Economies of Network, Urban Agglomeration

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六级比四级新增的单词

六级比四级新增的单词概述英语四六级考试是中国国内非常重要的英语水平考试之一。

近年来，随着全球化的推进和国际间交流的增多，词汇量的要求也不断提高。

因此，从2019年6月开始，六级考试新增了一些单词。

本文将详细介绍六级比四级新增的单词，并按照功能和主题进行分类，以帮助考生更好地备考和提升词汇量。

一、名词经济领域1.globalization 全球化2.recession 经济衰退3.subsidy 补贴4.austerity 紧缩政策5.inflation 通货膨胀6.bailout 紧急财政援助7.stimulus 刺激措施8.deficit 赤字9.surplus 盈余10.conglomerate 企业集团环境领域1.biodiversity 生物多样性2.deforestation 森林砍伐3.carbon footprint 碳足迹4.greenhouse gas 温室气体5.renewable energy 可再生能源6.water scarcity 水资源短缺7.air pollution 空气污染8.climate change 气候变化9.ecotourism 生态旅游10.sustainability 可持续发展科技领域1.artificial intelligence 人工智能2.blockchain 区块链3.cryptocurrency 加密货币4.virtual reality 虚拟现实5.big data 大数据6.cloud computing 云计算7.internet of things 物联网8.robotics 机器人技术9.augmented reality 增强现实10.nanotechnology 纳米技术社会领域1.gender equality 性别平等2.diversity 多样性3.social justice 社会公正4.discrimination 歧视5.human rights 人权6.poverty alleviation 扶贫7.urbanization 城市化8.immigration 移民9.internet censorship 互联网审查10.fake news 虚假新闻二、动词经济领域1.fluctuate 波动2.invest 投资3.accumulate 积累4.allocate 分配5.stimulate 刺激6.export 出口7.import 进口8.deregulate 解除管制9.monopolize 垄断10.innovate 创新环境领域1.conserve 保护2.recycle 回收利用3.emit 排放4.conserve 节约5.reduce 减少6.mitigate 缓解7.adapt 适应8.preserve 保护9.recycle 回收10.restore 恢复科技领域1.automate 自动化2.encrypt 加密3.decrypt 解密4.upload 上传5.download 下载6.install 安装7.update 更新8.program 编程9.debug 调试10.hack 黑客攻击社会领域1.empower 授权2.advocate 倡导3.promote 促进4.protest 抗议5.volunteer 自愿6.donate 捐赠7.campaign 竞选cate 教育9.mobilize 动员10.integrate 整合三、形容词经济领域1.multinational 跨国的2.booming 繁荣的3.volatile 易变的4.sustainable 可持续的petitive 有竞争力的6.lucrative 有利可图的7.recessionary 衰退的8.inflationary 通货膨胀的9.stagnant 停滞的10.innovative 创新的环境领域1.endangered 濒危的2.polluted 受污染的3.pristine 原始的4.sustainable 可持续的5.renewable 可再生的6.fragile 脆弱的7.toxic 有毒的8.contaminated 受污染的9.arid 干旱的10.lush 茂盛的科技领域1.advanced 先进的2.revolutionary 革命性的3.cutting-edge 尖端的4.virtual 虚拟的5.interactive 互动的6.disruptive 打破性的7.intelligent 智能的8.nanoscale 纳米级的9.high-tech 高科技的10.automated 自动化的社会领域1.inclusive 包容的2.diverse 多样的3.equal 平等的4.equitable 公平的5.disadvantaged 弱势的6.empowered 被授权的7.impoverished 贫困的8.digital 数字化的9.connected 联网的rmed 有知识的总结通过详细介绍六级比四级新增的单词，包括名词、动词和形容词，我们可以发现在经济、环境、科技和社会等领域都有新增单词的涉及。

2021年四六级必背翻译关键词

2021年四六级必背翻译关键词2021年四六级必背翻译关键词导语：距离四六级考试还有5天时间，这些必背翻译词你都记在脑袋里了吗?一经济 economy1.市场经济market economy2.计划经济command economy3.可持续战略sustainable strategy4.消费观consumption concept5.改革开放reform and opening up6.经济特区special economic zone7.社会主义市场经济the socialist market economy8.合作论坛Cooperation Forum9.资本主义capitalism10.证券市场stock market二科技 technology1.工业革命industrial revolution 2.信息技术information technology 3.创新成果fruit of innovation 4.试验田test field5.高速列车high-speed train6.导航系统navigation system7.能源消耗depletion of resources 8.可替代燃料alternative fuel9.科学探索scientific exploration 10.电子设备electronic device三教育 education1.义务教育compulsory education2.教育部education ministry3.职业学院vocational college4.大学文凭bachelors degree5.高等教育higher education6.留守儿童left-behind children7.偏远地区remote area8.课外班extra-curricular classes 9.应届生fresh graduates10.乡村教师rural teachers四健康 health1.糖尿病diabetes2.肥胖症obesity3.肺炎pneumonia4.营养不良malnutrition5.均衡饮食well-balanced diet6.体检physical examination 7.医疗保健health care8.禁烟令smoking bans9.无偿献血volunteer to give blood 10.中医traditional Chinese medicine 五安全 security1.雾霾fog and haze2.泥石流mudslide3.热带风暴tropical storm4.病毒携带者virus carrier5.受灾地区stricken area6.救灾工作disaster-relief work7.切断路面storm-ravaged area8.核泄漏nuclear leak9.隐私泄露privacy disclosure10.电话诈骗phone scams<script type="。

城市规划专业英语部分翻译

城市与建筑专业英语期末翻译作业学号：090870244姓名：张奎班级：城规091班老师：杜德静Chapter eight : Urban GovernanceFurther Reading (1)Impact of Globalization on Urban Governance在过去的二十年里,许多领域出现了重组过程。

