Lecture 3 What Is Linguistics
linguistics.doc
I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Core branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics （各分支名称要记住，但各分支定义无需在此处记忆，可以放置到各具体章节记。
）Interdisciplinary branch of linguistic study:psycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics(applied linguistics的定义可在此处记忆，其余两个放置到第八和第十二章记忆)1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writing for the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Despite the perfect knowledge of his language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use due to stess, anxiety or other social and psychological factors.Chomsky thinks that linguistis should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance.** Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of veiw and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA) Descriptive function (cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B) Expressive function (emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C) Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3. Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking.Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee. Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4. Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.PS：关于Jakobson和Halliday在功能研究方面的详细阐述，建议大家到我校图书馆网页上，找中国期刊网，下载一篇文章：岳颍，“Halliday与Jacoboson的语言功能观比较分析”，《外语艺术教育研究》，2011.6.第2期。
What is linguistic
What is linguistics?I think that what should we realize is the fundamental things of linguistics about is that language is more than just a big bound of words. It’s easy to think that what are we doing, what are we speaking, is producing words that we learn when we were kids and now we know them, and now we string them together and found some sort of ways. Maybe there were some wrong ways to string them together, you learn at school. But basically what we doing is using big bound of words.Now if you really think about it. Words alone can’t be even most of what using a language in terms of what we are interested about using languages. And that’s because you think about it. Imagine if you in heeled a Russian dictionary, that’s say that you for all the attendance purpose knew every single word in the language. If you think about it really, even then you would be unable to have any kind of meaning for conversation of language. And 3 and 4 years olds would like be the years hard of you and that’s because obviously, there is also an issue how you put the words together in order to convey meaning. There’s also a said say, if a language is more than just a big bucket of words, then as Saussure’s grammar’s concern, it’s the matter of setting whether the words fit into one of a part of speech. So the idea is that when you got these parts of speech, thenyou’ve got what there is besides the big collection of words. But actually the part of speech that you learn in school const to a very a proximate sense of what a language is actual, structural system is . For example, “She kept on popping in and out of office all afternoon. Now first of all, if it’s really just all about the parts of speech. What’s the verb? “kept”or “popping”, or you may have learned “ have” and “be”. Or we talk about what part of speech is on in this case? Is it a preposition? Obviously it’s a different kind of “on”. So clearly the part of speech the wonderful school house rocks segment on TV, those thing were only take so far, linguistic shows that there’s more than net.Namely, linguistic is a scientific analysis of language. We all use language all the time. The idea is to find system in what appears to be, or just such as the fact that big bucket of words in the part of what a language is. So what are mean by scientific? Tell you, for example, here’s one example of how linguistic scientific? There is a science of how words work in languages. So for example, we can say “singin’, we can say “singing”, and we often say “singin’is shorter than “singing”, the “g”has been robbed. But if you think about it, actually, there’s nothing drubbed at all in “singing”. Nothing has been left off, because the final sound of “singing” is not 2 sounds, just one sound. Here, 2 words, “ singer” and “finger”, thedifferent is in one of those cases, you are announced “n”and “g”, that “ŋ” is a separate sound in English, and that’s the sound in the end of “singin’, not “singing”, which was something somebody would say.And so there’s a system, there’s a sound system of language, which is very different from the way language happens to be spelled. And so, one they we’d gonna to learn again and again, is we have to get pass letters, languages about sound. In fact, the way that language is represented on page, is very similar to how people are drown on the same things. Well, letters are to spoken language as same things are to relive the way at actually looks. So there’s a science of sound which is very different from that we diligently learned. Or there is a science, the scientific prospective on what concepts are called to language. So for example, in the west majority of the worlds’ languages, there are no words for “the”and “a”. We can’t think it’s necessary to distinguish, “the soap that we slipped on this morning from a turtle that mysteriously popped in living room, we mentioned right now. But actually, there’s a very fine sheet of meaning, that many languages completely do without in any fashion. And it’s not something that is typical of language to have 2 words with those meaning. Or most languages in the world do not have averb “to have”, and we think it’s the most ordinary thing in the world to say, like I do. “I have a cat.” But why would you put it that way? It’s interesting. If you talk about verbs, it could be I own a cat, and there’s a financial of arrangement. I think am I cost 100 dollars? Or it can be I grasp a cat. But to say , I have a cat. What am I doing? I’m really specify a kind of relationship between me and my cat, not something that I do. I don’t walk around having, it’s really a kind of state.And so actually, I agree many languages the way you say, you have something, it’s say that thing is to you. Those of you who happens to be rushed or familiar with this is very common around the world. To say “ have”, it’s kind of European faddish for the most part, most of the languages in the world have some other way of dealing with “have”, when using mutual senses. Or this business of “do” in English, we use do funny, and so you say “ I do not walk quickly.” What’s the “do”?Can you just say I walk not quickly? And if you’ve learned another language, your another, that’s the way to say either“I not walk quickly,”“ I walk not quickly” But what just “ I do not walk quickly”? We just get used to about their. Or when you ask question “ Do you walk quickly?” Do what? You know, what’s the do doing? If you are an English speaker, that just seems likea natural thing. But notice it, you don’t find anyone put it the other. Language that you may happen to have learned why don’t you just say “walk you”, that’s the way would be in many languages. And in fact, if you look the languages of the whole world, I mean really, then as far as this kind of little “do” usage, that’s in one English, that’s in two some Celtic languages, like Welsh and Brankang, and then as far as I know, when I have checked every language in the world. I have believed that one of the only other places where do is used in that way, is way up in some mountains, in Italy, and its villages real like 6000 of people live. And their dialects when they use “do” of that kind, only in questions. Those are only languages in the world, and this case is just dialects of Italian than use it in that way. And so linguistic actually found a lot of aspects for language, they might feel essential for the speaker, one of them are actually incidentals than the incidental features tend to appear in the language only of other ones do in certain orders. And the orders that they think appearing just my have something to do with how are brings to learn language when we are in fence.And so, when comes to the language, the proper energy could be seen to be food preparation, and so are there also lots of ways preparing food around the world, but when you reallythink about it, all food preparation is based on certain basic principles, involving temperature, and whether or not how you aged the food and question. There’s also lots of things is not based on those fundamental elements. Now, of course, in some regions, some items of more easier valuable than others. Their traditions have decided what you eat and what you don’t eat. But all cooking is automate based on the certain fundamental chemical principles, might could be taught those and come up with the kind of food would make a certain basic sense or most anywhere in the world. And so, we are looking for in the way as linguist, what the universals of cooking, except supply to language. So Thai food is great, but we won’t want to say that the essential of cooking are chilly or particular things they do, those are variations on something much more general. And linguistics we are looking for the general. Another example of science verses in pression. There’s a natural sense that anybody has, when they are speaking a language, that something are wrong over there, none is right is other things in terms of how you might put things. And as a result, we and this is most people, thoughtful, reason people have sense, for example, English is a language with popular walking around making mistakes all the time. There’s just way of speaking, that’s proper you learn atschool. And then all these people running around making errors.I knew a wonderful person, who was not a man years ago, and she talked to me about how she had had to end it, and one of the main reason was that he just walking around making too many grammatical errors. That’s so sad. And the fact of matter is that look dead in abroad of you, look dead in terms of a perspective wrong language as something that happens and find its way it is. We say that, a lot of things in fact really most or even all of things, that are considered wrong or errors. I really just issues of its steadies and that we really deal with the kind of fashion, the changes very much, like clothes,too. For example, it used to be that where I was born, I would say that I was born at Philadelphia, that’s what I supposed to say. If were a person that is ordinary people, I was not born in Philadelphia, I was born at Philadelphia. If I say I was born in Philadelphia, that sounds ridiculous thing. Now that’s seems ordinarily arbitrary. Used to be talk about lighted something, you didn’t lit it. I lit the candle. That seems like you are untutored or something. And you have to say lighted before I told. Now if you said lighted, somebody would probably take you to the hospital or they might think you make a grammatical error. And that’s because these things change, and a very arbitrary way used to be, you supposed tosay “stack-ed”instead of “stacked”some books. It was considered little vulgar to live out the “e”to speak. This is changed. And these things are not based on a scientific prospective of language. Even we are all human, there’are things I don’t like, too. Like this, one day, probably I heard one day, “ Can I get a cock?” a person say in the restaurant. What do you mean “ Can I get a...?” It’s not about “can you get it”, it’s about whether they’re going to give it to you, and so you should say “ May I have a...?” or “ I would like a ...”