isolated_hybrid_solar-wind-hydro_renewable_energy_systems
Renewable Energy Beyond Solar and Wind
Renewable Energy Beyond Solar and Wind Renewable energy has become an increasingly important topic in today's world as we strive to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and decrease our carbon footprint. While solar and wind power are the most commonly discussed forms of renewable energy, there are actually many other sources that have the potential to play a significant role in our transition to a more sustainable energy future. In this essay, we will explore some of these alternative forms of renewable energy and discuss their potential benefits and challenges. One promising source of renewable energy that is often overlooked is geothermal energy. This form of energy harnesses the heat from within the Earth to generate power. Geothermal power plants use the steam and hot water found beneath the Earth's surface to drive turbines and produce electricity. One of the major advantages of geothermal energy is that it provides a constant and reliable source of power, unlike solar and wind energy, which are dependent on weather conditions. Additionally, geothermal power plants have a small physical footprint and can be built in a way that minimizes their impact on the environment. However, the main challenge with geothermal energy is that it is location-specific, as it can only be effectively harnessed in areas with high levels of geothermal activity. Another form of renewable energy that shows great promise is tidal energy. Tidal power is generated by capturing the energy from the natural ebb and flow of the tides. This can be done using underwater turbines that are placed in areas with strong tidal currents. Tidal energy is attractive because it is predictable and reliable, much like geothermal energy. It also has the advantage of being invisible and not taking up valuable land space. However, the technology for harnessing tidal energy is still in its early stages, and there are concerns about its potential impact on marine ecosystems and wildlife. Biomass energy is another alternative form of renewable energy that has been gaining attention in recent years. This energy source involves using organic materials, such as wood, agricultural residues, and even waste, to produce heat, electricity, or fuel. Biomass can be burned directly to produce heat or converted into biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel. One of the major benefits of biomass energy is that it can be used to generate power on demand, unlike solar and wind energy. Additionally, biomass can be consideredcarbon-neutral, as the carbon dioxide released during its combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed by the plants during their growth. However, there are concerns about the sustainability of biomass energy, as large-scale productioncould lead to deforestation and competition with food crops for land and resources. Hydropower is a well-established form of renewable energy that has been in use for many years. It involves harnessing the energy from flowing water, typically by building dams and reservoirs to control the flow and generate electricity. Hydropower is a reliable and efficient source of energy, and it has the advantageof being able to store energy for later use. However, the construction of dams and reservoirs can have significant environmental and social impacts, includinghabitat destruction, displacement of communities, and changes to water quality and flow patterns. Additionally, the availability of suitable sites for hydropower development is limited, and there are concerns about the long-term sustainabilityof this energy source. Finally, there is a growing interest in ocean energy as a potential source of renewable power. This includes wave energy, which harnessesthe energy from ocean waves, and ocean thermal energy conversion, which uses the temperature difference between the warm surface waters and the cold deep waters to generate power. Ocean energy has the advantage of being abundant and predictable,as well as having a low environmental impact. However, the technology for harnessing ocean energy is still in the early stages of development, and there are challenges related to the harsh marine environment and the high costs ofinstallation and maintenance. In conclusion, while solar and wind energy havebeen at the forefront of the renewable energy revolution, it is important to recognize the potential of other alternative sources of renewable energy. Geothermal, tidal, biomass, hydropower, and ocean energy all offer unique advantages and challenges, and they have the potential to play a significant rolein our transition to a more sustainable energy future. By diversifying our sources of renewable energy, we can increase energy security, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and minimize the environmental impact of our energy production. It is essential that we continue to invest in research and development to unlock thefull potential of these alternative forms of renewable energy and create a more diverse and resilient energy system for the future.。
风电耦合电解水制氢技术研究
DOI ：10.13500/j.dlkcsj.issn1671-9913.2021.02.013风电耦合电解水制氢技术研究田江南1，罗 扬2(1. 中国电力工程顾问集团华北电力设计院有限公司，北京 100120；2. 香港城市大学物理学系，中国香港 999077)摘要：由于氢能具有单位质量热值高、用途广泛和可再生等优点，越来越多科研工作者对氢能产生了兴趣。
文章对目前主流制氢路线做了对比，发现电解水制氢与风电耦合具有很大的优势。
分析孤网、并网和非并网三种运行模式下的技术可行性。
结论表明“孤网运行：风力发电+电解水制氢设备+储能设施”的耦合模式最具有发展潜力，为将来开展大规模风电耦合制氢提供可选的技术思路。
关键词：制氢；新能源；风机；容量匹配模式中图分类号：TQ116.2 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1671-9913(2021)02-63-05Research of Wind Power Coupled with Producing Hydrogen byWater ElectrolysisTIAN Jiang-nan 1, LUO yang 2(1. North China Power Engineering Co., Ltd. of CPECC, Beijing 100120, China; 2. Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China)Abstract: More and more researchers are interested in hydrogen energy because of its high calorific value per unit mass, wide use and renewable and other advantages. The paper compares the main hydrogen production route and finds that the coupling of electrolysis water to hydrogen production and wind power has great advantages. This paper analyzes the technical feasibility of three operating modes: isolated network, connected network and non-connected network. The conclusion shows that the coupling mode of "isolated network operation: wind power generation + electrolytic water hydrogen production equipment + energy storage facilities" has the greatest development potential, which provides an alternative technical idea for large-scale wind power coupling hydrogen production in the future. Keywords: hydrogen production; new energy sources; wind turbines; capacity matching* 收稿日期：2020-04-03第一作者简介：田江南(1990-)，男，硕士，工程师，研究方向为制氢、环保、新能源等。
太阳能发电英文
Solar energySolar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.Solar powerSolar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as with photovoltaics (PV), or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP), where the sun's energy is focused to boil water which is then used to provide power. Solar power has the potential to provide over 1,000 times total world energy consumption in 2008, though it provided only 0.02% of the total that year. If it continues to double in use every two to three years, or less, it would become the dominant energy source this century. The largest solar power plants, like the 354 MW SEGS, are concentrating solar thermal plants, but recently multi-megawatt photovoltaic plants have been built. Completed in 2008, the 46 MW Moura photovoltaic power station in Portugal and the 40 MW Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany are characteristic of the trend toward larger photovoltaic power stations.Much larger ones are proposed, such as the 100 MW Fort Peck Solar Farm, the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm, and the 600 MW Rancho Cielo Solar Farm.Solar power is amazing. On average, every square meter of Earth's surface receives 164 watts of solar energy. In other words, you could stand a really powerful (150 watt) table lamp on every square meter of Earth's surface and light up the whole planet with the Sun's energy! Or, to put it another way, if we covered just one percent of the Sahara desert with solar panels, we could generate enough electricity to power the whole world. That's the good thing about solar power: there's an awful lot of it—much more than we could ever use.But there's a downside too. The energy the Sun sends out arrives on Earth as a mixture of light and heat. Both of these are incredibly important—the light makes plants grow, providing us with food, while the heat keeps us warm enough to survive—but we can't use either the Sun's light or heat directly to run a television or a car. We have to find some way of converting solar energy into other forms of energy we can use more easily, such as electricity. And that's exactly what solar panels do.Solar cellA solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight such as solar panels and solar cells, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaics is the field of technology andresearch related to the application of solar cells in producing electricity for practical use. The energy generated this way is an example of solar energy.History of solar cellsThe development of the solar cell stems from the work of the French physicist Antoine-César Becquerel in 1839. Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with a solid electrode in an electrolyte solution; he observed that voltage developed when light fell upon the electrode. About 50 years later, Charles Fritts constructed the first true solar cells using junctions formed by coating the semiconductor selenium with an ultrathin, nearly transparent layer of gold. Fritts's devices were very inefficient, transforming less than 1 percent of the absorbed light into electrical energy.By 1927 another metalÐsemiconductor-junction solar cell, in this case made of copper and the semiconductor copper oxide, had been demonstrated. By the 1930s both the selenium cell and the copper oxide cell were being employed in light-sensitive devices, such as photometers, for use in photography. These early solar cells, however, still had energy-conversion efficiencies of less than 1 percent. This impasse was finally overcome with the development of the silicon solar cell by Russell Ohl in 1941. In 1954, three other American researchers, G.L. Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller, demonstrated a silicon solar cell capable of a 6-percent energy-conversion efficiency when used in direct sunlight. By the late 1980s silicon cells, as well as those made of gallium arsenide, with efficiencies of more than 20 percent had been fabricated. In 1989 a concentrator solar cell, a type of device in which sunlight is concentrated onto the cell surface by means of lenses, achieved an efficiency of 37 percent due to the increased intensity of the collected energy. In general, solar cells of widely varying efficiencies and cost are now available.StructureModern solar cells are based on semiconductor physics -- they are basically just P-N junction photodiodes with a very large light-sensitive area. The photovoltaic effect, which causes the cell toconvert light directly into electrical energy, occurs in the three energy-conversion layers.The first of these three layers necessary for energy conversion in a solar cell is the top junction layer (made of N-type semiconductor ). The next layer in the structure is the core of the device; this is the absorber layer (the P-N junction). The last of the energy-conversion layers is the back junction layer (made of P-type semiconductor).As may be seen in the above diagram, there are two additional layers that must be present in a solar cell. These are the electrical contact layers. There must obviously be two such layers to allow electric current to flow out of and into the cell. The electrical contact layer on the face of the cell where light enters is generally present in some grid pattern and is composed of a good conductor such as a metal. The grid pattern does not cover the entire face of the cell since grid materials, though good electrical conductors, are generally not transparent to light. Hence, the grid pattern must be widely spaced toallow light to enter the solar cell but not to the extent that the electrical contact layer will have difficulty collecting the current produced by the cell. The back electrical contact layer has no such diametrically opposed restrictions. It need simply function as an electrical contact and thus covers the entire back surface of the cell structure. Because the back layer must be a very good electrical conductor, it is always made of metal.How do solar cells workA solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon (blue) and p-type silicon (red).1.When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles)bombard the upper surface.2.The photons (yellow blobs) carry their energy down through thecell.3.The photons give up their energy to electrons (green blobs) inthe lower, p-type layer.4.The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into theupper, n-type layer and escape out into the circuit.5.Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp lightup.Solar Power - Advantages and Disadvantages Solar Power AdvantagesThere are many advantages of solar energy. Just consider the advantages of solar energy over that of oil:· Solar energy is a renewable resource. Although we cannot utilize the power of the sun at night or on stormy, cloudy days, etc., we can count on the sun being there the next day, ready to give us more energy and light. As long as we have the sun, we can have solar energy (and on the day that we no longer have the sun, you can believe that we will no longer have ourselves, either).· Oil, on the other hand, is not renewable. Once it is gone, it is gone. Yes, we may find another source to tap, but that source may run out, as well.· Solar cells are totally silent. They can extract energy from the sun without making a peep. Now imagine the noise that the giant machines used to drill for and pump oil make!· Solar energy is non-polluting. Of all advantages of solar energy over that of oil, this is, perhaps, the most important. The burning of oil releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and carcinogens into the air.·Solar cells require very little maintenance (they have no moving parts that will need to be fixed), and they last a long time.· Although solar panels or solar lights, etc., may be expensive to buy at the onset, you can save money in the long run. After all, you do not have to pay for energy from the sun. On the other hand, all of us are aware of the rising cost of oil.· Solar powered lights and other solar powered products are also very easy to install. You do not even need to worry about wires.Here are the disadvantages of solar energy:•The initial cost is the main disadvantage of installing a solar energy system, largely because of the high cost of thesemi-conducting materials used in building one.•The cost of solar energy is also high compared tonon-renewable utility-supplied electricity. As energy shortages are becoming more common, solar energy is becoming moreprice-competitive.•Solar panels require quite a large area for installation to achievea good level of efficiency.•The efficiency of the system also relies on the location of the sun, although this problem can be overcome with the installation of certain components.•The production of solar energy is influenced by the presence of clouds or pollution in the air.•Similarly, no solar energy will be produced during nighttime although a battery backup system and/or net metering willsolve this problem.Development, deployment and economicsBeginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996.Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10.6 GW at the end of 2007,and 14.73 GW in 2008.Since 2006 it has beeneconomical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power purchase agreement. 50% of commercial systems were installed in this manner in 2007 and it is expected that 90% will by 2009. Nellis Air Force Base is receiving photoelectric power for about 2.2 ¢/kWh and grid power for 9 ¢/kWh.Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP plants such as SEGS project in the United States have a levelized energy cost (LEC) of 12–14 ¢/kWh.The 11 MW PS10 power tower in Spain, completed in late 2005, is Europe's first commercial CSP system, and a total capacity of 300 MW is expected to be installed in the same area by 2013.In August 2009, First Solar announced plans to build a 2 GW photovoltaic system in Ordos City, Inner Mongolia, China in four phases consisting of 30 MW in 2010, 970 MW in 2014, and another 1000 MW by 2019. As of June 9, 2009, there is a new solar thermal power station being built in the Banaskantha district in North Gujarat. Once completed, it will be the world's largest.。
光伏外贸电池专业名词
以下是一些常见的光伏外贸电池专业名词：1. 光伏电池（Photovoltaic Cell）：将太阳能直接转换为电能的装置。
2. 晶体硅光伏电池（Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cell）：最常见的光伏电池类型，基于硅晶体的光伏技术。
3. 多晶硅光伏电池（Polycrystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cell）：由多个小晶体硅晶粒组成的光伏电池。
4. 单晶硅光伏电池（Monocrystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cell）：由单一晶体硅晶粒制成的光伏电池。
5. 太阳能电池板（Solar Panel）：由多个光伏电池串联或并联组成的装置，用于将太阳能转换为电能。
6. 模块（Module）：由多个太阳能电池板组成的单元，通常安装在光伏发电系统中。
7. 电池效率（Cell Efficiency）：衡量光伏电池将太阳能转换为电能的能力的指标。
8. 开路电压（Open Circuit Voltage）：当光伏电池未连接负载时，正负极之间的电压。
9. 短路电流（Short Circuit Current）：当光伏电池的正负极直接短路时，通过电池的电流。
10. 最大功率点（Maximum Power Point）：光伏电池在特定工作条件下能够输出的最大功率点。
11. 填充因子（Fill Factor）：衡量光伏电池实际输出功率与理论最大功率的比值。
12. 转换效率（Conversion Efficiency）：光伏电池将太阳能转换为电能的效率，通常以百分比表示。
13. 光伏发电系统（Photovoltaic Power System）：由太阳能电池板、逆变器、电池等组成的系统，用于将太阳能转换为可用的电能。
14. 并网光伏系统（Grid-Tied Photovoltaic System）：将光伏发电系统与电网连接，将多余的电能出售给电网的系统。
2024年6月英语四级考试试卷
2024年6月英语四级考试试卷一、写作（15%）题目： The Importance of Lifelong Learning。
要求：1. 阐述终身学习的重要性；2. 给出如何进行终身学习的建议；3. 字数不少于120字。
二、听力理解（35%）Section A（7.1%）Directions: In this section, you will hear three news reports. At the end of each news report, you will hear two or three questions. Both the news report and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D).News Report 1.1. A) A new scientific discovery.B) A major earthquake.C) A new government policy.D) A large - scale cultural event.Question 1: What is the news report mainly about?Question 2: How will it affect the local area?News Report 2.2. A) To promote international trade.B) To improve environmental protection.C) To enhance cultural exchange.D) To develop new technologies.Question 1: What is the purpose of the new initiative?Question 2: Which countries are expected to participate?News Report 3.3. A) A famous athlete's retirement.B) A sports event's new record.C) A sports team's reorganization.D) A sports facility's opening.Question 1: What is the main topic of this news?Question 2: What are the expectations for the future?Section B（14.2%）Directions: In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of each conversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D).Conversation 1.1. A) Discussing a study plan.B) Planning a vacation.C) Talking about a job interview.D) Arranging a party.Question 1: What are the two speakers mainly doing?Question 2: What is the man's opinion about the first option? Question 3: What does the woman suggest?Question 4: When will they make a final decision? Conversation 2.2. A) A new movie.B) A best - selling book.C) A popular music concert.D) An art exhibition.Question 1: What are they talking about?Question 2: What does the man like about it?Question 3: What is the woman's attitude towards it? Question 4: Are they going to experience it together?Section C（14.2%）Directions: In this section, you will hear three passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear three or four questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D).Passage 1.1. A) The history of a city.B) The development of a technology.C) The origin of a custom.D) The growth of a plant.Question 1: What is the passage mainly about?Question 2: What are the key factors in its development?Question 3: How has it influenced people's lives?Passage 2.2. A) Different types of diets.B) Ways to keep healthy.C) The importance of exercise.D) Common health problems.Question 1: What is the general topic of this passage?Question 2: Which method is most recommended?Question 3: What should people avoid?Passage 3.3. A) A famous historical figure.B) An important historical event.C) A unique cultural heritage.D) A remarkable architectural wonder.Question 1: What does the passage focus on?Question 2: What are its special features?Question 3: How can people preserve it?三、阅读理解（35%）Section A（10%）Directions: In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. Youare required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices. Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter. Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2. You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.Passage.The Internet has changed the way we communicate, work, and learn. Ithas brought great convenience to our lives. However, it also has some _(1)_ problems. One of the major issues is the spread of false information. With the click of a mouse, false news can be _(2)_ all over the world in seconds. This can cause panic, mislead the public, and even _(3)_ social stability. Another problem is the invasion of privacy. Many websites collect users' personal information without their _(4)_, and sometimes this information is sold to other companies for profit. In addition, the Internet can also be aplatform for cyberbullying, which can have a _(5)_ impact on the mental health of victims.Word Bank:A) negative.B) positive.C) widespread.D) consent.E) undermine.F) promote.G) restricted.H) transmitted.I) serious.J) minor.Section B（10%）Directions: In this section, you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it. Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived. You may choose a paragraph more than once. Each paragraph is marked with a letter. Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2.Passage.The Benefits of Reading Aloud.(A) Reading aloud has been a traditional way of learning for a long time. It not only helps with pronunciation but also improves memory. When we read aloud, we engage more of our senses. We see the words, hear our own voices, and feel the rhythm of the language. This multi - sensory experience can enhance our understanding and retention of the text.(B) For children, reading aloud is especially beneficial. It can stimulate their interest in reading. When parents or teachers read aloud to children, they can use different voices and intonations to bring the story to life. This can make the reading experience more enjoyable and exciting for children, thus encouraging them to explore more books on their own.(C) Reading aloud can also be a form of self - expression. It allows us to convey our emotions and thoughts more vividly. Whether it is a poem, a speech, or a passage from a novel, reading it aloud gives us the opportunity to add our own interpretation and personality to the words.(D) In a group setting, reading aloud can promote communication and cooperation. For example, in a classroom, students can take turns reading parts of a text. This can help them learn from each other, share different perspectives, and build a sense of community.