世界各地的城市已经在经济、技术、政治、文化和空间上有了重大的变化。

经济变化已经形成了一个新的全球化经济，同时粗放生产也向灵活的专业化生产转变。

国际贸易和投资也有大幅度提升。

世界重组经济刺激了向新的全球经济过渡。

因此,金融对生产的优势地位一直在增加的同时,更突出强调知识、创新和经济竞争。

另一方面,信息技术已经在城市地区改变了经济、社会和制度结构。

社会和文化变化的发生,导致社会如隔离和分裂等重大变化。

向全球化经济的过渡导致了国家经济失去对自身金融市场的控制。

制度的转变导致减少了政府在经济和社会中的积极作用。

决策分布在广泛的组织中,而不能仅局限于当地政府。

因此,政府间的关系也进行了重组。

自80年代以来,研究了在全球化政策治理关系上的影响。

虽然没有在治理的定义上达成共识，那确实显示出正式的政府结构和现代机构的角色转变，以及在公共，私人，自愿和家庭群体之间的责仸分配的变化。

增加分散在城市舞台上的责仸，在现有的国家和地方各级机构的政策制定过程中重点已转移到新机构的关系和不同的成分上。

这种分裂的影响也反映在经济和空间规划上。

一个新的政治形式，已成为一个国家重点调整的对象。

以网络的形式，治理跨越了大陆，国家，区域和地方政府之间的关系。

经济和体制因素的相互作用决定着城市和地区的多变性政府结构，而这将通过过政治，文化和其他内容的力量表现出来在这个过程中，城市収展和城市政策之间的关系变得更加复杂。

然而到目前为止，一个满意的城市治理模式，可以充分代表所有案件尚未开収。

有很多不同的方法来定义“治理”。

在很多学术领域这个词有其理论根基,其中包括制度经济学、国际关系、収展研究,政治科学和公共管理。

economics of agglomeration

Economics of AgglomerationCities,Industrial Location,and Regional GrowthMASAHISA FUJITAKyoto UniversityJACQUES-FRANC¸OIS THISSEUniversit´e catholique de LouvainPUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building,Trumpington Street,Cambridge,United KingdomCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSThe Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB22RU,UK40West20th Street,New Y ork,NY10011-4211,USA477Williamstown Road,Port Melbourne,VIC3207,AustraliaRuiz de Alarc´o n13,28014Madrid,SpainDock House,The Waterfront,Cape Town8001,South AfricaC Masahisa Fujita and Jacques-Fran¸c ois Thisse2002This book is in copyright.Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.First published2002Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press,CambridgeTypeface Times New Roman10/12pt.System L A T E X2ε[TB]A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataFujita,Masahisa.Economics of agglomeration/Masahisa Fujita,Jacques-Fran¸c ois Thisse.p.cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN0-521-80138-9–ISBN0-521-80524-4(pb.)1.Space in economics.2.Regional economics.3.Industrial location.I.Thisse,Jacques-Fran¸c ois.II.Title.HT388.F852001338.6 042–dc212001035669ISBN0521801389hardbackISBN0521805244paperbackContentsAcknowledgments page xi 1.Agglomeration and Economic Theory11.1Introduction11.2Cities:Past and Future31.3Why Do We Observe Agglomerations?51.4On the Relationship between Space and Economics111.5Plan of the Book15 PART I.FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOGRAPHICAL ECONOMICS2.The Breakdown of the Price Mechanism in aSpatial Economy252.1Introduction252.2The Quadratic Assignment Problem282.3The Spatial Impossibility Theorem302.4The First Welfare Theorem in a Spatial Economy472.5Considerations on the Second Welfare Theoremin a Spatial Economy492.6Concluding Remarks563.The Th¨unen Model and Land Rent Formation623.1Introduction623.2The Location of Divisible Activities653.3The Urban Land Rent783.4Concluding Remarks904.Increasing Returns and Transport Costs:The FundamentalTrade-Off of a Spatial Economy934.1Introduction934.2Microfoundations of Increasing Returns at the City Level984.3City Size under Scale Economies1064.4Trade in a System of Cities115viiviii Contents4.5Competition and the Spatial Organization of Markets1194.6Concluding Remarks1285.Cities and the Public Sector1335.1Introduction1335.2The City as a Public Good1365.3The Number and Size of Cities under Politics1495.4Concluding Remarks159Appendix160 PART II.THE STRUCTURE OF METROPOLITAN AREAS6.The Spatial Structure of Cities underCommunications Externalities1696.1Introduction1696.2Agglomeration as Spatial Interaction among Individualsor Firms1746.3The City as Spatial Interdependence between Firmsand Workers1856.4The Monocentric City1916.5The Polycentric City2016.6Suburbanization and the Location of Multiunit Firms2096.7Concluding Remarks210Appendix211 7.The Formation of Urban Centers underImperfect Competition2177.1Introduction2177.2Monopolistic Competition and the Formationof Shopping Districts2217.3Oligopolistic Competition and the Agglomerationof Retailers2327.4Consumers’Search and the Clustering of Shops2437.5The Formation of Urban Employment Centers2487.6Concluding Remarks258Appendix259 PART III.FACTOR MOBILITY AND INDUSTRIAL LOCATION8.Industrial Agglomeration under Marshallian Externalities2678.1Introduction2678.2Factor Mobility and Agglomeration Economies2708.3Oligopoly,Localization Economies,andRegional Advantage2788.4The Formation of Industrial Clusters underLocalization Economies286Contents ix8.5Concluding Remarks298Appendix299 9.Industrial Agglomeration under Monopolistic Competition3039.1Introduction3039.2The Core–Periphery Model3079.3Sticky Labor and Regional Specialization3219.4A Linear Model of Core–Periphery:DiscriminatoryPricing and Welfare3279.5On the Impact of Forward-Looking Behavior3389.6Concluding Remarks343Appendix345 PART IV.URBAN SYSTEMS AND REGIONAL GROWTH10.Back to Th¨unen:The Formation of Cities in aSpatial Economy35110.1Introduction35110.2City Formation under Preference for Variety35510.3City Formation with Intermediate Commodities36510.4On the Emergence and Structure of Urban Systems37910.5Concluding Remarks384Appendix386 11.On the Relationship between Agglomeration and Growth38811.1Introduction38811.2A Model of Agglomeration and Growth39211.3Agglomeration and Growth When Production is Footloose40111.4Agglomeration and Growth in the Presence of Barriersthat Prevent Innovation Transfer41211.5Concluding Remarks421Appendix422 References433 Name Index453 Subject Index4591Agglomeration and Economic Theory1.1INTRODUCTIONJust as matter in the solar system is concentrated in a small number of bodies (the planets and their satellites),economic life is concentrated in a fairly limited number of human settlements(cities and clusters).Furthermore,paralleling large and small planets,there are large and small settlements with very different combinations ofﬁrms and households.This book is a study of the reasons for the existence of a large variety of economic agglomerations.Even though economic activities are,to some extent,spatially concentrated because of natural features (think of rivers and harbors),our goal is to focus on economic mechanisms yielding agglomeration by relying on the trade-off between various forms of increasing returns and different types of mobility costs.One should keep in mind that the concept of economic agglomeration refers to very distinct real-world situations.1At one extreme lies the core–periphery structure corresponding to North–South dualism.For example,Hall and Jones (1999)observed that high-income nations are clustered in small industrial cores in the Northern Hemisphere and that productivity per capita steadily declines with distance from these cores.As noted by many historians and development theorists,economic growth tends to be localized.This is especially well illustrated by the rapid growth of East Asia during the last few decades.We view East Asia here as compris-ing Japan and nine other countries,that is,Republic of South Korea,Taiwan, Hong Kong,Singapore,Philippines,Thailand,Malaysia,Indonesia,and China. In1990,the total population of East Asia was about1.6billion.With only3.5% of the total area and7.9%of the total