. But “Can I get a hamburger” it’s just robs in a wrong way for all sorts of reasons.I just don’t happen to like it. Same things of a lot of things that we are taught are wrong, which are really just there.So linguistics is not about translation, that is a not something we do. The word linguistics occasionally used indicate translator. But that’s not what and academic linguist is. And we are also not language police, so the view of language that Henry Hagen has, and Peg Millions, is very amusing even more so said to music. But that is not something that any linguist would agree with. So we study language rather than teaching or fixing. And I’d like to show you how to do thing. So, first, we are gonna look at how linguist analyze the building blocks of languages. So we’d gonna start with “the study ofsounds” and we’re going to go on to “how words are formed”, and that is quite counter to different in many languages that we’ll do it. Here in English, there are many native American languages. For example, where many of senses I have said so far in this lecture would all actually be one word. And so what is the word is a question, then you might think. Then we’ d gonna talk about the structure of sentences. In fact, the person who has really set the tone in terms of how that kind of senses analysis is down in linguistic today, has been known Noam Chomsky. Who’s known, I think to most of people as a political figure. But he’s also the grandfather of how mother linguistic analyze center structure as well. And then of course, we also express meaning, there’s a different sense of meaning than just what happens when you put sense together. There’s many slips between sentence construction and what we mean, and how our language is something can be seen as universal across all languages. So we’d gonna look at the basic building blocks, how you go from seeing something you want to say something about it, thinking about it you want to say something about it. Another works, we’ll see semantics and pragmatics. You see what those things mean, when we get to them. Then we’re gonna look how these basic tools are used by people and various sub-fields oflinguistics.So we’d gonna look at how language changes over time. So we gonna study “Historical Linguistics”as it is called. We’d gonna look at “how children learn to speak”, “Language Acquisition”. Language is about more than words, there’s also grammar. Then we’re going to look at “Sociolinguistics”, and that’s about how language varies. V ocabulary usually used, but the structure of your language. Varies systematic ways according to race, class, gender, or education level. Then we’d gonna look at “Philosophy of Language” and that is looking at the nature of human language, what it is in terms of psychology and philosophy. What it is that is different in us as supposed to the way languages used by other beings. And then we are going to take a brief look at the “evolution of writing”. And then in the 2 lectures near the end, try to figure out the language from the ground. And then we will end by looking at current theories about how language involved in our spaces, in first place. Now any case, you may remember my course in 2004, “The story of human language.”The story of Human Language was a very different course than this one. It was about how one original language became several, and how they mixed together. Here, this is more scientific course, this is based on showing how weidentify the system of language on the surface. The scientific post language has really only existed since the early 19 century. And before that there was a rather rich tradition of the study of language. But now in the sense, we call linguistic today. Did the examine the relationship between speech and thoughts, they’d communicated. They have terms for language logos--reason, plan. All of those are very interesting, but it’s more kind of thing classify the philosophy of language. That sort of thing, such as grammatical descriptions of languages. That’s something they goes back, some one were sitting down and describe the rules of language. Nevertheless, when people started writing grammars was back 2000 years ago. Indian person “Panini”. And then there’s a “ Techne Grammatike” by Dionysus the Thracian, and that’s the description of Greek. But the problem with a for example, if you are a great person in the ancient world, because travel was so difficult. And many cases is impossible. There was a sense among Greek thinkers. That’s the best that you could do with the limit preview of these very brilliant people had. Now as Europeans started in countering the people in the world. They were quite different what you might think language is, if you spend you entire life around the military and sea. And there’ s a language heading every crowd, so there’s always somebody whowould write description of the local language. That was encounter. Basically, the way languages are supposed to go is like European language. So you find, whether queen make mistakes. John Wilkins, and he made a very noble effort to the writing system that would express human thought, even the respective of the difference between languages. But its problem is that, he didn’t understand different languages convey. So for example, in Japanese, to say a sentence like, “ I like Pam.” The ordinary you would say is “Pam ga suki. And so here’s that sounds. Now what that means? Basically is Pam likeableness. That’s how it indicate that. So you could get the I pardon, you could say “ as for me, Pam like a woman. But in Japanese, you can live that I to context. That’s how different languages give. I say I like Pam, a Japanese person would say pen I’m like a womans. And that’s ordinary Japanese. Now Wilkins didn’t know thing like this. And so his version, Wilkins did not have linguists mine sense in the modern sense. So for example, “I like Pam.”has 3 concepts. There’s “I”who speaking. There’s the issue of the liking. And then there’s Pam. Now it’s a feature of language. So you gonna have subject, but in some languages, the subject of concepts express you say “ I like Pam.” would be “I”. But notice in Japanese, the subject is “Pam”. And then, asfar as liking, we think, well, “like” is gonna be a verb. But no, not necessarily, because we see in Japanese it’s a noun. You talk about “ likeability. And of course, that gets in concepts that does have to be a verb. A language might have a prefix or a suffix, or a little bit of staff to show, there’s something is subject, keep the traffic going. Japanese has ,English does not. And then, even the “I” can be left the context, like in Japanese. We have to say “I”, but Japanese just leave it out. That’s not on common. Language is different in terms of what they have to put in, what they can leave out, and what they have to leave out. In any case, I’m hoping that when we were finished, you find yourself looking at and listening to language the ways that never occur to you before. And most importantly, I want you to come away understanding that the conception of language as the words, and the way they’re spelled, and little things that you should do with the words in terms of putting them in order. I hope that conceptions of language will be one that would play less of role and how you think about language. For me, the kind of bucket of words conception of languages, is kind of like the first 15 minutes of the film with of us.My opinion:From the video, I realized that linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or , alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistic is a rich and exciting field. Now linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.Language is so valuable to the individual, so critical to the efficient functioning of human societies, and in itself on impressively intricate and profound in structure, that it is bound to attract a great amount of intellectual attention.As a science, linguistics now has a set of established theories, methods and sub-branches. As for its data, now the argument over intuition or corpus also fades as people realize the advantages of both and as corpus linguistics develops rapidly with the advent of computer technology.Nowadays, we are expecting the qualitative and quantitative research approaches to take an even divide and be more complementary in linguistic studies.。
What is linguistic
What is linguistics?I think that what should we realize is the fundamental things of linguistics about is that language is more than just a big bound of words. It’s easy to think that what are we doing, what are we speaking, is producing words that we learn when we were kids and now we know them, and now we string them together and found some sort of ways. Maybe there were some wrong ways to string them together, you learn at school. But basically what we doing is using big bound of words.Now if you really think about it. Words alone can’t be even most of what using a language in terms of what we are interested about using languages. And that’s because you think about it. Imagine if you in heeled a Russian dictionary, that’s say that you for all the attendance purpose knew every single word in the language. If you think about it really, even then you would be unable to have any kind of meaning for conversation of language. And 3 and 4 years olds would like be the years hard of you and that’s because obviously, there is also an issue how you put the words together in order to convey meaning. There’s also a said say, if a language is more than just a big bucket of words, then as Saussure’s grammar’s concern, it’s the matter of setting whether the words fit into one of a part of speech. So the idea is that when you got these parts of speech, thenyou’ve got what there is besides the big collection of words. But actually the part of speech that you learn in school const to a very a proximate sense of what a language is actual, structural system is . For example, “She kept on popping in and out of office all afternoon. Now first of all, if it’s really just all about the parts of speech. What’s the verb? “kept”or “popping”, or you may have learned “ have” and “be”. Or we talk about what part of speech is on in this case? Is it a preposition? Obviously it’s a different kind of “on”. So clearly the part of speech the wonderful school house rocks segment on TV, those thing were only take so far, linguistic shows that there’s more than net.Namely, linguistic is a scientific analysis of language. We all use language all the time. The idea is to find system in what appears to be, or just such as the fact that big bucket of words in the part of what a language is. So what are mean by scientific? Tell you, for example, here’s one example of how linguistic scientific? There is a science of how words work in languages. So for example, we can say “singin’, we can say “singing”, and we often say “singin’is shorter than “singing”, the “g”has been robbed. But if you think about it, actually, there’s nothing