序法/倒置法reversing
合译法combination
综合法mixture of methods
包孕embedding
切断/分切cutting
拆离splitting-off
插入inserting
重组recasting
回译back translation
还原法finding the original
原汁原味essence of the original, original flavor 词序调整inversion
选词diction
补偿compensation
视点转换shift of perspective
套译/仿译/仿拟imitation
信/忠实faithfulness/fidelity
达/易懂intelligibility/expressiveness
通顺smoothness
流畅fluency
自然naturalness /idiomaticity
雅/优美elegance/gracefulness
简洁brevity
明析clarity
简明conciseness
内涵connotation
含义implication
言外之意allocution
本文意义(文本固有之意)inherent meaning (of the text)
译者隐形translator’s invisibility
透明(度)transparency
宁信而不顺(鲁迅语) rahter to be faithful than smooth (“I’d rather be faithful than smooth”)
神似(傅雷语) spiritual resemblance
化境(钱钟书语)sublimation
信、达、切(刘重德语)faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness (to the original style)
三美: 音美,形美,意美(许渊冲语)the three beauties: beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in meaning
东方语言Oriental languages
西方语言Occidental languages
佛经Buddhist Scriptures/sutra
梵语Sanskrit
鸠摩罗什Kumarajiva
泰特勒(Alexander Fraser )Tytler
奈达(Eugene A.) Nida
机器翻译machine translation(MT)
人工智能artificial intelligence(AI)
翻译translate, render, rephrase, reword, transmit, re-express, transmute, transmogrify, interpret, convert, transform, transpose, express, transfer, turn
翻译学translatology/Translation Studies
翻译体/翻译腔translationese
死译/硬译mechanical translation
逐字译word-for-word translation/word-to-word substitution/verbatim translation
乱译/胡译excessively free translation
歪译(意义扭曲)distortion
惯用法usage
搭配collocation
约定俗成convention
形合hypotaxis
意合parataxis。