population,Japan accounted for72%of the gross domestic product(GDP)and67%of the manufacturing GDP of East Asia.In Japan itself,the economy is very much dominated by its core regions formed by theﬁve prefectures containing the three major metropolitan areas of Japan:Tokyo and Kanagawa prefectures,Aichi prefecture(containing the Nagoya metropolitan area),and Osaka and Hyogo prefectures.These regions12Economics of Agglomeration account for only5.2%of the area of Japan but for33%of its population,40% of its GDP,and31%of its manufacturing employment.Hence,for the whole of East Asia,the Japanese core regions with a mere0.18%of the total area accounted for29%of East Asia’s GDP.Strong regional disparities within the same country imply the existence of agglomerations at another spatial scale.For example,in Korea,the capital region (Seoul and Kyungki Province),which has an area corresponding to11.8%of the country and includes45.3%of the population,produces46.2%of the GDP. In France,the contrast is even greater:theˆIle-de-France(the metropolitan area of Paris),which accounts for2.2%of the area of the country and18.9%of its population,produces30%of its GDP.Inside theˆIle-de-France,only12%of the available land is used for housing,plants,and roads,the remaining land being devoted to agriculture,forestry,or natural activities.Regional agglomeration is also reﬂected in large varieties of cities,as shown by the stability of the urban hierarchy within most countries(J.Eaton and Eckstein1997;Dobkins and Ioannides2000).Cities themselves may be special-ized in a very small number of industries,as are many medium-size American cities(Henderson1997a).However,large metropolises like New Y ork or Tokyo are highly diversiﬁed in that they nest many industries that are not related through direct linkages(Chinitz1961;Fujita and Tabuchi1997).Industrial dis-tricts involvingﬁrms with strong technological,or informational linkages,or both(e.g.,the Silicon Valley or Italian districts engaged in more traditional activities)as well as factory towns(e.g.,Toyota City or IBM in Armonk, New Y ork)manifest various types of local specialization.Therefore,it appears that highly diverse size and activity arrangements exist at the regional and urban levels.At a very detailed extreme of the spectrum,agglomeration arises under the form of large commercial districts set up in the inner city itself(think of Soho in London,Montparnasse in Paris,or Ginza in Tokyo).At the lowest level,restaurants,movie theaters,or shops selling similar products are clustered within the same neighborhood,not to say on the same street,or the clustering may take the form of a large shopping mall.Understanding such phenomena is critical for the design of effective urban policies.The economic reasons that stand behind such strong geographical concen-trations of consumption and production are precisely what we aim to investigate in this book.To achieve this objective,we will appeal to the concepts and tools of modern microeconomics.Because clusters appear at different geographi-cal scales and involve various degrees of sectoral details,it would be futile to look for the model explaining different types of economic agglomerations (Papageorgiou1983).This should not come as a surprise,for geographers have long known that geographical scale matters.2What is true at a certain spatial scale is not necessarily true at another(the“ecological fallacy”).For example, whether Los Angeles or Chicago may be considered as a megacenter or as aAgglomeration and Economic Theory3 collection of several large subcenters depends very much on the scale of ob-servation.Likewise,during the1980s the income differentials have decreased across country members of the European Union but not across regions within countries.The reason for such differences probably lies in the nature and bal-ance of the system of forces at work at a given level of analysis.Or,in the words of Anas,Arnott,and Small(1998,1440):It may be that the patterns that occur at different distance scales are inﬂuenced by different types of agglomeration economies,each based on interaction mechanisms with particular requirements for spatial proximity.Y et,as will be seen,a few general principles seem to govern the formation of distinct agglomerations even though the content and intensity of the forces at work may vary with place and time.31.2CITIES:PAST AND FUTURECasual observation reveals the extreme variation in the intensity of human settlements and land use–a fact that has culminated in the existence of cities in which population densities are very high.4From a historical perspective,cities emerged in several parts of the world about7,000years ago as the consequence of the rise in agricultural surplus. The mere existence of cities may be viewed as a universal phenomenon whose importance slowly but steadily increased during the centuries preceding the sudden urban growth that appeared during the nineteenth century in a small corner of Europe(Bairoch1985,chaps.15–17).Technological development was necessary to generate the agricultural surplus without which cities would have been inconceivable at the time,as they would be today.In addition to technological innovations,a fundamental change in social structure was also necessary:the division of labor into specialized activities.In this respect,there seems to be a large agreement among economists,geogra-phers,and historians to consider“increasing returns”as the most critical factor in the emergence of cities.For example,J.Marshall(1989,25)has suggested that quite apart from considerations related to defense,to royal whim,or to the supposed sacred importance of certain sites,the formation of towns made good economic sense in promoting a level of efﬁciency in commerce,manufacturing,and administration that would have been impossible to achieve with a completely dispersed population.Although the sources are dispersed,not always trustworthy,and hardly com-parable,data clearly converge to show the existence of an urban revolution.In Europe,the proportion of the population living in cities increased very slowly from10%in1300to12%in1800(Bairoch1985).It was approximately20% in1850,38%in1900,52%in1950,and is now close to75%,thus showing an explosive growth in the urban population(Bairoch1985;United Nations1994). In the United States,the rate of urbanization increased from5%in1800to more4Economics of Agglomeration than60%in1950and is now nearly77%.In Japan,the rate of urbanization was about15%in1800(Bairoch1985),50%in1950,and is now about78%(United Nations1994).The proportion of the urban population in the world increased from30%in1950to45%in1995and will exceed50%in2005(United Nations 1994).The world’s urban population increases each year by the equivalent of 40million(i.e.,the population of Spain).Furthermore,concentration in very big cities keeps rising.In1950,only two cities had populations greater than10million:New Y ork and Greater London. In1995,ﬁfteen cities belonged to this category.The largest one,Tokyo,with more than26million,exceeds the second