drubbed at all in “singing”. Nothing has been left off, because the final sound of “singing” is not 2 sounds, just one sound. Here, 2 words, “ singer” and “finger”, thedifferent is in one of those cases, you are announced “n”and “g”, that “ŋ” is a separate sound in English, and that’s the sound in the end of “singin’, not “singing”, which was something somebody would say.And so there’s a system, there’s a sound system of language, which is very different from the way language happens to be spelled. And so, one they we’d gonna to learn again and again, is we have to get pass letters, languages about sound. In fact, the way that language is represented on page, is very similar to how people are drown on the same things. Well, letters are to spoken language as same things are to relive the way at actually looks. So there’s a science of sound which is very different from that we diligently learned. Or there is a science, the scientific prospective on what concepts are called to language. So for example, in the west majority of the worlds’ languages, there are no words for “the”and “a”. We can’t think it’s necessary to distinguish, “the soap that we slipped on this morning from a turtle that mysteriously popped in living room, we mentioned right now. But actually, there’s a very fine sheet of meaning, that many languages completely do without in any fashion. And it’s not something that is typical of language to have 2 words with those meaning. Or most languages in the world do not have averb “to have”, and we think it’s the most ordinary thing in the world to say, like I do. “I have a cat.” But why would you put it that way? It’s interesting. If you talk about verbs, it could be I own a cat, and there’s a financial of arrangement. I think am I cost 100 dollars? Or it can be I grasp a cat. But to say , I have a cat. What am I doing? I’m really specify a kind of relationship between me and my cat, not something that I do. I don’t walk around having, it’s really a kind of state.And so actually, I agree many languages the way you say, you have something, it’s say that thing is to you. Those of you who happens to be rushed or familiar with this is very common around the world. To say “ have”, it’s kind of European faddish for the most part, most of the languages in the world have some other way of dealing with “have”, when using mutual senses. Or this business of “do” in English, we use do funny, and so you say “ I do not walk quickly.” What’s the “do”?Can you just say I walk not quickly? And if you’ve learned another language, your another, that’s the way to say either“I not walk quickly,”“ I walk not quickly” But what just “ I do not walk quickly”? We just get used to about their. Or when you ask question “ Do you walk quickly?” Do what? You know, what’s the do doing? If you are an English speaker, that just seems likea natural thing. But notice it, you don’t find anyone put it the other. Language that you may happen to have learned why don’t you just say “walk you”, that’s the way would be in many languages. And in fact, if you look the languages of the whole world, I mean really, then as far as this kind of little “do” usage, that’s in one English, that’s in two some Celtic languages, like Welsh and Brankang, and then as far as I know, when I have checked every language in the world. I have believed that one of the only other places where do is used in that way, is way up in some mountains, in Italy, and its villages real like 6000 of people live. And their dialects when they use “do” of that kind, only in questions. Those are only languages in the world, and this case is just dialects of Italian than use it in that way. And so linguistic actually found a lot of aspects for language, they might feel essential for the speaker, one of them are actually incidentals than the incidental features tend to appear in the language only of other ones do in certain orders. And the orders that they think appearing just my have something to do with how are brings to learn language when we are in fence.And so, when comes to the language, the proper energy could be seen to be food preparation, and so are there also lots of ways preparing food around the world, but when you reallythink about it, all food preparation is based on certain basic principles, involving temperature, and whether or not how you aged the food and question. There’s also lots of things is not based on those fundamental elements. Now, of course, in some regions, some items of more easier valuable than others. Their traditions have decided what you eat and what you don’t eat. But all cooking is automate based on the certain fundamental chemical principles, might could be taught those and come up with the kind of food would make a certain basic sense or most anywhere in the world. And so, we are looking for in the way as linguist, what the universals of cooking, except supply to language. So Thai food is great, but we won’t want to say that the essential of cooking are chilly or particular things they do, those are variations on something much more general. And linguistics we are looking for the general. Another example of science verses in pression. There’s a natural sense that anybody has, when they are speaking a language, that something are wrong over there, none is right is other things in terms of how you might put things. And as a result, we and this is most people, thoughtful, reason people have sense, for example, English is a language with popular walking around making mistakes all the time. There’s just way of speaking, that’s proper you learn atschool. And then all these people running around making errors.I knew a wonderful person, who was not a man years ago, and she talked to me about how she had had to end it, and one of the main reason was that he just walking around making too many grammatical errors. That’s so sad. And the fact of matter is that look dead in abroad of you, look dead in terms of a perspective wrong language as something that happens and find its way it is. We say that, a lot of things in fact really most or even all of things, that are considered wrong or errors. I really just issues of its steadies and that we really deal with the kind of fashion, the changes very much, like clothes,too. For example, it used to be that where I was born, I would say that I was born at Philadelphia, that’s what I supposed to say. If were a person that is ordinary people, I was not born in Philadelphia, I was born at Philadelphia. If I say I was born in Philadelphia, that sounds ridiculous thing. Now that’s seems ordinarily arbitrary. Used to be talk about lighted something, you didn’t lit it. I lit the candle. That seems like you are untutored or something. And you have to say lighted before I told. Now if you said lighted, somebody would probably take you to the hospital or they might think you make a grammatical error. And that’s because these things change, and a very arbitrary way used to be, you supposed tosay “stack-ed”instead of “stacked”some books. It was considered little vulgar to live out the “e”to speak. This is changed. And these things are not based on a scientific prospective of language. Even we are all human, there’are things I don’t like, too. Like this, one day, probably I heard one day, “ Can I get a cock?” a person say in the restaurant. What do you mean “ Can I get a...?” It’s not about “can you get it”, it’s about whether they’re going to give it to you, and so you should say “ May I have a...?” or “ I would like a ...”. But “Can I get a hamburger” it’s just robs in a wrong way for all sorts of reasons.I just don’t happen to like it. Same things of a lot of things that we are taught are wrong, which are really just there.So linguistics is not about translation, that is a not something we do. The word linguistics occasionally used indicate translator. But that’s not what and academic linguist is. And we are also not language police, so the view of language that Henry Hagen has, and Peg Millions, is very amusing even more so said to music. But that is not something that any linguist would agree with. So we study language rather than teaching or fixing. And I’d like to show you how to do thing. So, first, we are gonna look at how linguist analyze the building blocks of languages. So we’d gonna start with “the study ofsounds” and we’re going to go on to “how words are formed”, and that is quite counter to different in many languages that we’ll do it. Here in English, there are many native American languages. For example, where many of senses I have said so far in this lecture would all actually be one word. And so what is the word is a question, then you might think. Then we’ d gonna talk about the structure of sentences. In fact, the person who has really set the tone in terms of how that kind of senses analysis is down in linguistic today, has been known Noam Chomsky. Who’s known, I think to most of people as a political figure. But he’s also the grandfather of how mother linguistic analyze center structure as well. And then of course, we also express meaning, there’s a different sense of meaning than just what happens when you put sense together. There’s many slips between sentence construction and what we mean, and how our language is something can be seen as universal across all languages. So we’d gonna look at the basic building blocks, how you go from seeing something you want to say something about it, thinking about it you want to say something about it. Another works, we’ll see semantics and pragmatics. You see what those things mean, when we get to them. Then we’re gonna look how these basic tools are used by people and various sub-fields oflinguistics.So we’d gonna look at how language changes over time. So we gonna study “Historical Linguistics”as it is called. We’d gonna look at “how children learn to speak”, “Language Acquisition”. Language is about more than words, there’s also grammar. Then we’re going to look at “Sociolinguistics”, and that’s about how language varies. V ocabulary usually used, but the structure of your language. Varies systematic ways according to race, class, gender, or education level. Then we’d gonna look at “Philosophy of Language” and that is looking at the nature of human language, what it is in terms of psychology and philosophy. What it is that is different in us as supposed to the way languages used by other beings. And then we are going to take a brief look at the “evolution of writing”. And then in the 2 lectures near the end, try to figure out the language from the ground. And then we will end by looking at current theories about how language involved in our spaces, in first place. Now any case, you may remember my course in 2004, “The story of human language.”The story of Human Language was a very different course than this one. It was about how one original language became several, and how they mixed together. Here, this is more scientific course, this is based on showing how weidentify the system of language on the surface. The scientific post language has really only existed since the early 19 century. And before that there was a rather rich tradition of the study of language. But now in the sense, we call linguistic today. Did the examine the relationship between speech and thoughts, they’d