(E) Another advantage of reading aloud is that it can improve ourpublic speaking skills. By practicing reading aloud regularly, we can become more confident in speaking in front of others. We can learn to control our voice, pace, and intonation, which are all important elements of effective public speaking.Statements:1. Reading aloud helps with pronunciation and memory.2. Reading aloud can make reading more interesting for children.3. Reading aloud is a way to express oneself vividly.4. Reading aloud in a group can enhance communication.5. Reading aloud can help improve public speaking skills.Section C（15%）Directions: There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2.Passage 1.The Impact of Social Media on Youth.Social media has become an integral part of the lives of today's youth. It offers a platform for them to connect with friends, share their experiences, and express their opinions. However, it also has a number of negative impacts.One of the concerns is the excessive time that youth spend on social media. Many young people are addicted to scrolling through their social media feeds, which can lead to a decrease in their productivity. They may neglect their studies, hobbies, or real - life social interactions.Another issue is the negative influence on self - esteem. Social media often presents an idealized version of life. Youth may compare themselves to others and feel inadequate when they see the seemingly perfect lives of their peers on social media. This can lead to feelings of low self - worth and even depression.Moreover, the spread of false information on social media can mislead youth. They may believe in untrue news or rumors without verifying the sources, which can have a negative impact on their decision - making abilities.1. What is the main idea of this passage?A) The positive aspects of social media for youth.B) The negative impacts of social media on youth.C) How youth can make the best use of social media.D) The popularity of social media among youth.2. Why are youth addicted to social media according to the passage?A) Because it helps them with their studies.B) Because it offers a lot of useful information.C) Because they can connect with friends and share experiences.D) Because they want to improve their self - esteem.3. How can social media affect youth's self - esteem?A) By providing real - life examples.B) By presenting an idealized version of life.C) By offering positive feedback.D) By promoting real - life social interactions.4. What is the consequence of believing in false information on social media?A) An increase in productivity.B) A positive impact on decision - making abilities.C) A negative impact on decision - making abilities.D) An improvement in self - esteem.Passage 2.The Future of Renewable Energy.Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydro power are becoming increasingly important in the global energy mix. The development of these energy sources is driven by the need to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change.Solar power has seen significant growth in recent years. The cost of solar panels has decreased, making it more accessible for households and businesses. With the improvement of technology, the efficiency of solar power generation has also increased.Wind power is another major renewable energy source. Large - scale wind farms are being built around the world. The development of offshore wind farms is also on the rise, as they can generate a large amount ofelectricity with less impact on the land environment.Hydro power has a long history of use. However, the construction of new hydro power plants needs to consider environmental and social impacts more carefully.Despite the progress made in renewable energy, there are still some challenges. For example, the intermittency of solar and wind power requiresthe development of energy storage technologies. The initial investment in renewable energy projects can also be high.1. What is the main driving force behind the development of renewable energy?A) To increase energy consumption.B) To reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change.C) To make energy more expensive.D) To promote economic development.2. What has made solar power more accessible?A) The increase in its efficiency.B) The decrease in the cost of solar panels.C) The improvement of technology.D) The construction of large - scale solar farms.3. Why is the development of offshore wind farms on the rise?A) Because they are cheaper to build.B) Because they can generate more electricity.C) Because they have less impact on the land environment.D) Because they are easier to manage.4. What are the challenges in the development of renewable energy?A) The high cost of energy storage technologies.B) The intermittency of solar and wind power and high initial investment.C) The lack of government support.D) The competition from traditional energy sources.四、翻译（15%）题目：中国的城市化（urbanization）将会充分释放潜在内需（domestic demand）。
211064100_海上多孔介质通道内氢气换热与正仲氢转化的耦合特性
化工进展Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress2023 年第 42 卷第 3 期海上多孔介质通道内氢气换热与正仲氢转化的耦合特性孙崇正1，樊欣2，李玉星2，许洁3，韩辉2，刘亮2（1 山东科技大学储能技术学院，山东 青岛 266000；2 中国石油大学(华东)储运与建筑工程学院山东省油气储运安全重点实验室，山东 青岛 266580；3 国家管网集团北京管道有限公司，北京 100101）摘要：在我国“碳达峰、碳中和”的战略目标下，风电和化石能源制氢技术正不断发展，利用海上风电资源或天然气制备氢气，并通过储运技术送到氢能源市场，为解决海上风电并网和消纳的难题、促进深海天然气资源的低碳发展提供了可行的思路，因此研究应用于浮式氢气液化工艺系统的绕管式换热器海上适应性具有重要意义。
本文基于多自由度的晃荡平台，搭建了浮式多孔介质通道内压降测试实验装置；基于多孔介质模型、正-仲氢转化和氢流动换热理论模型，建立了多孔介质通道内耦合正-仲氢转化的流动换热数值模型。
通过实验与数值模拟相结合的方法，分析海况和水平条件下多孔介质换热通道的性能变化。
研究结果表明，填充催化剂的绕管式换热器多孔介质通道内压降明显，温降不明显，管内仲氢含量增加；随着氢气流量的增加，传热系数逐渐增大，而出口仲氢的含量逐渐降低；海况对海上多孔介质换热通道的压降和传热特性影响较小。
关键词：海上；换热器；氢气储运；正仲氢转化；氢气液化中图分类号：TE646 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1000-6613（2023）03-1281-10Coupling characteristics of hydrogen heat transfer and normal-parahydrogen conversion in offshore porous media channelsSUN Chongzheng 1，FAN Xin 2，LI Yuxing 2，XU Jie 3，HAN Hui 2，LIU Liang 2(1 College of Energy Storge Technology, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, Shandong China;2College of Pipeline and Civil Engineering/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Oil & Gas Storage and TransportationSafety, China University of Petroleum, Qingdao 266580, Shandong, China; 3 PipeChina Beijing Pipeline Company, Beijing100101, China)Abstract: Under our country ’s strategic goal of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality, wind power and fossil energy hydrogen production technologies are constantly developing. Use offshore wind power resources or natural gas to produce hydrogen and send it to the hydrogen energy market through storage and transportation technology, which provides a feasible idea for solving the problems of offshore wind power grid integration and consumption and promotes the low-carbon development of deep-sea natural gas resources. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the offshore adaptability of the spiral wound heat exchanger applied in the floating hydrogen liquefaction process system. Based on the multi-degree-of-freedom sloshing platform, an experimental device for pressure drop testing in floating porous media channels was built. Based on the porous media model, the theoretical model of normal-parahydrogen研究开发DOI ：10.16085/j.issn.1000-6613.2022-0892收稿日期：2022-05-16；修改稿日期：2022-10-01。
环保绿色创未来的英语作文
Environmental protection is a global issue that has garnered increasing attention in recent years.The concept of green creation has become a trend in the development of modern society.Here is an essay on the topic of Green Creation for the Future in English.Title:Green Creation for the FutureAs we step into the21st century,the world is facing a multitude of environmental challenges.From climate change to the depletion of natural resources,the need for sustainable practices has never been more urgent.Green creation,which emphasizes ecological balance and resource conservation,is the key to securing a healthy and prosperous future for our planet.Firstly,green creation involves the development of renewable energy sources.Solar, wind,and hydroelectric power are examples of clean energy that can reduce our reliance on fossil fuels,thereby decreasing greenhouse gas emissions.By investing in and promoting these technologies,we can transition to a lowcarbon economy that is less harmful to the environment.Secondly,green creation calls for the implementation of sustainable agriculture practices. Organic farming,which avoids the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides,not only protects the soil and water resources but also ensures the health and safety of our food supply.Moreover,sustainable agriculture can help preserve biodiversity and maintain the natural balance of ecosystems.Thirdly,green creation is about promoting ecofriendly lifestyles.This includes reducing waste through recycling and composting,conserving water,and choosing public transportation or carpooling over individual car usage.By making these small changes in our daily lives,we can collectively make a significant impact on reducing our carbon footprint.Furthermore,green creation necessitates the adoption of green building designs.This involves constructing buildings that are energyefficient,use sustainable materials,and incorporate green spaces.Green buildings not only reduce energy consumption but also improve the quality of life for their occupants by providing a healthier living environment. Lastly,education plays a crucial role in green creation.By educating the public about the importance of environmental conservation and sustainable living,we can foster a sense of responsibility and encourage individuals to take action.Schools and communities should integrate environmental education into their curricula and activities to raise awareness and inspire action.In conclusion,green creation is a comprehensive approach to building a sustainable future.It requires the collective effort of governments,businesses,and individuals to adopt environmentally friendly practices and technologies.By embracing green creation, we can ensure a cleaner,healthier,and more prosperous world for generations to come.。
2025届高考英语热点话题节能环保：必备词汇+句子积累+段落实例+清单
2025届高考英语热点话题节能环保：必备词汇+句子积累+段落实例清单一、必备词汇1. Environmental protection 环境保护2. Energy conservation 能源节约3. Renewable energy 可再生能源4. Solar power 太阳能5. Wind power 风能6. Hydro power 水能7. Reduce, reuse, recycle 减少、再利用、回收8. Carbon footprint 碳足迹9. Greenhouse gas emissions 温室气体排放10. Climate change 气候变化11. Global warming 全球变暖12. Eco-friendly 生态友好的13. Sustainable development 可持续发展14. Conservation 保护15. Pollution 污染16. Air pollution 空气污染17. Water pollution 水污染18. Soil pollution 土壤污染19. Waste reduction 减少废物20. Recycling 回收利用21. Energy efficiency 能源效率22. Green building 绿色建筑23. Clean energy 清洁能源24. Environmental awareness 环境意识25. Nature conservation 自然保护26. Biodiversity 生物多样性27. Eco-system 生态系统28. Save energy 节约能源29. Protect the environment 保护环境30. Low-carbon life 低碳生活二、句子积累1. We should take measures to protect the environment and reduce pollution.我们应该采取措施保护环境，减少污染。
SOLARHYDRORANG.pdf-RepositóriodoLNEG