one,New Y ork,by10million.In2025, 26megacities will exceed10million in population(United Nations1994).Economists and geographers must explain whyﬁrms and households con-centrate in large metropolitan areas even though empirical evidence suggests that the cost of living in such areas is typically higher than in smaller urban areas(Richardson1987).As Lucas(1988,39)neatly put it,“What can peo-ple be paying Manhattan or downtown Chicago rents for,if not for being near other people?”But Lucas did not explain why people want,or need,to be near other people.Likewise,economists and geographers must explain the formation of small and specialized clusters ofﬁrms and workers not necessarily located within major cities–such as many of the Italian industrial districts(Pyke, Becattini,and Sengenberger1990,chap.3)–and that appear to be very efﬁ-cient in terms of productivity.The increasing availability of high-speed transportation infrastructure and the fast-growing development of new informational technologies might suggest that our economies are entering an age that will culminate in the“death of dis-tance.”If so,locational difference would gradually fade because agglomeration forces would be vanishing.In other words,cities would become a thing of the past.We will see in this book that things are not that simple because the opposite trend may just as well arise.Indeed,one of the general principles to be derived from our analysis is that the relationship between the decrease in transport costs and the degree of agglomeration of economic activities is not that expected by many analysts:Agglomeration happens provided that transport costs are below some critical threshold,5although further decreases may yield dispersion of some activities owing to factor price differentials.In addition,technological progress brings about new types of innovative activities that beneﬁt most from being agglomerated and,therefore,tend to arise in developed areas.Conse-quently,the wealth or poverty of nations seems to be more and more related to the development of prosperous and competitive clusters of speciﬁc industries as well as to the existence of large and diversiﬁed metropolitan areas(Glaeser 1998;Porter1998,chaps.6and7;Thisse and van Ypersele1999).The recent attitude taken by several institutional bodies and medias seems to support this view.For example,in its recent W orld Development Report,the World Bank(2000)stressed the importance of economic agglomerations andAgglomeration and Economic Theory5 cities for boosting growth and escaping from the poverty trap.Another example of this increasing awareness of the relevance of cities in modern economies can be found in The Economist(1995,18):The liberalization of world trade and the inﬂuence of regional trading groups such as NAFTA and the EU will not only reduce the powers of national governments,but also increase those of cities.This is because an open trading system will have the effect of making national economies converge,thus evening out the competitive advantage of countries,while leaving those of cities largely untouched.So in the future,the arenas in which companies will compete may be cities rather than countries.In this book,we intend to address the main causes for the formation of the various types of economic agglomerations described above.As discussed in the next two sections,this includes increasing returns to scale,externalities,and imperfectly competitive markets with general and strategic interdependencies. From this list,it should be clear that the economics of agglomeration is fraught with most of the difﬁculties encountered in economic theory.Moreover,as will be seen in various chapters of this book,models of agglom-eration involve both complementarity and substitution effects.For a long time, economists had problems handling complementarity effects,which can hardly be taken in account in the general competitive framework.This observation will lead us,in Section1.4,to survey the rather complexhistory of the relationship between space and economic theory.Although space has not been ignored by some prominent economists,it has seldom been mentioned in economics texts. Thus,it is interesting to determine why this important ingredient of social life has been put aside for so long.1.3WHY DO WE OBSERVE AGGLOMERATIONS?Intuitively,it should be clear that the spatial conﬁguration of economic activities is the outcome of a process involving two opposing types of forces,that is, agglomeration(or centripetal)forces and dispersion(or centrifugal)forces. The observed spatial conﬁguration of economic activities is then the result of a complicated balance of forces that push and pull consumers andﬁrms.This view agrees with very early work in economic geography.For example,in his Principes de g´e ographie humaine published posthumously in1921,the famous French geographer Vidal de la Blache argued that all societies,rudimentary or developed,face the same dilemma:Individuals must get together to beneﬁt from the advantages of the division of labor,but various difﬁculties restrict the gathering of many individuals.1.3.1Agglomeration and Increasing ReturnsOne would expect trade theory to be the branch of economics that has paid most attention to the spatial dimension.The reason is that changes in the conditions under which commodities are shipped,as well as changes in the mobility of6Economics of Agglomeration factors,affect the location of industry,the geography of demand and,eventually, the pattern of trade.The opposite has been true,for neoclassical trade theory has treated each country as dimensionless and has given little attention to the impact of trade costs.Y et,some predominant contributors in theﬁeld have long argued that location and trade are closely related topics.For example, Ohlin(1933;1968,97)has challenged the common wisdom that considers international trade theory as separate from location theory:6International trade theory cannot be understood except in relation to and as part of the general location theory,to which the lack of mobility of goods and factors has equal relevance.Natural resources,and more generally production factors,are not uniformly distributed across locations,and it is on this unevenness that most of trade theory has been built.7The standard model of trade considers a setting formed by two countries producing two goods by means of two factors(labor and capital) under identical technologies subject to constant returns to scale and strictly diminishing marginal products.When factors are spatially immobile and goods can be costlessly moved from one country to the other,this model predicts the equalization of factor prices when the ratios of factor endowments are not too different.Similarly,regional economics has long been dominated by the dual version of the neoclassical trade model.It is assumed that a single good is produced and that(at least)one production factor can freely move between regions.Ac-cording to this model,capitalﬂows from regions where it is abundant to regions where it is scarce