communicated. They have terms for language logos--reason, plan. All of those are very interesting, but it’s more kind of thing classify the philosophy of language. That sort of thing, such as grammatical descriptions of languages. That’s something they goes back, some one were sitting down and describe the rules of language. Nevertheless, when people started writing grammars was back 2000 years ago. Indian person “Panini”. And then there’s a “ Techne Grammatike” by Dionysus the Thracian, and that’s the description of Greek. But the problem with a for example, if you are a great person in the ancient world, because travel was so difficult. And many cases is impossible. There was a sense among Greek thinkers. That’s the best that you could do with the limit preview of these very brilliant people had. Now as Europeans started in countering the people in the world. They were quite different what you might think language is, if you spend you entire life around the military and sea. And there’ s a language heading every crowd, so there’s always somebody whowould write description of the local language. That was encounter. Basically, the way languages are supposed to go is like European language. So you find, whether queen make mistakes. John Wilkins, and he made a very noble effort to the writing system that would express human thought, even the respective of the difference between languages. But its problem is that, he didn’t understand different languages convey. So for example, in Japanese, to say a sentence like, “ I like Pam.” The ordinary you would say is “Pam ga suki. And so here’s that sounds. Now what that means? Basically is Pam likeableness. That’s how it indicate that. So you could get the I pardon, you could say “ as for me, Pam like a woman. But in Japanese, you can live that I to context. That’s how different languages give. I say I like Pam, a Japanese person would say pen I’m like a womans. And that’s ordinary Japanese. Now Wilkins didn’t know thing like this. And so his version, Wilkins did not have linguists mine sense in the modern sense. So for example, “I like Pam.”has 3 concepts. There’s “I”who speaking. There’s the issue of the liking. And then there’s Pam. Now it’s a feature of language. So you gonna have subject, but in some languages, the subject of concepts express you say “ I like Pam.” would be “I”. But notice in Japanese, the subject is “Pam”. And then, asfar as liking, we think, well, “like” is gonna be a verb. But no, not necessarily, because we see in Japanese it’s a noun. You talk about “ likeability. And of course, that gets in concepts that does have to be a verb. A language might have a prefix or a suffix, or a little bit of staff to show, there’s something is subject, keep the traffic going. Japanese has ,English does not. And then, even the “I” can be left the context, like in Japanese. We have to say “I”, but Japanese just leave it out. That’s not on common. Language is different in terms of what they have to put in, what they can leave out, and what they have to leave out. In any case, I’m hoping that when we were finished, you find yourself looking at and listening to language the ways that never occur to you before. And most importantly, I want you to come away understanding that the conception of language as the words, and the way they’re spelled, and little things that you should do with the words in terms of putting them in order. I hope that conceptions of language will be one that would play less of role and how you think about language. For me, the kind of bucket of words conception of languages, is kind of like the first 15 minutes of the film with of us.My opinion:From the video, I realized that linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or , alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistic is a rich and exciting field. Now linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.Language is so valuable to the individual, so critical to the efficient functioning of human societies, and in itself on impressively intricate and profound in structure, that it is bound to attract a great amount of intellectual attention.As a science, linguistics now has a set of established theories, methods and sub-branches. As for its data, now the argument over intuition or corpus also fades as people realize the advantages of both and as corpus linguistics develops rapidly with the advent of computer technology.Nowadays, we are expecting the qualitative and quantitative research approaches to take an even divide and be more complementary in linguistic studies.。
Linguistics要点
Linguistics要点“Predication analysis” is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. “Predication” is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The “predicate” is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. We may now disting uish a “two-place predicate” (which governs two arguments, e.g., subject and object), a “one-place predicate” (which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a “no-place predicate” that has simply no argument (no real subject or object).述谓结构分析：所谓述谓是指句子的抽象的语义内容，绝大多数的句子内容都是由一个人或物以及对这个人或物的表述构成的。
从语义结构角度看，这两部分分别称为论元（argument）和谓语（predicate）。
所谓述谓结构分析是指通过对这两部分的分析以达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
1.What is Linguistics
• Ferdinand de Saussure(斐迪南· 索绪尔), 德· Swiss linguist, the founder of modern linguistics. • <<Course of General Linguistics>> • It declares that linguistics is descriptive and all languages should be studied on equal terms. • It claims the priority of the spoken language.
The Scope of Linguistics
• intralinguistic relationship among different linguistic elements. • interlinguistic relation with the outside world.
The Birth of Modern Linguistics
• Linguistics is also scientific in its methodology. The work of linguists consists of collecting observable data about language, setting up hypotheses, testing the validity of them against the collected data and then decide accordingly either to reject these hypotheses or accept them as established theories.
Lecture 2 What Is Linguistics
好运动者健，好思考者智，好助人 者乐好读书者博，好旅游者悦，好
5
2.2.2 Phonology 音系学
Phonology studies the sound system of languages. The aim of phonology is to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sounds found in a language, and to make as general statements as possible about the nature of sound systems in the languages of the world. The object of study in phonology is phoneme (音位).
He didn’t come because of you. 好运动者健，好思考者智，好助人
者乐好读书者博，好旅游者悦，好 9
2.2.5 Semantics 语义学
Semantics is the study of meaning. It’s not only concerned with the meaning of words, but also that of morphemes and of sentences.
好运动者健，好思考者智，好助人 者乐好读书者博，好旅游者悦，好 3
2.2 Branches of linguistics
2.2.1 Phonetics 语音学 2.2.2 Phonology 音系学 2.2.3 Morphology 形态学 2.2.4 Syntax 句法学 2.2.5 Semantics 语义学 2.2.6 Pragmatics 语用学 2.2.7 Modern linguistics grammar
语言学考试要点 考试重点
Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。
linguistics
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1.2 Main branches (scope) of linguistics1.2.1 phonetics:The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2.2.2 phonology:The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.2.2.3 morphology:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.2.2.4 syntax:The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.2.2.5 semantics:The study of meaning in isolation from contexts is called semantics.2.2.6 pragmatics:The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.2.2.7 Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.2.2.8 Psycholinguistics:The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.2.2.9: Applied linguistics:Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic methods and findings to a number of areas.2.1DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.2 Design Features of Human Language1) Arbitrariness: there are no direct or intrinsic links between form and meaning or between the signal and the message.2) Duality:It is meant the property of having two levels of structure: lower level and higher level3) creativityIt refers to the ability that we all have to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of words and sentences in our native language, including sentences that we have never heard before.4) displacementDisplacement means that language can be used to talk about the things that exist in our world of experience or in the world of imagination.5) Cultural TransmissionIt means that language is not genetically passed down from one generation to another. Rather, language has to be learned through communication.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics3.1 Prescriptive vs descriptiveIf a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behaviour in using language, it is prescriptive.3.2 Synchronic vs diachronicThe description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.3 Langue and paroleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.3.5 Speech and writingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons:A.Speech is prior to writing.B.The writing system is always invented by its users to record speech.C.Speech plays a greater role than writing in the amount of information conveyed.D.Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue. Linguistics vs. Traditional Grammar1. Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.2.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.3.Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.Chapter2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.2.2.2 Organs of speechThroat pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavity mouthNasal cavity noseBroad and Narrow TranscriptionsA broad transcription is one that only takes account of the sound differences that are important to distinguish words from each other in a language.A broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription attempts to represent more or less accurately the way in which a particular speaker pronounces his words. A narrow transcription is a transcription with letter symbols together with diacritics.The basic difference between a vowel and a consonantV owel: In the pronunciation of a vowel, the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth.Consonant: In the pronunciation of a consonant, the air-stream is obstructed in one way or another. Classification of English consonants:Manner of articulation; Place of articulationManner of articulation: stops;Fricatives; Affricates; Nasals; Glides; LiquidPlace of articulation: glottal; bilabial; labiodental; dental; velar; alveolar; palatalClassification of English vowels: the openness of the mouth; the shape of the lips; the position of the tongue in the mouth ; the length of the vowels1)the position of the tongue in the mouth :Front vowels ; Central V owels; Back Vowels2) the openness of the mouth: close vowels: [i:] [i] [u:] and [u] semi-close vowels: [e] and [3] semi-open vowels: [ə] open vowels: [æ] [a] [Λ]and [α:].3) the shape of the lips: Unrounded vowels; Rounded vowels4)the length of vowels : long vowels; short vowelsAssimilation rules: They are the rules which assimilate one sound to another, making the two phones similar.PhonologyThe basic difference between Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics is general, descriptive and classificatory.