SOLAR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF ETHANOL AT NEAR AMBIENT TEMPERATURESC. M. Rangel1*, R.A. Silva1, T.I. Paiva1 and V.R. Fernandes11 INETI, Department of Materials, Campus do Lumiar do INETI, 1649-038 Lisbon, Portugal* Corresponding Author, **********************AbstractNanostructured semi-conductor materials based on titanium dioxide, with effective photo-catalyticproperties under UV illumination, were synthesized and characterized with the objective ofstudying the photo-catalytic hydrogen production from water. The need to decrease the electron-hole recombination rate was accounted for by metal doping. Ethanol was used as a hole trap.Aqueous suspensions of the semiconductor powders, with noble metal loadings (Pt) were used andthe effects of solution pH and temperature (20-70ºC) on hydrogen production were studied, for aselected catalyst concentration. Hydrogen production was found to be linear with UV irradiationtime at all tested temperature. Values were larger than published literature data.Keywords: hydrogen production, doped-titanium dioxide, ethanol, photo-catalytic materials.1. IntroductionThe generation of hydrogen from water splitting using photo-catalytic surfaces of oxide materialshas been recognized since the early seventies [1]. In the last decades interest in semiconductor photocatalysis has grown significantly, with works mostly referring to uses in water/air purification.The photo-catalytic production of hydrogen by means of irradiation of a suspension of semiconductor oxides, presents attractive features over other methods with higher cost such aswater electrolysis. Some of the materials properties and requirements for solar hydrogen production include tailoredelectronic structure: band gap - essential for absorption of solar energy; and flat band potential –must be higher than the redox potential of the couple H+/ H2. Furthermore, efficient chargetransport is necessary since low electrical resistance is required as well as effective charge separation and prevention of electron-hole pair recombination.Titania is the base catalyst material of choice, notwithstanding the stability and non-corrosive properties, and the environment friendliness and low cost, the actual efficiency in the production ofsolar hydrogen is still very low, due to electron-hole pair recombination [2-6] and also due toTiO2 band gap (~3.2 eV) which only allows utilization of UV light.The feasibility of photo electrochemical generation of solar hydrogen requires that the energy conversion efficiency goes from current levels < 1% to levels of > 10%, with accompanying durability. In order to increase efficiency in the use of semiconductor electrodes in electrochemicalphotolysis, integrated systems including semi-conductor / redox couples interfaces, deposition of metallic co-catalyst, sensitizers, etc. have been studied [2,3]. The modification of TiO2 properties may contribute for a more efficient hydrogen production that may take advantage of visible light utilization [4,7,8,9]. Effective charge transfer from water molecules and the TiO2 lattice requires the presence of surface active sites, associated to point defects, that can form activated complexes with water molecules.In this work, a nanostructured semi-conductor material based on titanium dioxide, with effective photo-catalytic properties under UV illumination, was used for hydrogen production using ethanol as a sacrificial agent, with excellent results.2. ExperimentalA photochemical reactor with a total volume of 4.40 litters distributed between an internal (irradiated) reactor and an external reactor (fluid reservoir) was used according to need; a sensing pH electrode was allowed for as well as facilities for titration of H+, in order to adjust pH, when required. The internal reactor was contained in a black box and used a 450 W Hg immersion lamp (A.C.E. Glass Incorporated, NJ), as a radiation source. The emission spectrum of the lamp indicated that the UV radiation is mainly situated between 313 and 366 nm. Circulation between reactors, when required, was ensured by a peristaltic pump, according to the required recirculation rate. Agitation by magnetic stirrers in both reactors was also used.In this paper, titanium dioxide Degussa P-25 was modified by photochemical deposition of Pt. Platinised TiO2 catalyst (at 1.5 wt.% Pt) was prepared using hexachloroplatinic acid (Riedel-de Haen) as the precursor. A pre-determined amount of TiO2 was first suspended in hot water and the hexachloroplatinic acid previously dissolved in an aliquot of fresh distilled water was added, with continuous nitrogen purging (15 min.) inside the described photo-reactor. The mixture was irradiated for 60 min, at constant temperature (30-40ºC), to ensure that all the platinum in the suspension was reduced and deposited onto the surface of TiO2. The TiO2 / Pt catalyst was subsequently recovered by filtration and washed repeatedly with water. Finally, the powder was dried at 70ºC and stored under vacuum in a desiccator. Catalyst were heat treated at 440 ºC during one hour.After some preliminary studies a concentration of TiO2 of 0.5 gL-1 was selected as well as a concentration of ethanol of 5 M and an initial pH of 11[10].Characterisation of the powders was done by X-Ray diffraction using a Rigaku, model D-Max IIIC and by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using a Phillips model XL 30 FEG microscope coupled to EDS.Fig. 1. Experimental set-up showing the internal reactor of the system assembled for the photo-catalyticproduction of hydrogen using modified TiO 2 powder suspensions and ethanol as a sacrificial agent.3. Results and DiscussionIn this work, a nanostructured semi-conductor material based on titanium dioxide, with effective photo-catalytic properties under UV illumination, was synthesized. X-Ray diffraction data indicated the presence of anatase and rutile and a crystallite size of 21 nm and ~ 90% anatase content. Typical morphology of the powder is shown in figure 2, exhibiting particle size at a nanoscale.Aqueous suspensions of the semiconductor powders, with noble metal loadings (Pt) of 1.5 wt% were used and the effect of solution pH and temperature (20 - 70ºC) for a 5M ethanol concentration on hydrogen production were studied, for a fixed amount of the catalyst of 0,5 g/L, value obtained after optimisation in previous work by the authors.Typical results obtained during the photocatalytic production of hydrogen by UV illumination of the suspension of TiO 2-Pt are shown in figure 3, in terms of the number of mol per unit time of produced gases by gram of catalyst. The rate increases linearly with temperature. When compared with recent literature data [2], the values produced in this work are clearly higher by more than an order of magnitude, see figure 3.UV Lamp Cooling waterHydrogenProduced HydrogenData obtained using gas chromatography indicated the presence of large amounts of hydrogen in the reaction products. CO 2 and CH 4 were found in smaller amounts.(a)(b)Fig. 2 X-Ray spectra for synthesized Pt-TiO 2 (a); typical morphology as observed under thescanning electron microscope and respective EDAX spectrum (b).Fig. 3 Gas production rate as a function of temperature, from a 5 M aqueous solution of ethanol at pH 11, using own synthesized Pt-TiO2. Results are compared with literature data from [2] (♦ own synthesized Pt-TiO2 catalyst data; ■ literature data).The fact that the amounts of methane and CO2 obtained were less than expected taking into account the stoichiometry of the reaction, led to consider that methane and CO2 may be produced by decomposition of acetic acid according to reactions (4) and (5) and furthermore that in the present conditions the formed acetic acid remain in solution. A titration confirmed the presence of large amounts of acetic acid, indicating that pH variations during the reaction must be significant. Typical pH variations with irradiation time were measured starting from the initial pH value of 11 falling to 5.1, see figure 4. It was also observed that for pH values < 5.5 the rate of hydrogen production starts to diminish. Increase in the pH back to 11 was noticed to keep the initial gas production rate.Possible reactions are:hνC2H5OH + H2O → CH4 + CO2 + 2H2(1)TiO2e-(Me) + H+sol →H ads (2)H2ads→ H2gas (3)2h + C2H5OH → 2H+ + CH3CHO (4)2h + CH3CHO + H2O →2 H+ + CH3COOH (5)Where Me - Metal (Pt); h- holeFig. 4 pH solution variation in the photocatalytic production of hydrogen using modified TiO2 powder. Methane and CO2 can be produced by the decomposition of acetic acid,h + CH3COO-→ CO2 + CH3° (6) Another pathway for CH4 formation may be the hydrogenation of CO2 according to equation (7) CO2 + 4 H2→ CH4 + H2O (7) Another possible reaction pathway is the involvement of adsorbed surface hydroxyls on TiO2 in the trapping of holes. The interaction of surface hydroxyl groups with holes will result in the formation of hydroxyl radicals which, in turn, will interact with C2H5OH or its intermediates adsorbed on the metal- TiO2 surface or present in the vicinity to produce CO2 and other side products.Another possible reaction pathway is the involvement of adsorbed surface hydroxyls on TiO2 in the trapping of holes. The interaction of surface hydroxyl groups with holes will result in the formation of hydroxyl radicals which, in turn, will interact with C2H5OH or its intermediates adsorbed on the metal- TiO2 surface or present in the vicinity to produce CO2 and other side products.Work proceeds where results are compared with sol-gel titanium dioxide modified with Pt in the same experimental conditions. Modification of the titanium dioxide band gap is also in progress, in order to account for the advantageous use of visible light [11].4. ConclusionsTitania was used as the base catalyst material of choice for solar hydrogen production, due to its stability and non-corrosive properties, as well as environmentally friendliness and low cost. The need to decrease the electron-hole recombination rate was accounted for by platinum deposition and the addition of ethanol as a hole trap.o Gas production rates were found to be linear with temperature in the range from room temperature up to 70ºC. In the present conditions used in this work, values were found larger than published literature.o pH variations during hydrogen production were striking changing from 11 to values as low as 5.6, this is thought to be due to the formation of acetic acid during the reaction, accounting for the lower concentration of CO2 and CH4 found by gas chromatography Keeping the pH in the alkaline range ensured a constant rate of gas production for extended periods of time.Further work is needed to identify low cost metal loading materials with acceptable enhancement for hydrogen production, as well as modified catalysts that allow effective utilization of visible light.AcknowlegmentsAcknowlegments are due to B. Charasse, J. Chesnau and M. Pinho for assistance in some of the experiments.References[1] A. Fujishima, A Honda, Nature, 238 (1972), 37-38.[2]- Y.Z. Yang, C.H. Chang, H. Idriss, Appl. Catal. B, 67 (2006) 217-222.[3]- G.R. Bamwenda, S. Tsubota, T. Nakamura, M. Haruta, J.Photochem. Photobiol.A, 89 (1995) 177-189.[4]- A. R. Gandhe, J. B. Fernandes, Bull. Catalysis Society of India, 4 (2005) 131-134.[5]- S. Pilkenton, Son-Jong Hwang, D. Raftery, J. Phys.Chem.B, 103 (1999) 11152-11160.[6]- Z. Zaina, L. K. Hui, M. Z. Hussein, Y. H. Taufiq-Yap, A. H. Abdullah, I. Ramli, J. Hazardous Materials, B125 (2005) 113-120.[7]- J. C. Kennedy III, A. K. Daty, J. Catalysis, 179 (1998) 357-389.[8]- G. Marcì, V. Augugliaro, A.B. Prevot, C. Baiocchi, E. García-López, V. Loddo, L. Palmisano, E. Paramauro, M. Schiavello, Societá Chimica Italiana, Annalli di Chimica, 93 (2003) 693-644.[9]- C. G. Silva, W. Wang, J. L. Faria, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A, 181 (2006) 314-324.[10]- R. Gouveia, R.A. Silva, C.M. Rangel, Mat. Sci. Forum, 514-516 (2006) 1385-1390.[11]-Y Li, C. Xie, D. Peng, G. Lu, S. Li, J. Mol. Catal.: A Chem., 282 (2008)117-123.。
消除影响声明
2020(10)罗海华，等:基于熔盐需热的亚临界火电机组工业供热调峰技术75热器，低温熔盐与髙压再热热段蒸汽进行换热，熔盐被加热至高温(细)并储存在高温熔盐罐中，高温蒸汽在蒸汽显热换热器换热，温度降低后进入供热联箱,供至热用户。
当发电机组负荷小于220MW(65%额定负荷)时,高温熔盐通过高温熔盐泵从高温熔盐罐输送至蒸汽过热器、蒸汽发生器和再热器，加热来自除氧器的除氧水，产生供热蒸汽并送至热用户,使发电机组发电负荷不受工业供热限制，发电负荷可降至40%,实现发电机组热电解耦，提高发电机组调峰能力。
在系统运行时,在蓄热工况下，可通过调节抽汽流量和蓄热时间来调节蓄热量;在释热工况下，可通过调节除氧水供水流量和供水时间来调节供汽量。
4结论针对某亚临界发电机组,提出了基于蒸汽加热熔盐蓄热的火电机组热电解耦系统，进行了初步的技术可行性分析，结果表明：1)从热力参数匹配角度看，采用再热蒸汽抽汽加热熔盐蓄热，并通过加热除氧水提供工业蒸汽是可行的，可实现火电机组热电解耦;2)系统所涉及熔盐设备成熟度高，从工质和设备角度看，方案是可行的。