until capital rents are the same across regions,or regional wage differences push and pull workers until the equalization of wages between re-gions is reached.Because the production function is linear homogeneous and has strictly diminishing marginal product in each factor,the marginal produc-tivity of the mobile factor depends only on the capital–labor ratio.This implies that the mobile factor moves from regions with low returns toward regions with high returns up to the point at which the capital–labor ratio is equalized across all regions.In other words,the perfect mobility of one factor would be sufﬁ-cient to guarantee the equalization of wages and capital rents in the interregional marketplace.8Thus,it would seem that either costless trade or the perfect mobility of one factor would be sufﬁcient to guarantee the convergence of labor income across various places.9Ignoring unevenness in the spatial distribution of natural resources,Mills(1972a,4)very suggestively described this strange“world without cities”that would characterize an economy operating under constant returns and perfect competition as follows:Each acre of land would contain the same number of people and the same mixof productive activities.The crucial point in establishing this result is that constant returnsAgglomeration and Economic Theory7 permit each productive activity to be carried on at an arbitrary level without loss of efﬁciency.Furthermore,all land is equally productive and equilibrium requires that the value of the marginal product,and hence its rent,be the same everywhere.Therefore, in equilibrium,all the inputs and outputs necessary directly and indirectly to meet the demands of consumers can be located in a small area near where consumers live.In that way,each small area can be autarkic and transportation of people and goods can be avoided.Such an economic space is the quintessence of self-sufﬁciency.This suggests, therefore,that the constant returns–perfect competition paradigm is unable to cope with the emergence and growth of large economic agglomerations (Krugman1995,chap.1).Increasing returns in production activities are needed if we want to explain economic agglomerations without appealing to the attributes of physical ge-ography.In particular,the trade-off between increasing returns in production and transportation costs is central to the understanding of the geography of economic activities.Although it has been rediscovered many times(including in recent periods),this idea has been at the heart of the work developed by early location theorists.For example,L¨o sch([1940]1954)stated that:We shall consider market areas that are not the result of any kind of natural or political inequalities but arise through the interplay of purely economic forces,some working toward concentration,and others toward dispersion.In theﬁrst group are the advantages of specialization and of large-scale production;in the second,those of shipping costs and of diversiﬁed production(p.105of the English translation).It is only during the1990s that some trade theorists became aware that“they were doing geography without knowing it”and have turned their attention to spatial issues.Since then,it is fair to say that they have contributed signiﬁcantly in promoting geographical economics through the use of models involving both monopolistic competition and increasing returns(Krugman1991a,b;Venables 1996;Helpman1998).101.3.2Agglomeration and ExternalitiesAccording to A.Marshall([1890],1920,chap.X),externalities are crucial in the formation of economic agglomerations and generate something like a lock-in effect:When an industry has thus chosen a location for itself,it is likely to stay there long:so great are the advantages which people following the same skilled trade get from near neighbourhood to one another.The mysteries of the trade become no mysteries;but are as it were in the air,and children learn many of them unconsciously.Good work is rightly appreciated,inventions and improvements in machinery,in processes and the general organization of the business have their merits promptly discussed:if one man starts a new idea,it is taken up by others and combined with suggestions of their own;and thus it becomes the source of further new ideas(p.225).8Economics of Agglomeration For this author,relevant externalities for the formation of clusters involve the following:1.mass production(the internal economies that are identical to scale eco-nomies at theﬁrm’s level);2.availability of specialized input services;3.formation of a highly specialized labor force and the production of newideas,both based on the accumulation of human capital and face-to-face communications;and4.the existence of modern infrastructure.11Despite its vagueness,the concept of Marshallian externalities has been much used in the economics and regional science literature devoted to the lo-cation of economic activities because it captures the idea that an agglomeration is the outcome of a“snowball effect”in which a growing number of agents want to congregate to beneﬁt from a larger diversity of activities and a higher specialization.12Such cumulative processes are now associated with the in-terplay of pecuniary externalities in models combining increasing returns and monopolistic competition(Matsuyama1995).13In fact,the concept of externality has been used to describe a great variety of situations.Following Scitovsky(1954),it is now customary to consider two categories:“technological externalities”(also called spillovers)and“pecuniary externalities.”The former deals with the effects of nonmarket interactions that are realized through processes directly affecting the utility of an individual or the production function of aﬁrm.In contrast,pecuniary externalities are by-products of market interactions:They affectﬁrms or consumers and workers only insofar as they are involved in exchanges mediated by the price mechanism. Pecuniary externalities are relevant when markets are imperfectly competitive, for when an agent’s decision affects prices,it also affects the well-being of others.According to Anas et al.(1998),cities would be replete with technological externalities.The same would hold in local production systems(Pyke et al. 1990,chap.4).In fact,much of the competitiveness of individuals andﬁrms is due to their creativity,and thus economic life is creative in the same way as are the arts and sciences.Of particular interest for creativity are“communica-tion externalities.”This idea accords with the view of Lucas(1988,38)when he writes that“New Y ork City’s garment district,ﬁnancial district,diamond district,advertising district and many more are as much intellectual centers as is Columbia or New Y ork University.”Thus,to explain geographical clusters of somewhat limited spatial dimension such as cities and highly specialized industrial and scientiﬁc districts,it seems reasonable to appeal to technological externalities,which,in terms of modeling,have the additional advantage of being compatible with the competitive paradigm.。