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communicationPhone, phoneme, and allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment.A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is a unit of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic contextDifferent phones that represent a phoneme are allophones.Phonemic contrastIf two phonetically similar sounds are distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Complementary distributionIf two phonetically similar sounds are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, and they occur in different phonetic environments, they are said to be in complementary distribution.Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. Sequential rules in phonologyRules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules. Suprasegmental featuresDistinctive features which run over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments are called suprasegmental featuresword stressStresssentence stressThe location of stress distinguishes meaning in English. A shift of stress may change part of speech of a word.Stress can distinguish a compound from a free phrase.Sentence stressSentence stress refers to the relative force which is given to the words in a sentence.Some words are more important than other words, and the more important words are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent.Differences in sentence stress can affect the meanings of a sentence.ToneTone is a suprasegmental feature in tone languages. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.IntonationEnglish has four basic types of intonation: falling, rising, falling-rising, rising-falling.Chapter 5 semantics1.What is SemanticsSemantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.2.1 The Naming TheoryThe form is a word in a language and the meaning is the object in the world that it stands for, refers to or denotes.Words are names or labels for things.Weakpoints of Naming Theories1) This theory seems to apply only to nouns.2)Even with nouns, there will be problems, because many nouns such as unicorn, fairy, ghost, heaven relate to creatures or things that do not exist.2.2. ConceptualismThis theory holds that words and things are related through the mediation of concepts of the mind. This can be best illustrated by the Semiotic Triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards. According to this theory, there is no direct link between symbol and referent (between language and the world). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.2.3 Context and behaviourismThis theory holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context---elements closely linked with language behaviour.Firth, the leading British linguist of the period held the view that “ We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”2.4 Behaviourist theoryAccording to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “ the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.”3. Sense and referenceTwo Concepts to UnderstandSense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.4.1 synonymySynonymy is used to mean “ sameness of meaning”A) dialectal synonyms: Synonyms belonging to different dialects of the languageB) words differing in styles or registers: Words having the same cognitive meaning but having different stylistic meaningsC) words differing in emotive or evaluative meaningD) collocationally-restricted synonyms: These words can be considered as synonyms only when they occur in conjunction with certain words.4.2 AntonymyAntonymy is a standard technical term used for oppositeness of meaning between lexemes.4.2.1 Gradable opposites ( contraries)a. They will show different degrees of a given quality.b. They can be qualified by adverbials of degree.c. Their meanings are relative to each other. One meaning is determined in reference to the meaning of the other.d. Since contraries are gradable, the semantic contrast in a contrary pair is relative; i.e. there are often intermediate terms between the two opposites.e. Since they show different degrees of a given quality, they will allow a middle ground between them.f. The negation of one does not mean the assertion of the other.g. This kind of antonyms can be analysed in terms of markedness4.2.2 ComplementarityComplementarities are very often ungradable opposites.Antonyms which can not be compared to determine whether they have the same degree of a certain property are called ungradable opposites.The negation of one is the assertion of the other.4.2.3 Relational opposites ( Conversives)Usually there is an interdependence of meaning. One member of the pair presupposes the other member.Therefore they form a unity of opposites.They express the reversal of a relationship between items or a contrast of directions. Homonymy and Polysemy4.3.1 HomonymyIn the English language, there are many pairs or groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike or spelled alike, or both. Such words are called homonyms.A. Types of homonyms1. Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms;2. Homophones: Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.3. Homographs: Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs:4.3.2 Polysemy5. Sense relation between sentences5.1 X is synonymous with Ye.g. X; I am an orphan. Y: I am a child and have no father or mother.In terms of truth condition, If X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.5.2.X is inconsistent with Ye.g. X: I am an orphan. Y: I have a parent.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.5.3. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.)e. g. X: I am an orphan. Y: I have no father.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false. If Y is true, X may be true or false; If Y is false, X is false.5.4 X presupposes Y (Y is a presupposition of X )e. g. X: My father is at home.Y: I have a father.In terms of truth condition: If X is true, Y must be true. If X is false, Y is still true. If Y is true, X is either true or false. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X.5.5. X is a contradictionWhen X is a contradiction, it is invariably false, e.g.This orphan has a father.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.1 Definition of pragmaticsPragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.1.2 Sentence Meaning vs. Utterance MeaningSentence meaning: It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition. Utterance Meaning: It is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.2. Speech Act TheorySpeech act theory originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.2.1 Constatives vs. PerformativesAustin made the pimary distinction between two types of utterances: constative and performative. Constative : The constative utterance is verifiable and it is either true or false.Performative: The performative utterance is used to perform an action, so it has no truth value. 2.2 Austin’s New ModelAccording to Austin, while making an utterance, a speaker is performing three acts simultaneously:a locutionary act, an illocutionary act, and a perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.2.3 Searle’s classification of speech actsSearle also made his contribution to the study of illocutionary speech acts. He specified five types of illocutionary speech acts:1)representative2)directive3)commissive4)expressive 5)declaration The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When speaking, the speaker puts himself under obligation.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the propositional content such as apologizing, thanking, congratulating,welcoming etc.The point of this declaration is to bring about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality.3.1 The co-operative principleIn making conversation, Grice holds that there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.3.2 Four maxims3.2.1 The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3.2.2 The maxim of quantity1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.3.2.3The maxim of relation:Be relevant.3.2.4 The maxim of manner1. Avoid obscurity of expression.2. Avoid ambiguity.。
Linguistics(E_C chapter1-3)
Linguistics1. Introduction1.1 What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language.It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a number of languages, but ought tohave a wide experience of different types of language.His task is not to learn to use any particular language, but to investigate how each language is constructed.1.2 What is language? 什么是语言?“Language”is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication．It is a system，since linguistic elements are arranged systematically，rather than randomly．Its being a system accounts for its learnability and teachability；Arbitrary，in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word(like “book”) and the object it refers to．This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different“books”：“book”in English，“livre”in French，本in Japanese，书in Chinese，“check”in Korean．It is symbolic，because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention．Namely，people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to．It is vocal，because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages，developed or “new”．Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms．The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak(and listen)before they write(and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal，rather than written．The term “human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific．“语言”是人类用来交际的任意性的语音符号的体系：说它是体系，因为语言成分(如词)是有条理地组合的，而不是随意地拼缀的。
01 What is linguistics
3. Synchronic vs. diachronic
• 3) Teaching grammars • Teaching grammars are written to help people learn a foreign language or a dialect of their own language. • They are those we use in school to fulfill language requirements. They can be helpful to those who do not speak the standard or prestige dialect but find it would be advantageous socially and economically to do so.
• The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. • It is a historical study, and it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
• Language exists in time and changes through time. • The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. • Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence.
What is Linguistics
• This prescriptive tradition was to be followed first by Latin scholars in ancient Rome and then by the scholars of other European languages. They took up the Latin framework as the only correct way to prescribe grammatical rules of "correctness".
What is Linguistics
Definition
• Linguistics is the comprehensive and scientific study of language. • comprehensive: it embraces all aspects of human communication----from a description of the sounds of speech to the analysis of the way in which the full complexities of thought are expressed in spoken or written form.
• Linguistics is also scientific in its methodology. The work of linguists consists of collecting observable data about language, setting up hypotheses, testing the validity of them against the collected data and then decide accordingly either to reject these hypotheses or accept them as established theories.