参考文献：E1］宋崇明，徐彤，田雪沁，等.提升调峰能力的机组供热改造方式优化研究［J］.中国电力,2019,52(7)：132-140［2］李树明，刘青松,朱小东，等.350MW超临界热电联产机组灵活性改造分析［J1发电技术,201&39(5)：449-454［3］王凯，田昊明，贾静.采用蓄热技术扩大供热机组调峰裕度的研究［J1节能技术,2012,30(4).339-341［4］毕庆生，吕项羽,李德鑫，等.基于热网及建筑物特性的大型供热机组深度调峰能力研究［J］.汽轮机技术,2015,56(2)：141-144［5］吴玉庭，张晓明,王慧富，等.基于弃风弃光或低谷电加热的熔盐蓄热供热技术及其评价［J］.中外能源,2017,22(2)：93-99［6］侯宏娟.郑天帅.含蓄热的太阳能辅助供热机组供暖期间调峰性能分析[J].太阳能学报.2018,39(7)；1807-1814[7]汉京晓，穆世慧.典型蓄热技术在供热领域的应用分析[J1能源与节能,2019(4)：54-57[8]王惠杰.董学会，杨杰，等.基于Aspen plus的配置储热装置供热机组调峰范围研究[J].汽轮机技术，2019,61(2):131-135[9]GARBRECHT O,BIEBER M,KNEER R.Increasing fossil power plant flexibility by integratingmolten-salt thermal storage[J],Energy,2017,118：876-883[10]丁静.中高温传热蓄热材料[M].北京:科学出版社，2013:110-118[11]黄湘.太阳能热发电技术[M].北京：中国电力岀版社,2013:60-112,168[12]杜江泳，邵方知，杜炜，等.高温熔盐换热器及应用综述[J].太阳能,2015(8),35-40[13]GONZALEZ R E,PEREZ O D,PRIETO C.Reviewof commercial thermal storage in concentrated solarpower plants:steam vs.molten salts[J].Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews,2017,80：133-148 [14]郑晨曦，董清风.首航节能以努力和业绩实践太阳能热发电的光荣与梦想[J].太阳能,2017(7):53-55 [15]GABBRIELLI R,ZAMPARELLI C.Optimal designof a molten salt thermal storage tank for parabolictrough solar power plants L J].Journal of SolarEnergy Engineering,2009,131:041001[16]WEIKL M C,BRAUN K,WEISS J.Coil-woundheat exchangers for molten salt applications E J].Energy Procedia,2014,49：1054—1060[17]杨世铭•陶文铃.传热学[M].4版.北京：高等教育出版社,2006：243-245[18]DING C,HU H T,DING G L,et al.Experimentalinvestigation on downward flow boiling heat transfercharacteristics of propane in shell side of LNG spiralwound heat exchanger[J].International Journal ofRefrigeration,2017,84：13—25消除影响声明为履行福建省高级人民法院(2019)闽民终883号、884号判决书.我公司声明：立即停止侵害搏力谋控股公司(BELIMO Holding AG)第G569432号"BELIMO”、第9789203号、第9789205号“搏力谋”注册商标专用权的行为;并立即停止将“BEUMO”、“搏力谋”作为企业名称的字号使用。
我们应该如何面对不可再生资源问题英语作文
我们应该如何面对不可再生资源问题英语作文全文共5篇示例，供读者参考篇1We Need to Save Our Planet's Resources!Hi friends! Today I want to talk about something super important that affects every single one of us - non-renewable resources. These are things like oil, gas, coal and metals that we get from deep inside the earth. The problem is, they are called "non-renewable" because once we use them all up, they're gone forever! We can't just make more.So what's the big deal? Well, we use non-renewable resources for lots of important things in our daily lives. The electricity that powers our homes, schools, and the lights we use at night often comes from burning coal or natural gas. The gasoline that makes cars and buses go comes from oil pumped out of the ground. Even our computers, phones, and toys have metals like copper inside that had to be dug out of mines.Without these resources, our modern way of living would grind to a halt. No more driving, no more smartphones, no more TV! That's why we have to be really careful about how much weuse. You see, the earth only has a limited supply of these things buried underground from millions of years ago when tiny plants and animals turned into fossil fuels over a very very long time. Once it's gone, it's gone for good.The biggest worry is that pretty soon, maybe even before I'm a grown up, we could run out of some of the most important non-renewable resources if we just keep using them up at the rate we do now without thinking about it. That would be a huge disaster! We would have to find other ways to power everything, which could be really hard, expensive and bad for the environment.So what can we do? Well, there are lots of things we can all pitch in to help, even as kids:Use less electricity! Turn off lights when you leave a room. Unplug chargers, computers and TVs when not using them so they don't waste energy. Beg your parents to change regular bulbs to LED bulbs that use way less power.Reduce, reuse, recycle! Don't just throw away things made of plastic, glass, paper or metal. They came from precious resources in the first place. Recycle as much as possible so those materials can get reused instead of having to dig up new ones.Walk, bike or take public transit when you can instead of driving. It saves gas and puts fewer emissions into the air. Maybe you could even start a "walking buddies" group to make it more fun!Be conservative with heat and AC. Putting on a sweater instead of blasting the heat is an easy way to use less energy from power plants. Same goes for not making it too cold inside when it's hot out.Tell your parents to buy energy efficient appliances and cars that don't guzzle as much electricity, gas or oil. They may cost a bit more but they make a big difference over time.Learn about renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydro power. Write letters asking your school and town to install more solar panels, wind turbines and other climate-friendly tech.Don't litter and pick up any trash you see, especially plastic bottles and wrappers. That sends less waste to pollute the environment.Eat less meat and dairy. I know this one is hard for a lot of kids, but cows require way more resources like land, water and feed to raise compared to crops. Going meatless even a day or two per week makes a impact.Shop secondhand when you can. Buying used clothes, toys, furniture, etc means not using up new raw materials extracted from the planet.Plant trees! Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen we can breathe. Plus they're just pretty to have around.If we all try to do at least some of these things, it can really add up to conserving our limited supplies of precious metals, fuel and other non-renewable goodies that make our cushy modern lives possible. We have to learn to live more sustainably and efficiently, because once those resources get used up by our generation or the next, they'll be gone for good!It might seem hard to change our wasteful habits. But taking little steps now will allow my grandkids and their grandkids to also have access to the same resources we've gotten to enjoy. We're all in this together, so let's be smarter about how we use up stuff that can't be replaced. The future of our beautiful planet Earth depends on it! What are you waiting for? Go turn off some lights, unplug some cables, and start using less energy right now. Small actions breed big results if we all pitch in. Let's get our environmental mojo working to save electricity, fuel and materials before they disappear forever!篇2How Should We Deal With Non-Renewable Resources?Hi everyone! Today I want to talk about something really important that affects all of us - non-renewable resources. These are things like oil, gas, coal and metals that are limited and will eventually run out if we keep using them. It's a big problem that grown-ups haven't figured out how to solve yet. But I think if we work together, us kids can help come up with good solutions!First, let me explain what non-renewable resources are. They are natural resources that cannot be re-made or re-grown in a short period of time. Once we've used them all up, they're gone forever unless we find a way to renew them, which is really hard. Things like solar energy and wind are renewable because we can keep using them over and over. But fossil fuels like oil, gas and coal are non-renewable.We use non-renewable resources for lots of important things - to power our homes and cars, to make plastics and medicine, and for all sorts of manufacturing. Unfortunately, many of these resources are being used up very quickly as more and more people in the world need energy and products. At therate we're going, some of them may run out in just a few decades!Running out of non-renewable resources would be a huge problem. It would make energy and transportation really expensive. Many industries would shut down without these raw materials. Poor countries that don't have much oil or coal would suffer the most. We could face major shortages of food, clean water, housing and jobs. Yikes!So what can we do to prevent this scary scenario? Well, the answers aren't easy, but there are some things we can try:Use less stuff! Cut down on waste and only use what you really need. Turn off lights, don't leave taps running, walk or bike instead of driving sometimes. Every bit of energy you save helps.Recycle as much as possible - metals, plastic, paper, glass, electronics. This reduces the need for extracting new raw materials from the ground.Develop renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydro power plants to start replacing fossil fuels. This takes time and money but is really important for the future.Find alternative materials to use instead of things like plastic made from oil. For example, we could use more biodegradable plant-based materials.Be very careful about preserving the resources we have left through efficient extraction methods and stricter environmental rules so they don't get wasted or pollute the planet more.Do more research into high-tech solutions like carbon capture to remove emissions from the air, or nuclear fusion as a new energy source. Smart scientists need to keep working on innovations.These steps will help us transition away from non-renewable resources slowly and move towards a more sustainable way of living. But change is really hard, especially when the whole world is so dependent on things like oil and gas.Every country, every company, every community and every family has to do their part. We have to make some tough choices about using less energy, living more simply and finding new ways to power our lives that don't hurt the environment as much. It will be expensive and inconvenient at first, but in the long run it's better than running out of resources completely and having even bigger problems!I know these issues are pretty complicated, even for adults. But we kids are the future, so we have to start learning about non-renewable resources and doing what we can to conserve them now while technology catches up. With some smart thinking and cooperation between everyone, I'm hopeful we can figure out solutions. What's your idea for how to solve the problem? We're all in this together!篇3How Should We Face the Problem of Non-Renewable Resources?Hi friends! Today I want to talk to you about something very important - non-renewable resources. These are things like oil, gas, coal, and other minerals that we dig out of the ground. The problem is, once we use them up, they're all gone forever! That's why we call them "non-renewable". Isn't that scary?Let me give you some examples of non-renewable resources we use every single day. The electricity that powers our lights, computers, and TVs often comes from burning coal or natural gas. The gasoline that makes cars and buses go comes from oil. Even the plastic toys we play with are made out of oil!But here's the really big problem - there is only so much of these resources left under the ground. Scientists believe that pretty soon, maybe in just a few decades, we could run out of easy-to-get oil and gas. And coal will be gone in a couple hundred years at the rate we are using it. Can you imagine a world with no more plastic toys, no more cars, and no more electricity? That would be terrible!So what can we do about this huge problem? Well, the first thing is that we need to use less non-renewable resources. We can do this by turning off lights when leaving a room, taking shorter showers to save hot water, and walking or riding our bikes instead of asking for rides in the car. Every little bit helps!Another thing we can do is recycle as much as possible. Things like plastic bottles, aluminum cans, paper, and glass can all be recycled into new products instead of just throwing them away. Recycling saves a ton of energy and resource use. At home, make sure your family has separate bins for recycling different materials.But using less and recycling is not going to solve the whole problem. We also desperately need to find alternative energy sources that are renewable. That means they can be used over and over without running out. The sun, wind, water from rivers,and even trash can all be used to create renewable electricity! How cool is that?I think solar and wind power are probably two of the best renewable energy sources we should focus on. The sun will keep shining for billions of years, and the wind will keep blowing. If we can capture that energy through solar panels and wind turbines, we would hardly ever run out! It's pretty amazing technology.Geothermal energy, which uses heat from deep inside the Earth, is another promising renewable source. And then there are biofuels which can be made from plants instead of oil. Scientists are working hard on all of these technologies, but we need to support and fund their research even more.So in summary, we face a huge challenge withnon-renewable resources running out. But by using less, recycling more, and developing renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and biofuels, we can work to solve this problem. We need to act now before it's too late!All of you kids can play a part. Remind your parents to turn off lights and conserve energy at home. Start a recycling program at your school if one doesn't exist already. Or even join a local environmental club to raise awareness. Every little bit of effort counts when we all work together.I don't want to live in a world without planes, trains, cars, computers, and all the other amazing things we have thanks to non-renewable resources. But even more, I don't want to leave a world with no resources left at all for future generations after us. We can figure out solutions to this problem, but we need to take it seriously starting right now. Who's with me?