公共管理学专业英语词汇整理

公共管理学专业英语词汇目标 mission/ objective 内部环境 internal environment 外部环境 external environment 集体目标 group objective 计划 planning 组织 organizing人事 staffing 领导 leading 控制 controlling步骤 process 原理 principle 方法 technique经理 manager 总经理 general manager 行政人员 administrator主管人员 supervisor 企业 enterprise 商业 business产业 industry 公司 company 效果 effectiveness效率efficiency 企业家 entrepreneur 权利 power职权 authority 职责 responsibility 科学管理 scientific management现代经营管理 modern operational management 行为科学 behavior science生产率 productivity 激励 motivate 动机 motive法律 law 法规 regulation 经济体系 economic system管理职能 managerial function 产品 product 服务 service利润 profit 满意 satisfaction 归属 affiliation尊敬 esteem 自我实现 self-actualization 人力投入 human input盈余 surplus 收入 income 成本 cost 资本货物 capital goods机器 machinery 设备 equipment 建筑 building 存货 inventory经验法 the empirical approach 人际行为法 the interpersonal behavior approach 集体行为法 the group behavior approach 协作社会系统法 the cooperative social systems approach社会技术系统法 the social-technical systems approach 决策理论法 the decision theory approach数学法 the mathematical approach 系统法 the systems approach随机制宜法 the contingency approach 管理任务法 the managerial roles approach 经营法 the operational approach 人际关系 human relation心理学 psychology 态度 attitude 压力 pressure 冲突 conflict招聘 recruit 鉴定 appraisal 选拔 select 培训 train报酬compensation 授权delegation of authority 协调coordinate 业绩performance考绩制度 merit system 表现 behavior 下级 subordinate 偏差 deviation检验记录 inspection record 误工记录 record of labor-hours lost 销售量 sales volume 产品质量 quality of products 先进技术 advanced technology 顾客服务customer service 策略strategy 结构structure 领先性primacy 普遍性pervasiveness 忧虑 fear 忿恨 resentment 士气 morale 解雇 layoff批发 wholesale 零售 retail 程序 procedure 规则 rule规划 program 预算 budget 共同作用 synergy 大型联合企业 conglomerate 资源resource 购买 acquisition 增长目标 growth goal 专利产品 proprietary product 竞争对手rival 晋升promotion 管理决策managerial decision 商业道德business ethics 有竞争力的价格competitive price 供货商supplier 小贩vendor 利益冲突 conflict of interests 派生政策 derivative policy 开支帐户expense account 批准程序 approval procedure病假 sick leave 休假 vacation 工时 labor-hour 机时 machine-hour 资本支出capital outlay 现金流量 cash flow 工资率 wage rate 税收率 tax rate 股息dividend 现金状况 cash position 资金短缺 capital shortage总预算 overall budget 资产负债表 balance sheet 可行性 feasibility投入原则 the commitment principle 投资回报 return on investment 生产能力capacity to produce 实际工作者practitioner 最终结果end result 业绩performance个人利益personal interest 福利welfare 市场占有率market share 创新innovation 生产率 productivity 利润率 profitability社会责任 public responsibility 董事会 board of director 组织规模 size of the organization 组织文化organizational culture 目标管理management by objectives 评价工具 appraisal tool 激励方法 motivational techniques 控制手段 control device 个人价值 personal worth 优势 strength 弱点 weakness 机会opportunity 威胁 threat个人责任personal responsibility 顾问counselor 定量目标quantitative objective 定性目标 qualitative objective 可考核目标 verifiable objective 优先 priority 工资表 payroll 策略 strategy 政策 policy 灵活性 discretion 多种经营 diversification 评估 assessment 一致性 consistency应变策略consistency strategy 公共关系public relation 价值value 抱负aspiration 偏见 prejudice 审查 review 批准 approval 主要决定 major decision 分公司总经理 division general manager 资产组合距阵 portfolio matrix 明星star 问号 question mark 现金牛 cash cow 赖狗 dog 采购 procurement 人口因素demographic factor 地理因素 geographic factor 公司形象 company image产品系列 product line 合资企业 joint venture 破产政策 liquidation strategy 紧缩政策 retrenchment strategy 战术 tactics 追随 followership个性individuality 性格personality 安全safety 自主权latitude 悲观的pessimistic 静止的 static 乐观的 optimistic 动态的 dynamic 灵活的 flexible 抵制resistance 敌对antagonism 折中eclectic 激励motivation 潜意识subconscious 地位status 情感affection 欲望desire 压力pressure满足satisfaction自我实现的需要 needs for self-actualization 尊敬的需要 esteem needs 归属的需要 affiliation needs 安全的需要 security needs 生理的需要 physiological needs 维持 maintenance 保健 hygiene 激励因素 motivator 概率 probability 强化理论 reinforcement theory 反馈 feedback 奖金 bonus 股票期权 stock option 劳资纠纷 labor dispute 缺勤率 absenteeism 人员流动 turnover 奖励 reward 特许经营 franchise 热诚 zeal 信心 confidence 鼓舞 inspire 要素 ingredient忠诚 loyalty 奉献 devotion 作风 style 品质 trait适应性 adaptability 进取性 aggressiveness 热情 enthusiasm毅力 persistence 人际交往能力 interpersonal skills行政管理能力 administrative ability智力 