LINGUISTICS
LINGUISTICSChapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language(p.1).1.1.1 The aim of linguisticsThis study aims at exploring the common properties that characterize all human languages and therefore linguists are interested in all human languages (living and dead, spoken and written).1.1.2 Linguistics as a science(1) The processa. Make observations of linguistic facts and collect sufficient data and describe them;b. Make generalizations 一般化about the facts observed;c. Formulate明确地表达hypotheses 假定to account for the facts observed;d. Test the hypotheses against further observations;e. Develop a theory about how language is constructed.(2) The principles (p.1)a. Exhaustiveness（广泛性）：One should gather all the materials relevant to investigation.b.Consistency（统一性）: There should not be contradiction and inconsistency between different parts of the total statement.c. Economy（经济性）: The linguistic structure under investigation should be maximally generalized.d. Objectivity（客观性）:This requires us to be as objective as possible in the description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence our generalization.1.2 Linguistics vs. Traditional grammar (p.2)(1) Traditional grammar: This school begins with the Greeks and the grammar of Thrax about 400B.C. It is continued by classical Latin grammarians from the 1st century to 6th century. It is characterized by the analysis based on the hypothesis that Latin Grammar is universally applicable for all languages.(2) F. de Saussure (the founder of modern linguistics) and his contributions:•Language as a system of symbols;•The arbitrariness恣意as the nature of linguistic symbols;•The distinction between langue语言and parole语言(p.16);•The distinction between synchronic完全同步的and diachronic历经时间长河的study of language (p.15);•The distinction between syntagmatic组合关系的and paradigmatic词形变化的properties of linguistic structure (p.17).•Signified受指& Signifier信号物(3) Chomsky and his contributions:•Language is defined as a set of rules;•Competence能力and performance (p.16);•Innateness天赋hypothesis;•Deep structure and surface structure.1.3 The differences between linguistics and traditional grammar (p.2)(1)Descriptive描写的and prescriptive规范的(p.15);(2)Spoken form vs. written form;(3)Attitude towards the function of Latin Grammar;(4)Attitude towards language change;(5)Scope范围of interest.1.4 The scope of linguistics (p.4)•Phonetics （语音学）•Phonology （音系学）•Morphology （形态学）•Syntax （句法学）•Semantics （语义学）•Pragmatics （语用学）1.5 Macrolinguistics宏观语言学(p.5)•Psycholinguistics （心理语言学）•Sociolinguistics （社会语言学）•Cognitive linguistics （认知语言学）•Computational linguistics （计算语言学）•Stylistics （文体语言学）•Discourse analysis （语篇分析）•Neurolinguistics （神经语言学）•Applied linguistics （应用语言学）The scope or major branches of linguistics•Theoretical linguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.Semantics•Use of linguistics1.Applied linguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Psycholinguistics……1.6 The nature of language (p.8)1.6.1 What does “language”mean?•Specific utterances表达or expressions one uses in speech or in writing in particular circumstances.•One’s idiolect.个人习语• A variety of speech or writing. /A particular system or particular purpose in particular situation.• A particular abstract抽象system underlying潜在的the totality of speech behavior of a community.•The universal properties characterizing all human natural languages.1.6.2 The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal元音symbols used for human communication (p.8).a. The symbolic nature of language.b. The linguistic symbol is arbitrary.c. Language is vocal.d. Language is systematic.e. The basic function of language is for communication.f. Language is human specific.1.6.3 Defining features of human language (p.10)•Arbitrariness (任意性)•Duality （二重性）•Creativity /productivity（创造性）•Interchangeability (互换性)•Displacement （移位性)•Specialization (特殊性)•Cultural transmission （文化传递性）a. Arbitrariness任意Arbitrariness --- There is not a logical and necessary connection between sounds and meanings in human language.(1) Animal’s vocal communication system has a fixed one-to-one固定的一对一connectionbetween sound patterns and specific objects or events. Besides, the sound patterns of animals are quite limited in number and the objects being referred to are also limited.(2) An onomatopoeia拟声is a word made up by imitating模仿the natural sound. Some may argue that language is non-arbitrary非任意的.e.g: the clang叮当声of a bell the ticks of a clockBut onomatopoeias are small in number in any language.(3) Compound words合成词are non-arbitrary in the sense that there is a necessary connection between the two elements in each of them.e.g: postmanEach element of a compound is entirely arbitray. Why did English people call him a “man”, but not a “dog”?b. Duality二重性Duality --- Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Primary level --- morphemes词素, words, phrases and sentences which are meaningful. Secondary level --- a sequence of meaningless sounds or segments片段which combine to form the units of meaning.Meaningful:sentences: The girls are going shopping.phrases: NP VPwords: the + girls + are + going + shoppingmorphemes: {the} + {girl} + {s} +{be} +{s}+ {go} + {ing} + {shop}+ {ing}Meaningless:syllables音节: [ðə] + [gə:lz] + [a:] + [gəu] + [iŋ] + [∫כp] + [iŋ]sounds: [ð] + [ə] + [g] + [ə:] + [l] +[z] + [a:] + [g] +[əu] + [i] + [ŋ] + [∫]+[כ]+[p] + [i] + [ŋ]c. ProductivityProductivity --- A speaker of any language has the ability to produce a sentence he has never heard before and to understand any sentence he hears for the first time.e.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…Q: Do you think the sounds the parrots produce have the feature of creativity?K: No. parrots can only draw their calls from the fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.d. Interchangeability可交换性Interchangeability --- Man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.e. Displacement移位Displacement is a property性质of language enabling people to talk about things remote遥远的either in space or in time.Language can refer to things removed from the immediate直接的situations of the speaker; it can be used to refer to things or events which are not present (real or imagined, in the past, present or in future).Q: Do you think the bee dance has the feature of displacement as human language?A: The bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. Bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires. What’s more, they do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate推测about future discoveries.f. Specialization特殊化Specialization --- Man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached分离manner.e.g: A mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake.g. Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of learning but not genetically.从遗传学角度•Q: Why can‘t Tarzan, a human being, understand human language?•A: Language is culturally transmitted传输. The ability to speak a language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of teaching and learning, but not genetically.1.6.4 Origin of language (p.9)•Ding-dong theory: primitive原始的简单的man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered遇到•Sing-song歌咏theory: primitive ritual仪式songs of praise•Pooh-pooh发呸声theory: interjections感叹词which express the speaker’s emotions •Ye-he-ho theory: the cries叫喊uttered发出while working•Ta-ta再见theory: combination of certain gestures and tongue movements•Bow-wow狗汪汪叫声theory: imitation of animal cries and other sounds in nature1.7 Functions of language (p.13)•Informative教育性的function: declarative陈述的sentences•Phatic交流感情的communion: farewells, comments on weather•Directive function: imperatives祈使句•Interrogative疑问词function: questions•Expressive function: My God!•Evocative唤起的function: jokes, advertising, propaganda宣传•Performative述行成分function: I declare宣布the meeting open.1.8 Important distinctions区别in linguistics (p.15)(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述与规定）(two types of linguistic study):If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language, it is descriptive；if the study aims to prescribe规定how things ought to be (to lay down rules for ‘correct and standard’behavior in using language), it is prescriptive.a. Do/Don’t say X.b. People do/don’t say X.(2) Synchronic vs. Diachronic（共时与历时）(two types of linguistic descriptive study):A synchronic description takes a fixed instant一个固定的即时as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.Exercises:a. a study of the development of the Indo-European tonguesb. a study of Shakespeare’s language(3) Langue & parole (Saussure, early 20th century)（语言与言语）:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic抽象的语言system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization实现of langue in actual use.