篇4How We Should Deal With Non-Renewable ResourcesHi friends! Today I want to talk about something really important - non-renewable resources. These are things like oil, gas, and coal that we use for lots of stuff like making electricity, fueling our cars, and heating our homes. The problem is, they're called "non-renewable" because they can't be replaced once we use them all up. That's kind of scary if you think about it!You see, these resources were made naturally over millions and millions of years from tiny plants and animals that got buried deep underground. The heat and pressure turned them into the fossil fuels we use today. But there's only so much of it, and once it's gone, it's gone forever. We can't just make more with a machine or anything.So what are we gonna do when we run out? Well, scientists say if we keep going through them at the rate we are now, we could use up a lot of our supplies in just a few decades! That means by the time I'm a grown-up, there might not be much left. Yikes!That would be a huge problem because we rely onnon-renewable resources for soooo many things - keeping houses warm, powering factories that make our toys and clothes, you name it. Without them, our whole way of life would have to change drastically. No more road trips or flying in airplanes probably. Everything would get way more expensive too since we'd have to figure out new ways to make electricity and plastics and all that stuff.I don't know about you, but that future doesn't sound super fun to me. That's why we need to start thinking hard about this issue right now while we still have time. The good news is, there are some things we can do!First off, we could try to use less of these non-renewable resources overall. Seems kind of obvious, but it's true - the slower we use them up, the longer they'll last. We can do stuff like biking or walking more instead of driving, keeping our homes at an eco-friendly temperature, recycling as much aspossible, and just generally being mindful of how much energy we use. Every little bit counts!We can also look for ways to use renewable resources instead, which are things that can be replenished and won't run out. Like solar and wind power, which make energy from the sun and wind. Or biofuels made from plants. By using more of those, we'd be able to save the non-renewable ones.Another big thing we need to do is keep developing new technologies. Thanks to smart scientists and engineers, we're always coming up with awesome new inventions and ways to do things more efficiently. With their help, we might eventually find a super clean, renewable type of energy that could replace fossil fuels entirely. Or maybe someday they'll figure out how to safely get oil and gas from sources other than underground. As long as we keep learning and innovating, there's hope!Now you might be thinking - "But I'm just a kid, what can I do about this big global issue?" Well, plenty actually! For starters, you can practice all those conservation habits I mentioned and inspire your family to do the same. You can do projects at school to raise awareness. And when you grow up, you could pursue a career in a field like renewable energy engineering, environmental science or policy, or sustainable businesspractices. How cool would it be to help create solutions to transition the world to cleaner power sources?The point is, we ALL need to start taking this problem seriously, no matter how young or old. It's going to take a huge, worldwide effort by governments, companies, scientists, and individuals like you and me. If we don't do something now to prepare, we're headed for an energy crisis unlike any the world has ever seen.I don't want to grow up in a world without fossil fuels before we have good alternatives in place. Do you? Didn't think so. That's why we need to use non-renewable resources way more carefully and figure out better options to switch to soon. It might seem like a big challenge, but I think kids today are brilliant and creative. If we all work together and put our minds to it, I'm sure we can come up with amazing ways to power the future! What's your bright idea?篇5How Should We Deal With Non-Renewable Resources?Hi friends! Today I want to talk about something really important - non-renewable resources. These are things like oil, gas, and coal that we use for lots of stuff like making electricity,fuel for cars and planes, and even plastics and other materials. The big problem is that once we use them up, they'll be all gone forever! That's why they're called "non-renewable."I learned about this in science class and it's pretty scary to think about. See, these resources were made naturally over millions of years from decayed plants and animals that got buried underground. So it's not like we can just make more of them easily. When they're gone, they're gone for good unless we find some new place in outer space with more supplies!My teacher said that at the rate we're using them up, a lot of the big non-renewable sources could run out in just 50-100 years or so! That might sound like a long time away, but it's really not when you think about how old the Earth is and how long these resources have been around. It makes me worried about what will happen when my grandkids are adults.So what can we do about it? Well, there are a few important things I think:We need to conserve and use less non-renewable resources wherever possible. That means doing stuff like:Turning off lights and electronics when not using them to save electricityWalking, biking, or taking public transportation instead of driving cars as muchRecycling and reducing waste, especially plasticsUsing more renewable energy sources like solar and wind powerWe have to find other renewable replacements for things we get from non-renewables. Scientists are working on ways to make fuels, plastics, and other materials from plants and different sources that can be regrown and reused over and over.We need to be really careful about protecting the environment as we use and extract non-renewables. That means things like:Cleaning up spills and leaks that can pollute the air, water, and landRestoring lands and habitats that get disrupted by mining or drillingMaking sure companies follow strict safety rules so we don't waste resources or cause damageMost importantly, everyone needs to learn about this issue and do their part! Even small things like using less electricity,throwing away less food and trash, and telling others about conserving resources can make a big difference if we all do it.I think addressing the non-renewables problem is one of the biggest challenges we'll face as I grow up. It's kind of scary, but I'm hopeful that with smart planning, new technologies, and everyone working together, we can deal with it responsibly. We have to protect the Earth's limited resources so there's enough for future generations. It's a difficult task, but we owe it to the planet and each other to be good stewards and consumers.That's my take on this big issue. What do you guys think? I'd love to hear your ideas on how we should face the challenge of non-renewable resources running out. We're all in this together as Earthlings after all! Let me know your thoughts.。
阳离子掺杂钙钛矿太阳能电池
阳离子掺杂钙钛矿太阳能电池英文回答：I have recently come across the topic of doping perovskite solar cells with cations to enhance their performance. This technique involves introducing positively charged ions, known as cations, into the perovskite structure to modify its properties. One of the most promising cations for doping perovskite solar cells is the lead (Pb) cation. By replacing a small fraction of the original cations in the perovskite structure with Pb cations, the resulting material exhibits improved stability and efficiency.The doping process can be achieved through various methods, such as solution-based deposition or vapor-assisted deposition. In solution-based deposition, the perovskite precursor solution is mixed with a solution containing the desired cation dopant. The mixture is then spin-coated onto a substrate and annealed to form theperovskite film. Alternatively, vapor-assisted deposition involves exposing the perovskite film to a vapor containing the cation dopant, which diffuses into the film and incorporates into the crystal lattice.The incorporation of Pb cations into the perovskite structure has been found to enhance the charge carrier mobility and reduce recombination losses, leading to higher device efficiency. Additionally, the presence of Pb cations improves the stability of the perovskite film, making it less prone to degradation under environmental conditions. This is particularly important for the commercialization of perovskite solar cells, as long-term stability is acritical requirement for their widespread adoption.To illustrate the benefits of cation doping in perovskite solar cells, let's consider an example. Imagine two identical perovskite solar cells, one doped with Pb cations and the other without any doping. When exposed to sunlight, the doped cell generates a higher photocurrent due to the enhanced charge carrier mobility. This meansthat more electrons are being extracted from the perovskitefilm, resulting in a higher overall device efficiency.Furthermore, the doped cell exhibits improved stability over time compared to the undoped cell. This can be observed by subjecting both cells to accelerated aging tests, such as exposure to high temperature and humidity. The doped cell maintains its performance and retains a high efficiency even after prolonged exposure, while the undoped cell shows a significant degradation in efficiency.中文回答：最近我了解到一种利用阳离子掺杂提高钙钛矿太阳能电池性能的方法。
The promise of renewable energy Tidal energy
