APS 专业审核考试 公共经济学

1.研究对象：public sector : government and public corporation
两者区别：活动，费用，
收入：Tax, Use change, debt
2.国民经济：
3.经济活动
Private provision Post
Public provision national defense financial provision（Tent）
Public production private production
4.政策目标
Efficiency：
1)Pareto improvement
2)Edgeworth box; Production efficiency
3)Exchange efficiency
4)Product mix efficiency
Fairness：Equity, equality
1)rule fair, fair starting point, outcome fairness
2)Poverty index: Gini coefficient
3)Potential pareto improvement
4)Social welfare function
Social welfare level = F(A utility, B utility)
Utilitarianism: K=-1 a/b=1
Rolls: k =a/b=0 maximize the minimum
Equalitarianism
5)Veil of ignorance:
5.公共部门存在原因：Resorce allocation function; Income distribution function
Market failure
1)Do not conform to the assumptions of perfect competitive market
●Competition failure: monopoly, oligopoly
●Public goods
●Externality
●Information failure
●Transaction cost
2)The failure of perfect competitive market
●Preference is not reasonable
●Unequal distribution of income
6.政府与消费
公共产品：
1)公共产品性质
non exclusion; non-competition
least one individual worse off.Given an initial allocation of goods among a set of individuals, a change to a different allocation that makes at least one individual better off without making any other individual worse off is called a Pareto improvement. An allocation is defined as "Pareto efficient" or "Pareto optimal" when no further Pareto improvements can be made.
潜在帕累托最优：
福利经济学两条基本定理：
基尼系数：The Gini
coefficient
(also known as
the Gini index or Gini ratio) (/dʒini/) is a measure of statistical
dispersion intended to represent the income distribution of a nation's residents. This is the most commonly used measure of inequality. The coefficient varies between 0, which reflects complete equality and 100 (or 1), which indicates complete inequality (one person has all the income or consumption, all others have none). The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution (for example levels of income). A Gini coefficient of zero expresses perfect equality, where all values are the same (for example, where everyone has the same income). A Gini coefficient of one (or 100%) expresses maximal inequality among values (for example where only one person has all the income).[4][5] However, a value greater than one may occur if some persons represent negative contribution to the total (e.g., have negative income or wealth). For larger groups, values close to or above 1 are very unlikely in practice.The Gini coefficient is usually defined mathematically based on the Lorenz curve, which plots the proportion of the total income of the population (y axis) that is cumulatively earned by the bottom x% of the population (see diagram). The line at 45 degrees thus represents perfect equality of incomes. The Gini coefficient can then be thought of as the ratio of the area that lies between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve (marked A in the diagram) over the total area under the line of equality (marked A and B in the diagram); i.e., G = A / (A + B).
If all people have non-negative income (or wealth, as the case may be), the Gini coefficient can theoretically range from 0 (complete equality) to 1 (complete inequality); it is sometimes expressed as a percentage ranging between 0 and 100. In practice, both extreme values are not quite reached. If negative values are possible (such as the negative wealth of people with debts), then the Gini coefficient could theoretically be more than 1. Normally the mean (or total) is assumed positive, which rules out a Gini coefficient less than zero.
A low Gini coefficient indicates a more equal distribution, with 0 corresponding to complete equality, while higher Gini coefficients indicate more unequal distribution, with 1 corresponding to complete inequality.
Graphical representation of the Gini coefficient
Veil of ignorance: The veil of ignorance
blocks off this knowledge, such that one does not know what burdens and benefits of
social cooperation might fall to him / her once the veil is lifted. With this knowledge blocked, parties to the original position must decide on principles for the distribution of rights, positions, and resources in their society. As Rawls put it:
...no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status; nor does he know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence and strength, and the like.
A merit good may be described as a good that has positive externalities associated
with it. Thus, an inoculation against a contagious disease may be seen as a merit good. This is because others who may not now catch the disease from the inoculated person also benefit.
rather than ability and willingness to pay.
Dismerit goods: is a good or service whose consumption is considered unhealthy, degrading, or otherwise socially undesirable due to the perceived negative effects on the consumers themselves. It is over-consumed if left to market forces. Examples of demerit goods include tobacco, alcoholic beverages, recreational drugs, gambling, junk food and prostitution. Because of the nature of these goods, governments often levy taxes on these goods (specifically, sin taxes), in some cases regulating or banning consumption or advertisement of these goods.
Non-exclustion: Non-competition: External benefit ，positive externality ： External cost ，negative externality ：
外部效应Externality ：is the cost or benefit that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit. 社会边际成本：
免费搭车： refers to someone who benefits from resources, goods, or services without paying for the cost of the benefit. 科斯定理：the Coase theorem (pronounced /ˈko ʊs/) describes the economic efficiency of an economic allocation or outcome in the presence of externalities. The theorem states that if trade in an externality is possible and there are sufficiently low transaction costs, bargaining will lead to an efficient outcome regardless of the initial allocation of property. evertheless, the Coase theorem is considered an important basis for most modern economic analyses of government regulation, especially in the case of externalities, and it has been used by jurists and legal scholars to analyse and resolve legal disputes.
政府与生产：
垄断monopoly：exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity (this contrasts with a monopsony which relates to a single entity's control of a market to purchase a good or service, and with oligopoly which consists of a few entities dominating an industry).[2] Monopolies are thus characterized by a lack of economic competition to produce the good or service and a lack of viable substitute goods.[3] The verb "monopolise" refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors. In economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is a business entity that has significant market power, that is, the power to charge high prices.[4] Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly. A small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry (or market).
寡头：
庇古税Pigouvian tax：is a tax applied to a market activity that is generating negative externalities (costs for somebody else). The tax is intended to correct an inefficient market outcome, and does so by being set equal to the negative externalities. In the presence of negative externalities, the social cost of a market activity is not covered by the private cost of the activity. In such a case, the market outcome is not efficient and may lead to over-consumption of the product.[1] An often-cited example of such an externality is environmental pollution.[2]
政府与分配：
累进税率progressive tax：is a tax where the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases.
比例税率proportional tax：is a tax imposed so that the tax rate is fixed, with no change as the taxable base amount increases or decreases.
现收现付制pay as you go system：
完全基金制Full funded system：
逆向选择adverse selection：
公共选择理论public choice theory：
阿罗不可能定理：when voters have three or more distinct alternatives (options), no rank order voting system can convert the ranked preferences of individuals into a community-wide (complete and transitive) ranking while also meeting a pre-specified set of criteria.
贴现：analysis is a method of valuing a project, company, or asset using the concepts of the time value of money.
贴现率：。