(4) Competence & Performance (Chomsky, 1950s)（语言能力/语言运用）Competence is an ideal language user’s underlying潜在的knowledge about the system of rules; performance is the actual use of language in concrete实在的situations.Question for discussion:What is the difference between Saussure’s langue, parole and Chomsky’s competence and performance?They differ in that Saussure took a sociological社会学的view of language and his notion概念of langue is a matter of social conventions惯例, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence能力is a property of the mind of each individual.(5) Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (组合关系和聚合关系）a. Syntagmatic(horizontal/chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.E.g: The boy kicked the ball.*Boy the ball kicked the. (syntactic语法的)*The ball kicked the boy. (semantic语义的)There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic组合关系的relation must meet.Syntagm （组合）•Sounds after sounds; words following words•Horizontal水平线relations•Temporal暂时的sequenceE.g.: syntagmatic: She can go I may come You might leaveb. Paradigmatic词形变化的relation (associative联合的/ vertical垂直的/ choice选择relation):A relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.E.g. ____ is smiling.The boyThe womanThe teacher…The constraint约束in a paradigmatic词形变化的is syntactic句法的only.Paradigm （聚合）•Range of alternative signs范围内可选择的迹象•Choice relations•Vertical sequence纵向序列• E.g.:→paradigmatic词形变化的IRA terroristsscum(渣滓, 卑贱的人)active unitsparamilitaries (辅助军队成员)freedom fighterslunatics （疯子, 狂人）The horizontal syntagmatic组合关系的axis轴is the realm领域of combination. Conversely相反地, the vertical垂直的paradigmatic词形变化的axis is the realm of selection选择and substitution.代替(6) Functionalism机能主义and formalism形式主义:Functionlism or functional linguistics refers to the study of forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes in the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology1. Speech soundsSounds which are systematically声音系统used in human languages are called speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sounds (coughing, snoring打鼾, sneezing打喷嚏).2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics? (p.25)The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification分类.Three areas of phonetics: (p.26)⏹Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学):production of speech sounds生产语音⏹Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学):perception of speech sounds感知的语音⏹Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学):physical properties of speech sounds物理特性的语音2.2 Speech organs (p.27) 1- nasal鼻骨cavity腔2- lips嘴唇3- teeth牙齿4- alveolar ridge牙槽嵴5- hard palate硬腭6- velum软腭(soft palate)7- uvula小舌8- apex顶点(tip) of tongue9- blade刀锋(front前) of tongue 10- dorsum背部(back) of tongue 11- oral cavity口腔12- pharynx咽13- epiglottis会厌；喉头盖14- larynx喉头15- vocal cords声带16- trachea气管17- esophagus食道Division of vocal organs:According to the function in the sound production, the vocal organs发声器can be divided into three parts: initiator发起人of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonator.共鸣器2.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream:(1) The initiator includes the lungs肺and the trachea气管;(2) The direction of the airstream气流:⏹outgoing/ pulmonic肺的: in all languages⏹Non-pulmonic sounds与肺无关的声音: ejectives (挤喉音), clicks (吸气音), implosives(内爆音in Sindhi信德语, Igbo伊博人)2.2.2 The vocal cords声带(the producer of voice)(1) Pitch音高depends on the rate of vibration振动of the vocal cords.(2) V ocal cords:⏹Complete blockage堵塞(totally closed) for producing glottal喉音stop [נ]:[נ eni] [נ idiət]⏹Vibrating振动(close together) to produce voiced sounds: [m] [b] [g] [z] [e] [i]⏹Not vibrating (apart) to produce voiceless sounds: [p] [h] [t]2.2.3 Three resonators (amplifier扩音器and modifier调节器)(1) Pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)(2) Nasal cavity鼻腔(3) Oral cavity口腔⏹active主动的；有效的articulators发音之人或物: lips, uvular(小舌), the tongue⏹Passive被动的，消极的articulators: teeth, alveolar (齿龈), palate (硬颚)2.3 IPA国际音标and broad and narrow transcription音译2.3.1 IPA⏹International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标⏹International Phonetic Association (1886)国际语音学学会2.3.2 Phonetic transcription标音法:The method of writing down the speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.2.3.3 Broad and narrow transcription⏹Broad transcription: [ ] the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription.⏹Narrow transcription: [ ] the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail. Examples:Narrow transcription: [ ]pure[phwjuə] :aspirated送气音的labialized被唇音化的palatalized使颚音化bed[be·d] slightly longfarm[fã:m] nasalized使鼻音化apple [`æpł] velarized使软腭化bacon [`beiנn] glottal stop喉塞音Broad transcription: [ ]pure[pjuə]2.4 Classification of English speech sounds (p.31)2.4.1 Consonants 辅音(p.32)Consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction阻碍of airstream at some point in the vocal tract声道.2.4.1.1 Place of articulation发音部位2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation发音方法2.4.1.3 Voicing发言；牵动声带2.4.1.4 Description of consonants辅音的描述2.4.1.1 Place of articulation(p.32)Bilabials双唇的: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodentals:唇齿音[f] [v]Dentals:齿音[θ] [ð]Alveolars:齿槽音[t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r] Palatals:腭音的舌面中音的[∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] Velars:软腭音，舌根音[k] [g] [ŋ]Retroflex:卷舌音[r]Glottal:喉音声门音[h] [נ] (button [`bΛנn]) Pharyngeal:咽部[ẛ ] (latter [`læẛə])2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation (p.33)Stops/ plosives:爆破音oral stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]nasal鼻音stops: [m] [n] [ŋ]⏹Nasals:鼻腔音[m] [n] [ŋ]⏹Fricatives:摩擦音[f] [v] [s] [z] [θ] [ð] [∫] [З] [h]⏹Affricates:破擦音[t∫] [dЗ]⏹Liquids:流音[l] [r]⏹Glides:滑行[j] [w] (semi-vowels)The IPA consonant辅音chart:White represents standard British English consonants.2.1.4.3 Voicing (P.30)⏹V oiceless:[p] [t] [k] [s] [f] [∫] [θ] [t∫] [h]⏹V oiced: [b] [d] [g] [z] [v] [З] [ð] [dЗ] [m] [n] [ŋ] [j] [w] [r] [l]2.4.1.4 Description of consonants[p]: voiceless bilabial双唇音stop[b]:voiced bilabial stop[s]:voiceless alveolar齿槽音fricative摩擦音[kh]:voiceless velar软颚音aspirated送气音的stop[n]:voiced alveolar nasal鼻音2.4.2 Vowels (p.34)V owels元音are speech sounds in the production of which no articulators构音器官come very close together and the airstream气流passes through the vocal tract声道without obstruction障碍.2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音2.4.2.2 Description of vowels2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音；复合元音& triphthongs三合元音2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音Monophthongs: The quality of sound remains constant不变的throughout the articulation.(1) The tongue height(2) The position of the highest part of the tongue body(3) The lip-rounding圆唇(4) The length(5) The tension(6) How open the mouth is openedVowel quadrilateral四边形( Daniel Jones)2.4.2.2 Description of vowels[i:] high front tense (long) unrounded vowel[u]high back lax (short) rounded vowel[כ]low back lax (short) rounded vowel[ə]central lax (short) unrounded vowel2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音& triphthongs三元音(P.35)Diphthongs— A single movement of the tongue.raising升起diphthongs: [ei] [ai] [כi] [əu] [au]centralizing形成中心diphthongs: [uə] [iə] [εə]Triphthongs— A double movement of the tongue. They are produced by a glide滑行from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd rapidly and continuously.e.g: [aiə, auə], in wire and hour.Exercise 4 (Page 45):Example:[p] [b] [m]Feature: bilabial双唇音, stop, consonant辅音(1) [g] [p] [t] [d] [k] [b]:Features: stop, consonant(2) [u] [u:] [כ]:Features: back, rounded, vowelExercise 5:(1) [θ]: [ð] Voicing: voiceless --- voiced(2) [p]: [f] Place: bilabial --- labio-dental齿唇音Manner: stop --- fricative摩擦音(3) [i]: [e] Height: high --- half-high(4) [b]: [m] Cavity腔: oral --- nasal(5) [s]: [∫] Place: alveolar齿槽音--- palatal上颚音(6) [s]: [ð] Place: alveolar --- dental齿音V oicing: voiceless --- voiced※如果两个单词，除了出现在同一个位置上的一个音以外，其余的都相同，则这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体。
01 What is linguistics
When linguists wish to describe a language, they attempt to describe the grammar of the language that exists in the minds of its speakers. There may be some differences among speakers’ knowledge, but there must be shared knowledge, because it is this grammar that makes it possible to communicate through language.
2) Genetically, children always learn to speak before they learn to write; 3) In respect to the forms that writing systems use, all written forms “cut in” at some point on the stream of spoken language without exception. For example,
Teaching grammars assume that the student already knows one language and compares the grammar of the target language with the grammar of the native language.
To the extent that the linguist’s description is a true model of the speakers’ linguistic capacity, it will be a successful description of the grammar and of the language itself. Such a model is called a descriptive grammar.
语言学Chapter 1 What is Linguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.
A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.
11
Morphology形态学
"Morphology," is concerned with the properties of words and word-building rules. Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes（ 词素） and word-formation processes.