The promise of renewable energy TidalenergyRenewable energy sources have become increasingly important in the fight against climate change, with tidal energy emerging as a promising option for generating clean power. Tidal energy, also known as tidal power, is a form of hydropower that harnesses the energy of tides to generate electricity. This renewable energy source has the potential to provide a reliable and consistent source of power, making it an attractive option for countries looking to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels. One of the key advantages of tidal energy is its predictability. Unlike solar and wind power, which are dependent on weather conditions, tidal energy is generated by the gravitational pull of the moon andsun on the Earth's oceans. This means that tides can be accurately predicted years in advance, allowing for efficient planning and management of power generation. In addition, tides are cyclical and occur twice a day, providing a consistent source of energy that can be relied upon to meet the demands of the grid. Anotherbenefit of tidal energy is its high energy density. Tides are much denser than air, which means that tidal turbines can generate significantly more power than wind turbines of a similar size. This high energy density makes tidal energy anefficient and cost-effective option for generating electricity, particularly in areas with strong tidal currents. In fact, some tidal energy projects have been able to achieve capacity factors of over 50%, meaning that they are able to generate electricity for more than half of the time. Furthermore, tidal energy is a clean and renewable source of power that produces no greenhouse gas emissions or air pollution. This makes it an environmentally friendly option for generating electricity, helping to reduce the carbon footprint of countries that rely onfossil fuels for their energy needs. By investing in tidal energy, countries can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels and improve their energy security, while also contributing to global efforts to combat climate change. Despite these advantages, tidal energy also faces several challenges that need to be addressedin order to realize its full potential. One of the main challenges is the high upfront costs of tidal energy projects, which can be prohibitively expensive forsome countries. In addition, the installation and maintenance of tidal turbinescan be complex and costly, requiring specialized equipment and expertise. As a result, many countries have been hesitant to invest in tidal energy, optinginstead for more established renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power. Another challenge facing tidal energy is the potential impact on marine ecosystems. Tidal turbines can disrupt the natural flow of water and affect marine life, including fish and other marine species. In order to minimize these impacts,careful planning and monitoring are required to ensure that tidal energy projects are implemented in a sustainable and environmentally responsible manner. Byworking with environmental experts and stakeholders, countries can developstrategies to mitigate the potential negative effects of tidal energy on marine ecosystems. In conclusion, tidal energy holds great promise as a clean and renewable source of power that can help countries reduce their carbon emissionsand transition to a more sustainable energy future. While there are challengesthat need to be overcome, such as high costs and potential environmental impacts, the benefits of tidal energy far outweigh the drawbacks. By investing in research and development, as well as in infrastructure and regulatory frameworks, countries can unlock the full potential of tidal energy and harness the power of the tidesto create a more sustainable and resilient energy system for future generations.。
太阳能电池专业英语
太阳能电池专业英语第一篇：太阳能电池专业英语A 1.中文：暗饱和电流英文：Dark Saturation Current 解释：没有光照的条件下，将PN结反偏达到饱和时的电流。
降低暗饱和电流利于提高电池品质在以下的理想二极管公式中，I =流过二极管的总电流;I0 = “暗饱和电流”, V = 加在二极管两端的电压B 1.中文：包装密度英文：Packing density 解释：组件中被太阳能电池覆盖的面积对比于整个组件的面积。
它影响了组件的输出功率及工作温度2.中文：背电场英文：Back Surface Field 解释：在电池背面由于重掺杂引起的电场。
该电场会排斥少数载流子以使它们远离高复合率的背表面3.中文：背面反射/底面反射英文：Rear Surface Reflection 解释：穿过电池而未被吸收的长波光会被电池背面的金属或染料反射回电池，增大吸收概率4.中文：本底掺杂英文：Background Doping 解释：电池衬底的掺杂浓度5.中文：表面制绒英文：Surface Texturing 解释：用物理或化学的方法将平滑的硅电池表面变得粗糙，增大光捕获，减小反射6.中文：并网系统英文：Grid-connected Systems 解释：并网系统指由光伏组件供电的，接入公用电网的光伏系统。
这类系统无须蓄电池7.中文：薄膜太阳能电池英文：Thin-film Solar Cells 解释：薄膜太阳能电池是通过在衬底上镀光伏材料薄层制成的，厚度从几微米到几十微米不等。
成本较低但效率普遍较低8.中文：复合英文：Recommbination 解释：又称为载流子复合，是指半导体中的载流子（电子和空穴）成对消失的过程。
9.中文：表面复合速率英文：Surface Recombination Velocity 解释：当少子在表面消失时，由于浓度梯度，少子会从电池体流向表面。
表面复合速度表征表面复合的强弱。
太阳能组件行业英语词汇大全
太阳能电池行业英语词汇太阳能行业英语词汇2010-06-10 21:48AA, Ampere的缩写, 安培a-Si:H, amorph silicon的缩写, 含氢的, 非结晶性硅.Absorption, 吸收.Absorption of the photons:光吸收;当能量大于禁带宽度的光子入射时，太阳电池内的电子能量从价带迁到导带，产生电子——空穴对的作用，称为光吸收。
Absorptionscoefficient, 吸收系数, 吸收强度.AC, 交流电.Ah, 安培小时.Acceptor, 接收者, 在半导体中可以接收一个电子.Alternating current, 交流电，简称“交流. 一般指大小和方向随时间作周期性变化的电压或电流. 它的最基本的形式是正弦电流. 我国交流电供电的标准频率规定为50赫兹。
交流电随时间变化的形式可以是多种多样的。
不同变化形式的交流电其应用范围和产生的效果也是不同的。
以正弦交流电应用最为广泛，且其他非正弦交流电一般都可以经过数学处理后，化成为正弦交流电的迭加。
AM, air mass的缩写, 空气质量.直射阳光光束透过大气层所通过的路程，以直射太阳光束从天顶到达海平面所通过的路程的倍数来表示。
当大气压力P=1.013巴，天空无云时，海平面处的大气质量为1。
amorphous silicon solar cell:非晶硅太阳电池（a—si太阳电池）用非晶硅材料及其合金制造的太阳电池称为非晶硅太阳电池，亦称无定形硅太阳电池，简称a—si太阳电池。
Angle of inclination, 倾斜角，即电池板和水平方向的夹角，0-90度之间。
Anode, 阳极, 正极.BBack Surface Field, 缩写BSF, 在晶体太阳能电池板背部附加的电子层, 来提高电流值.Bandbreak, 在半导体中, 价带和导带之间的空隙,对于半导体的吸收特性有重要意义.Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond, 法国物理学家, 在1839年发现了电池板效应.BSF, back surface field的缩写.Bypas-Diode, 与太阳能电池并联的二极管, 当一个太阳能电池被挡住, 其他太阳能电池产生的电流可以从它处通过.CCadmium-Tellurid, 缩写CdTe; 位于II/VI位的半导体, 带空隙值为1,45eV, 有很好的吸收性, 应用于超薄太阳能电池板, 或者是连接半导体.Cathode, 阴极，或负极，是在电池板电解液里的带负电的电极，是电池板电解液里带电粒子和导线里导电电子的过渡点。
太阳能电池行业英语词汇5
Epitaxial Growth— The growth of one crystal on the surface of another crystal. The growth of the deposited crystal is oriented by the lattice structure of the original crystal.Equalization— The process of restoring all cells in a battery to an equalstate-of-charge. Some battery types may require a complete discharge as a part of the equalization process.Equalization Charge— The process of mixing the electrolyte in batteries by periodically overcharging the batteries for a short time.Equalizing Charge— A continuation of normal battery charging, at a voltage level slightly higher than the normal end-of-charge voltage, in order to provide cell equalization within a battery.Equinox— The two times of the year when the sun crosses the equator and night and day are of equal length; usually occurs on March 21st (spring equinox) and September 23 (fall equinox).Extrinsic Semiconductor— The product of doping a pure semiconductor.Back to TopFFermi Level— Energy level at which the probability of finding an electron is one-half. In a metal, the Fermi level is very near the top of the filled levels in the partially filled valence band. In a semiconductor, the Fermi level is in the band gap.Fill Factor— The ratio of a photovoltaic cell's actual power to its power if both current and voltage were at their maxima. A key characteristic in evaluating cell performance.Fixed Tilt Array— A photovoltaic array set in at a fixed angle with respect to horizontal.Flat-Plate Array— A photovoltaic (PV) array that consists of non-concentrating PV modules.Flat-Plate Module— An arrangement of photovoltaic cell s or material mounted on a rigid flat surface with the cells exposed freely to incoming sunlight.Flat-Plate Photovoltaics (PV)— A PV array or module that consists of nonconcentrating elements. Flat-plate arrays and modules use direct and diffuse sunlight, but if the array is fixed in position, some portion of the direct sunlight is lost because of oblique sun-angles in relation to the array.Float Charge— The voltage required to counteract the self-discharge of the battery at a certain temperature.Float Life— The number of years that a battery can keep its stated capacity when it is kept at float charge.Float Service— A battery operation in which the battery is normally connected to an external current source; for instance, a battery charger which supplies the battery load< under normal conditions, while also providing enough energy input to the battery to make up for its internal quiescent losses, thus keeping the battery always up to full power and ready for service.Float-Zone Process— A method of growing a large-size, high-quality crystal whereby coils heat a polycrystalline ingot placed atop a single-crystal seed. As the coils are slowly raised the molten interface beneath the coils becomes single crystal.Float-Zone Process— In reference to solar photovoltaic cell manufacture, a method of growing a large-size, high-quality crystal whereby coils heat a polycrystalline ingot placed atop a single-crystal seed. As the coils are slowly raised the molten interface beneath the coils becomes a single crystal.Frequency— The number of repetitions per unit time of a complete waveform, expressed in Hertz (Hz).Frequency Regulation— This indicates the variability in the output frequency. Some loads will switch off or not operate properly if frequency variations exceed 1%.Fresnel Lens— An optical device that focuses light like a magnifying glass; concentric rings are faced at slightly different angles so that light falling on any ring is focused to the same point.Full Sun— The amount of power density in sunlight received at the earth's surface at noon on a clear day (about 1,000 Watts/square meter).Back to TopGGa— See gallium.GaAs— See gallium arsenide.Gallium (Ga)— A chemical element, metallic in nature, used in making certain kinds of solar cells and semiconductor devices.Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)— A crystalline, high-efficiency compound used to make certain types of solar cells and semiconductor material.Gassing— The evolution of gas from one or more of the electrodes in the cells of a battery. Gassing commonly results from local action self-discharge or from the electrolysis of water in the electrolyte during charging.Gassing Current— The portion of charge current that goes into electrolytical production of hydrogen and oxygen from the electrolytic liquid. This current increases with increasing voltage and temperature.Gel-Type Battery— Lead-acid battery in which the electrolyte is composed of a silica gel matrix.Gigawatt (GW)— A unit of power equal to 1 billion Watts; 1 million kilowatts, or 1,000 megawatts.Grid— See electrical grid.Grid-Connected System— A solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) system in which the PV array acts like a central generating plant, supplying power to the grid.Grid-Interactive System— Same as grid-connected system.Grid Lines— Metallic contacts fused to the surface of the solar cell to provide a low resistance path for electrons to flow out to the cell interconnect wires.Back to TopHHarmonic Content— The number of frequencies in the output waveform in addition to the primary frequency (50 or 60 Hz.). Energy in these harmonic frequencies is lost and may cause excessive heating of the load.Heterojunction— A region of electrical contact between two different materials.High Voltage Disconnect— The voltage at which a charge controller will disconnect the photovoltaic array from the batteries to prevent overcharging.High Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis— The voltage difference between the high voltag disconnect set point and the voltage at which the full photovoltaic array current will be reapplied.Hole— The vacancy where an electron would normally exist in a solid; behaves like a positively charged particle.Homojunction— The region between an n-layer and a p-layer in a single material, photovoltaic cell.Hybrid System— A solar electric or photovoltaic system that includes other sources of electricity generation, such as wind or diesel generators.Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon—Amorphous silicon with a small amount of incorporated hydrogen. The hydrogen neutralizes dangling bonds in the amorphous silicon, allowing charge carriers to flow more freely.Back to TopIIncident Light— Light that shines onto the face of a solar cell or module.Indium Oxide— A wide band gap semiconductor that can be heavily doped with tin to make a highly conductive, transparent thin film. Often used as a front contact or one component of a heterojunction solar cell.Infrared Radiation— Electromagnetic radiation whose wavelengths lie in the range from 0.75 micrometer to 1000 micrometers; invisible long wavelength radiation (heat) capable of producing a thermal or photovoltaic effect, though less effective than visible light.Input Voltage— This is determined by the total power required by the alternating current loads and the voltage of any direct current loads. Generally, the larger the load, the higher the inverter input voltage. This keeps the current at levels where switches and other components are readily available.Insolation— The solar power density incident on a surface of stated area and orientation, usually expressed as Watts per square meter or Btu per square foot per hour. See diffuse insolation and direct insolation.Interconnect— A conductor within a module or other means of connection that provides an electrical interconnection between the solar cells.Intrinsic Layer— A layer of semiconductor material, used in a photovoltaic device, whose properties are essentially those of the pure, undoped, material.Intrinsic Semiconductor— An undoped semiconductor.Inverter— A device that converts direct current electricity to alternating current either for stand-alone systems or to supply power to an electricity grid.Ion— An electrically charged atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained electrons;a loss makes the resulting particle positively charged; a gain makes the particle negatively charged.Irradiance— The direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes a surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance multiplied by time equals insolation.ISPRA Guidelines— Guidelines for the assessment of photovoltaic power plants, published by the Joint Research Centre of the Commission of the European Communities, Ispra, Italy.I-Type Semiconductor—Semiconductor material that is left intrinsic, or undoped so that the concentration of charge carriers is characteristic of the material itself rather than of added impurities.I-V Curve— A graphical presentation of the current versus the voltage from a photovoltaic device as the load is increased from the short circuit (no load) condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The shape of the curve characterizes cell performance.Back to TopJJoule— A metric unit of energy or work; 1 joule per second equals 1 watt or 0.737 foot-pounds; 1 Btu equals 1,055 joules.Junction— A region of transition between semiconductor layers, such as a p/n junction, which goes from a region that has a high concentration of acceptors (p-type) to one that has a high concentration of donors (n-type).Junction Box— A photovoltaic (PV) generator junction box is an enclosure on the module where PV strings are electrically connected and where protection devices can be located, if necessary.Junction Diode— A semiconductor device with a junction and a built-in potential that passes current better in one direction than the other. All solar cells are junction diodes.Back to TopKKilowatt (kW)— A standard unit of electrical power equal to 1000 watts, or to the energy consumption at a rate of 1000 joules per second.Kilowatt-Hour (kWh)— 1,000 thousand watts acting over a period of 1 hour. The kWh is a unit of energy. 1 kWh=3600 kJ.Back to TopLLangley (L)— Unit of solar irradiance. One gram calorie per square centimeter. 1 L = 85.93 kwh/m2.Lattice— The regular periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystal of semiconductor material.Lead-Acid Battery— A general category that includes batteries with plates made of pure lead, lead-antimony, or lead-calcium immersed in an acid electrolyte.Life— The period during which a system is capable of operating above a specified performance level.Life-Cycle Cost— The estimated cost of owning and operating a photovoltaic system for the period of its useful life.Light-Induced Defects— Defects, such as dangling bonds, induced in an amorphous silicon semiconductor upon initial exposure to light.Light Trapping— The trapping of light inside a semiconductor material by refracting and reflecting the light at critical angles; trapped light will travel further in the material, greatly increasing the probability of absorption and hence of producing charge carriers.Line-Commutated Inverter— An inverter that is tied to a power grid or line. The commutation of power (conversion from direct current to alternating current) is controlled by the power line, so that, if there is a failure in the power grid, the photovoltaic system cannot feed power into the line.Liquid Electrolyte Battery— A battery containing a liquid solution of acid and water. Distilled water may be added to these batteries to replenish the electrolyte as necessary. Also called a flooded battery because the plates are covered with the electrolyte.Load— The demand on an energy producing system; the energy consumption or requirement of a piece or group of equipment. Usually expressed in terms of amperes or watts in reference to electricity.Load Circuit— The wire, switches, fuses, etc. that connect the load to the power source.Load Current (A)— The current required by the electrical device.Load Resistance— The resistance presented by the load. See resistance.Low Voltage Cutoff (LVC)— The voltage level at which a charge controller will disconnect the load from the battery.Low Voltage Disconnect— The voltage at which a charge controller will disconnect the load from the batteries to prevent over-discharging.Low Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis— The voltage difference between the low voltage disconnect set point and the voltage at which the load will be reconnected.Low Voltage Warning— A warning buzzer or light that indicates the low battery voltage set point has been reached.Back to TopMMaintenance-Free Battery— A sealed battery to which water cannot be added to maintain electrolyte level.Majority Carrier— Current carriers (either free electrons or holes) that are in excess in a specific layer of a semiconductor material (electrons in the n-layer, holes in the p-layer) of a cell.Maximum Power Point (MPP)— The point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve of a module under illumination, where the product of current and voltage is maximum. For a typical silicon cell, this is at about 0.45 volts.Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)— Means of a power conditioning unit that automatically operates the photovoltaic generator at its maximum power point under all conditions.Maximum Power Tracking— Operating a photovoltaic array at the peak power point of the array's I-V curve where maximum power is obtained. Also called peak power tracking.Megawatt (MW)— 1,000 kilowatts, or 1 million watts; standard measure of electric power plant generating capacity.Megawatt-Hour— 1,000 kilowatt-hours or 1 million watt-hours.Microgroove— A small groove scribed into the surface of a solar cell, which is filled with metal for contacts.Minority Carrier— A current carrier, either an electron or a hole, that is in the minority in a specific layer of a semiconductor material; the diffusion of minority carriers under the action of the cell junction voltage is the current in a photovoltaic device.Minority Carrier Lifetime— The average time a minority carrier exists before recombination.Modified Sine Wave— A waveform that has at least three states (i.e., positive, off, and negative). Has less harmonic content than a square wave.Modularity— The use of multiple inverters connected in parallel to service different loads.Module— See photovoltaic (PV) module.Module Derate Factor— A factor that lowers the photovoltaic module current to account for field operating conditions such as dirt accumulation on the module.Monolithic— Fabricated as a single structure.Movistor— Metal Oxide Varistor. Used to protect electronic circuits from surge currents such as those produced by lightning.Multicrystalline— A semiconductor (photovoltaic) material composed of variously oriented, small, individual crystals. Sometimes referred to as polycrystalline or semicrystalline.Multijunction Device— A high-efficiency photovoltaic device containing two or more cell junctions, each of which is optimized for a particular part of the solar spectrum.Multi-Stage Controller— A charging controller unit that allows different charging currents as the battery nears full state_of_charge.Back to TopNNational Electrical Code (NEC)— Contains guidelines for all types of electrical installations. The 1984 and later editions of the NEC contain Article 690, "Solar Photovoltaic Systems" which should be followed when installing a PV system.National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)— This organization sets standards for some non-electronic products like junction boxes.NEC— See National Electrical Code.NEMA— See National Electrical Manufacturers Association.Nickel Cadmium Battery— A battery containing nickel and cadmium plates and an alkaline electrolyte.Nominal Voltage— A reference voltage used to describe batteries, modules, or systems (i.e., a 12-volt or 24-volt battery, module, or system).Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)— The estimated temperature of a photovoltaic module when operating under 800 w/m2 irradiance, 20�C ambient temperature and wind speed of 1 meter per second. NOCT is used to estimate the nominal operating temperature of a module in its working environment.N-Type— Negative semiconductor material in which there are more electrons than holes; current is carried through it by the flow of electrons.N-Type Semiconductor— A semiconductor produced by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with an electron-donor impurity (e.g., phosphorus in silicon).N-Type Silicon—Silicon material that has been doped with a material that has more electrons in its atomic structure than does silicon.Back to TopOOhm— A measure of the electrical resistance of a material equal to the resistance of a circuit in which the potential difference of 1 volt produces a current of 1 ampere.One-Axis Tracking— A system capable of rotating about one axis.Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc)— The maximum possible voltage across a photovoltaic cell; the voltage across the cell in sunlight when no current is flowing.Operating Point— The current and voltage that a photovoltaic module or array produces when connected to a load. The operating point is dependent on the load or the batteries connected to the output terminals of the array.Orientation— Placement with respect to the cardinal directions, N, S, E, W; azimuth is the measure of orientation from north.Outgas— See gassing.Overcharge— Forcing current into a fully charged battery. The battery will be damaged if overcharged for a long period.Back to TopPPacking Factor— The ratio of array area to actual land area or building envelope area for a system; or, the ratio of total solar cell area to the total module area, for a module.Panel— See photovoltaic (PV) panel.Parallel Connection— A way of joining solar cells or photovoltaic modules by connecting positive leads together and negative leads together; such a configuration increases the current, but not the voltage.Passivation— A chemical reaction that eliminates the detrimental effect of electrically reactive atoms on a solar cell's surface.Peak Demand/Load— The maximum energy demand or load in a specified time period.Peak Power Current— Amperes produced by a photovoltaic module or array operating at the voltage of the I-V curve that will produce maximum power from the module.Peak Power Point— Operating point of the I-V (current-voltage) curve for a solar cell or photovoltaic module where the product of the current value times the voltage value is a maximum.Peak Power Tracking— see maximum power tracking.Peak Sun Hours— The equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1,000 w/m2. For example, six peak sun hours means that the energy received during total daylight hours equals the energy that would have been received had the irradiance for six hours been 1,000 w/m2.Peak Watt— A unit used to rate the performance of solar cells, modules, or arrays; the maximum nominal output of a photovoltaic device, in watts (Wp) under standardized test conditions, usually 1,000 watts per square meter of sunlight with other conditions, such as temperature specified.Phosphorous (P)— A chemical element used as a dopant in making n-type semiconductor layers.Photocurrent— An electric current induced by radiant energy.Photoelectric Cell— A device for measuring light intensity that works by converting light falling on, or reach it, to electricity, and then measuring the current; used in photometers.Photoelectrochemical Cell— A type of photovoltaic device in which the electricity induced in the cell is used immediately within the cell to produce a chemical, such as hydrogen, which can then be withdrawn for use.Photon— A particle of light that acts as an individual unit of energy.Photovoltaic(s) (PV)— Pertaining to the direct conversion of light into electricity.。
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