intelligence 专制式领导 autocratic leader 民主式领导 democratic leader 自由放任式领导 free-rein leader 管理方格图 the managerial grid 工作效率 work efficiency 服从 obedience 领导行为 leader behavior支持型领导 supportive leadership 参与型领导 participative leadership指导型领导 instrumental leadership成就取向型领导 achievement-oriented leadershipAutomated inspection 自动化检验automatic assembly system 自动化装配系统applied biomechanics 应用生物力学CAD/CAM 计算机辅助设计与制造computer integrated manufacturing system 计算机整合制造系统data structure 数据结构data base management system 数据库管理系统decision analysis 决策分析engineering economy 工程经济engineering statistics 工程统计facilities planning 设施规划factory diagnoisis and improvement method 工厂诊断与改善方法financial and cost analysis 财务与成本分析fuzzy theory and application 模糊理论与应用human-computer interaction (HCI)人因工程与计算机系统human factors engineering 人因工程human information processing 人类讯息处理human-machine system design 人机系统设计human resource management 人力资源管理human system diagnosis and improvement 人体系统诊断与改善industrial environment evaluation 工业环境评估industrial organizations and management 工业组织与管理industrial safety 工业安全information technology 信息技术intellectual property laws 智慧财产权法knowledge engineering 知识工程linear algebra 线性代数manufacturing automation 制造自动化manufacturing engineering 制造工程manufacturing management 制造管理manufacturing process 制造程序manufacturing systems and management 制造系统与管理market and marketing 市场与行销material flows automation 物流自动化mathematical programming 数学规划multicriteria decision making 多目标规划multi-criteria decision methods 多准则决策分析network analysis 网络分析numerical analysis 数值分析organization and management 组织与管理product and technology development management 产品与技术开发管理production management 生产管理production planning and control 生产计划与管制quality control 质量管理quality engineering 品质工程quality management techniques and practice 品质管理queueing theory 等候线理论reliability engineering 可靠度工程research，development and innovation management 研究发展管理semiconductor production management 半导体生产管理sequencing and scheduling 排序与排程simulation 模拟分析statistical method 统计方法stochastic processes 随机系统strategic management of technology 技术策略system analysis and design in large scale 大型系统分析与设计system performance evaluation 系统绩效评估技术system quality assurance engineering 系统品质保证工程systems engineering 系统工程systems simulation 系统仿真vision and colors 视觉与色彩work physiology 工作生理学work study 工作研究Accounting Assistant 会计助理Accounting Clerk 记帐员Accounting Manager 会计部经理Accounting Stall 会计部职员Accounting Supervisor 会计主管Administration Manager 行政经理Administration Staff 行政人员Administrative Assistant 行政助理Administrative Clerk 行政办事员Advertising Staff 广告工作人员Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员Airlines Staff 航空公司职员Application Engineer 应用工程师Assistant Manager 副经理Bond Analyst 证券分析员Bond Trader 证券交易员Business Controller 业务主任Business Manager 业务经理Buyer 采购员Cashier 出纳员Chemical Engineer 化学工程师Civil Engineer 土木工程师Clerk/Receptionist 职员/接待员Clerk Typist & Secretary 文书打字兼秘书Computer Data Input Operator 计算机资料输入员Computer Engineer 计算机工程师Computer Processing Operator 计算机处理操作员Computer System Manager 计算机系统部经理Copywriter 广告文字撰稿人Deputy General Manager 副总经理Economic Research Assistant 经济研究助理Electrical Engineer 电气工程师Engineering Technician 工程技术员English Instructor/Teacher 英语教师Export Sales Manager 外销部经理Export Sales Staff 外销部职员Financial Controller 财务主任Financial Reporter 财务报告人. (Foreign Exchange)Clerk 外汇部职员. Settlement Clerk 外汇部核算员Fund Manager 财务经理General Auditor 审计长General Manager/ President 总经理General Manager Assistant 总经理助理General Manager's Secretary 总经理秘书Hardware Engineer 计算机硬件工程师Import Liaison Staff 进口联络员Import Manager 进口部经理Insurance Actuary 保险公司理赔员International Sales Staff 国际销售员Interpreter 口语翻译Legal Adviser 法律顾问Line Supervisor 生产线主管Maintenance Engineer 维修工程师Management Consultant 管理顾问Manager 经理Manager for Public Relations 公关部经理Manufacturing Engineer 制造工程师Manufacturing Worker 生产员工Market Analyst 市场分析员Market Development Manager 市场开发部经理Marketing Manager 市场销售部经理Marketing Staff 市场销售员Marketing Assistant 销售助理Marketing Executive 销售主管Marketing Representative 销售代表Marketing Representative Manager 市场调研部经理Mechanical Engineer 机械工程师Mining Engineer 采矿工程师Music Teacher 音乐教师Naval Architect 造船工程师Office Assistant 办公室助理Office Clerk 职员Operational Manager 业务经理Package Designer 包装设计师Passenger Reservation Staff 