15
Semantics语义学
Semantics
It
examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.
linguistics+Lecture+1
linguistics+Lecture+1Lecture 1Introduction to LanguageKuai zhenhua (4 Sept., 2012)1 Teaching Points1) What is linguistics?2) What is language?3) The functions of language4) The defining features of language5) The origin of language6) The acquisition of language7) The main branches of linguistics8) Important distinctions in linguistics2 What is Linguistics?Definition: The scientific study of human language1) Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.2)What the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, then3)The linguist formulates some hypotheses about the language structure them.4)The relation between data and theory: both stand in dialectical complementation.5)The Aim is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.3 What is Language?1) Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)Language “is not to be confused with human speech, ofwhich it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individu als to exercise that faculty”.2) Edward Sapir (1884-1939): Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”3) Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”4) George Trager : The Field of Linguistics (1949)“A langu age is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”5) Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out ofa fi nite set of elements.”6) 胡壮麟语言学教程(2006)“Language is a means of verbal communication.”It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Summary of the definitions aboveLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationFirst of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands form.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.3 The Functions of Language3.1 Different classifications3.1.1. Jakobson’s view pointLanguage is above all for communication. While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication. Language functions are as follows:1)referential2)poetic3)emotive4)conative5)phatic6)metalingual3.1.2. Halliday’s view pointHalliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3.1.3 The view point held by Hu zhuanglin(胡壮麟)and Chenxinren(陈新仁)1) Phatic2)Directive3)Informative4)Interrogative5)Expressive6)Evocative7)Performative3.2 The basic functions of language1) Informative functionLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.2)Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.In the framework of functional grammar, the interpersonal function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Attached to the interpersonal function is its function of expressing identity.3)Performative functionThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.4)Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the mostpowerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.5)Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.Different cultures have different topics of phatic communion.Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects6)Recreational functionThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.7)Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself.To organize any written text into a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their readers informed about where they are and where they are going.4 The Design Features of LanguageLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.4.1 The definitions of Terms1. Semiotics (符号学) the analysis of systems using signs orsignals for the purpose ofcommunication (semiotic systems). The most important semiotic system is human language, but there are other systems,e.g. Morse code, SIGN LANGUAGE, traffic signals2. Design features (内在特征/识别特征)Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. By comparing language with animal communication systems, we get a better understanding of the nature of language.4.2 Design Features of Language1）ArbitrarinessSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningArbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even withonomatopoeic words.At the syntactic level：language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.At the word-building level: some compound words are not entirely arbitrary.2) DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3) CreativityWords can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.4) DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage is not genetically inherited, and is culturally transmitted. That is, it is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.5. Origin of language (self-study)6. The Acquisition of LanguageL1 acquisition : the learning and development of a person’s native language. Interest in the processes by which children learn their first language was promoted by the work of Chomsky.Second language acquisition(第二语言习得)(in applied linguistics) the processes by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign language. These processes are often investigated with the expectation that information about them may be useful in language teaching.7. Main branches of linguistics1)Phonetics2)Phonology3)Morphology4)Syntax5)Semantics6)Pragmatics7)Psycholinguistics8)Sociolinguistics9)Anthropological linguistics10)Computational linguistics8)Reference Books1. 陈新仁英语语言学实用教程苏州大学出版社2007年;2. 胡壮麟语言学教程北京大学出版社2006 年3. 戴炜栋何兆熊新编简明英语语言学教程上海外语教育出版社2002年。
语言学linguistic
Part 1 命题演讲--4 What is linguistics?
Some basic distinctionsin My Heart in linguistics Olympic Games
Major branches of general linguistics
Use of linguistics
1.What is the definition of language? 2.What does "design features" mean? 3.What design feature makes it possible for language to have unlimited sources of expression? 4.What is "duality"? 5. What design feature makes it possible for speakers to talk about a wide range of things? 6. How does language differs from animal call systems in terms of transmission? 7. How do you call such words as "putong", "bang", etc? Does their existence deny "arbitrariness"?
1. What is linguistics?
principles to be followed exhaustiveness consistency economy objectivity
2. Some basic distinctions
What is linguistics？什么是语言学
What is linguistics？1.1什么是语言学?1.1 What is linguistics? 1.1什么是语言学?1.1.1 Definition定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It tries to answer the basic questions “What is language?", “How does language work?"，and “What rules are there that govern the structure of language?”It probes into various problems related to language such as “What do all languages have in common?”, “What range of variation is found among languages?", “What makes language change?", “To what extent are social class differences reflected in language?", “How does a child acquire his mother tongue?"，and many others.Linguistics studies not any particular language English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general: It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed have to be, checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by sometheory remain a muddled mass of things.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。
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Lecture 3 What Is LinguisticsPassage 6 What is Linguistics?1. The linguist’s concern with semantic语义, syntactic句法, or phonological音位patterns.Question: what is the implication of the sentences 1—4 ?2. The linguist’s concern with varying sentence patterns in different languages.SVO SOV languagesEnglish and most of the European language are Subject V erb Object languages.Japanese, Turkish and many other languages are Subject Object Verb languages.3. The linguist’s concern wi th the study and interpretation of sentence modification.4. The linguist’s concern with speech sounds.5. Macro-linguistics and micro-linguistics1) Linguistics: phonetics发音phonology音位morphology词法syntax句法semantics2) interdisciplinary activitiesphonology 是音位学，即研究发音在语言中的应用。
从功能角度出发，对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支phonetics 是语音学，研究发音规则。
研究语言的自然属性，人是如何发出声音的，音与音之间如何组合，如何分类等等。
Lecture 3 What Is Linguistics•Pragmatics 语用•Discourse analysis•Sociolinguistics 社会语言学•Psycholinguistics 语言心理学•Neurolinguistics 神经语言学•Educational linguistics 教育语言学•Computational linguistics 计算语言学•Corpus linguistics 语料库语言学•Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学•Literary linguistics 文学语言学•Clinic Linguistics 临床语言学•Forensic linguisticsLecture 3 What Is LinguisticsPassage 9 Some basic Concepts in LinguisticsQuestions:1. What is the concern of linguistics according to the author? pp87-88Linguistics do not give priority to the language of any particular society; they study the languages of the all human societies.2. What are the major canons that guide linguistic analysis? What is your understanding? p88Three major canons: exhaustiveness穷尽性, consistency连续性, economy简洁性.Exhaustiveness: adequate treatment of all relevant material.Consistency: the absence of contradiction between different parts of the total statement.Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis employing fewer terms is to be preferred to one that is longer or more involved.Exhaustiveness and economy are interdependable.3. Which two aspects does linguistic study generally distinguish? p89Macrolinguistics: refers to the whole study of language.Microlinguisitics: refers to the central core of language study.Phonology, grammar, semantics4. What are the characteristics of human language according to the author? pp89—92V ocal-auditory channel; interchangeability, semanticity, arbitrary, productivity, displacement, cultural transmissioin, discreteness, duality of patterning.5. What distinction should be made as a principle of linguistics? p92It is a basic principle of linguistics that we should make a clear distinction between a formal analysis of language and one which is based on meaning.6. How do you understand syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? p94Syntagmatic: 句法规则，横组合关系，grammar，structureSyntagmatic relations are relations of cooccurrence同现.Paradigmatic: 词形变化，纵聚合关系，classParadigmatic relations are relations of substitutability可替换的.7. How does the relational term “subject” mean di fferent things to different people? p96Many linguistics define subject as the noun or equivalent word or word group; others prefer to say that the subject is that part of sentence which refers to an actor, one who does something.8. What is the influence of linguistic study on foreign language teaching? p96Language teachers have seen it as their main task to give their students a knowledge of the formal, structural patterns of the language being taught. As a result, a typical modern textbook contains plenty of practice in the composition of sentences, but gives little systematic attention to the ways in which the sentences are used for purposes of communication.Lecture 3 What Is LinguisticsPassage 10 Comparative and Historical LinguisticsQuestions:1. What contribution to linguistics did William Jones make? p99In 1786 he wrote of observing similarities between a remarkable number of vocabulary items in Sanskrit and their equivalents in European and Middle Eastern languages. He suggested that all these languages might have “sprung from some common sourse, which, perhaps, no longer exists.”2. What theory grew out of the comparative studies? p100Similar studies grew the theory that languages not only change gradually, over long periods of time, but that they change systematically and that the change are best changes are best traced through comparison of the sound systems of languages.3. What informaion did you get about Sanskrit? p102Sanskrit, a literary language of India, had been the subject of grammatical study centuries before Western European scholars had undertaken such investigagtion of their own languages. As early as the fourth century BC, an Indian grammarian named Panini had analyzed Sanskrit and had organized his analysis into a masterful codification of the grammatical units and possible combinations in Sanskrit.4. What were the major conclusions of historical linguistics concerning the relationships among the many Indo-European languages? p1031) All these languages developed from a single language which no longer exists2) Differences developed when groups of people who spoke this language moved apart and were separated for long periods of time.e.g. India SanskritSoutheastern Europe GreekNorthern Europe German English Danish3) The fact that all these languages share a common heritage accounts for the fact that some similarities still exist in all of them.。