乘客票位预订员Personnel Clerk 人事部职员Personnel Manager 人事部经理Plant/ Factory Manager 厂长Postal Clerk 邮政人员Private Secretary 私人秘书Product Manager 生产部经理Production Engineer 产品工程师Professional Staff 专业人员Programmer 电脑程序设计师Project Staff 项目策划人员Promotional Manager 推售部经理Proof-reader 校对员Purchasing Agent 采购进货员Quality Control Engineer 质量管理工程师Real Estate Staff 房地产职员Recruitment Co-ordinator 招聘协调人Regional Manger 地区经理Research＆.Development Engineer 研究开发工程师Restaurant Manager 饭店经理Sales and Planning Staff 销售计划员Sales Assistant 销售助理Sales Clerk 店员、售货员Sales Coordinator 销售协调人Sales Engineer 销售工程师Sales Executive 销售主管Sales Manager 销售部经理Salesperson 销售员Seller Representative 销售代表Sales Supervisor 销售监管School Registrar 学校注册主任Secretarial Assistant 秘书助理Secretary 秘书Securities Custody Clerk 保安人员Security Officer 安全人员Senior Accountant 高级会计Senior Consultant/Adviser 高级顾问Senior Employee 高级雇员Senior Secretary 高级秘书Service Manager 服务部经理Simultaneous Interpreter 同声传译员Software Engineer 计算机软件工程师Supervisor 监管员Systems Adviser 系统顾问Systems Engineer 系统工程师Systems Operator 系统操作员Technical Editor 技术编辑Technical Translator 技术翻译Technical Worker 技术工人Telecommunication Executive电讯（电信）员Telephonist / Operator 电话接线员、话务员Tourist Guide 导游Trade Finance Executive 贸易财务主管Trainee Manager 培训部经理Translation Checker 翻译核对员Translator 翻译员Trust Banking Executive 银行高级职员Typist 打字员Wordprocessor Operator 文字处理操作员Aaccess discrimination 进入歧视 action research 动作研究adjourning 解散 adhocracy 特别结构administrative principle 管理原则 artifacts 人工环境artificial intelligence 人工智能工巧匠 avoiding learning 规避性学习ambidextrous approach 双管齐下策略Bbalance sheet 资产负债表 bcg matrix 波士顿咨询集团矩阵bona fide occupation qualifications 善意职业资格审查bounded rationality 有限理性 bureaucracy 官僚机构benchmarking 标杆瞄准 bounded rationality perspective 有限理性方法boundary-spanning roles 跨超边界作用Ccomputer-aided design and computer-automated manufacturing(cad/cam) 计算机辅助设计与计算机自动生产confrontation 对话 consortia 企业联合change agent 变革促进者 chaos theory 混沌理论charismatic leaders 魅力型领导者 charity principle 博爱原则coercive power 强制权 cohesiveness 凝聚力collaborative management 合作型管理 comparable worth 可比较价值competitive benchmarking 竞争性基准 confrontation meeting 碰头会constancy of purpose 永久性目标 contingency approach 权变理论corporate social performance 公司社会表现 corporate social responsibility公司社会责任corporate social responsiveness公司社会反应 critical incident 关键事件current assets 流动资产 current liabilities 流动负债culture strength 文化强度 creative department 创造性部门craft technology 技艺性技术 contextual dimension 关联性维度continuous process production 连续加工生产 collectivity stage 集体化阶段clan control 小团体控制 clan culture 小团体文化coalition 联合团体 collaborative 协作网络centrality 集中性 centraliazation 集权化charismatic authority 竭尽忠诚的权力Ddecentralization 分权 democracy management 民主管理departmentalization 部门化 differential rate system 差别报酬系统dialectical inquiry methods 辩证探求法 division of labor 劳动分工downward mobility 降职流动 dynamic engagement 动态融合dynamic network 动态网络 domain 领域direct interlock 直接交叉 divisional form 事业部模式differentiation strategy 差别化战略 decision premise 决策前提dual-core approach 二元核心模式Eelectronic data-processing(edp) 电子数据处理 employee-oriented style 员工导向型风格empowerment 授权 encoding 解码end-user computing 终端用户计算系统 entrepreneurship 企业家精神equity 净资产 equity theory 公平理论espoused value 信仰价值 ethnocentric manager 种族主义的管理者expectancy theory 期望理论 expense budget 支出预算expense center 费用中心 external audit 外部审计external stakeholders 外部利益相关者 extrinsic rewards 外部奖励ethic ombudsperson 伦理巡视官 external adaption 外部适应性elaboration stage 精细阶段 entrepreneurial stage 创业阶段escalating commitment 顽固认同Ffamily group 家庭集团 financial statement 财务报表flat hierarchies 扁平型结构 flexible budget 弹性预算force-field theory 场力理论 formal authority 合法权力formal systematic appraisal 正式的系统评估 franchise 特许经营权formalization stage 规范化阶段 functional grouping 职能组合formal channel of communication 正式沟通渠道Ggame theory 博弈论 general financial condition 一般财务状况geocentric manager 全球化管理者 general manager 总经理globalization 全球化 gossip chain 传言链grapevine 传言网 global strategic partnership 全球战略伙伴关系general environment 一般环境 generalist 全面战略geographic grouping 区域组合 global company 全球公司global geographic structure 全球区域结构Hhawthorne effect 霍桑效应 heuristic principles 启发性原理hierarchy 科层制度 hiring specification 招聘细则horizontal linkage model 横向联系模型 hybrid structure 混合结构high tech 高接触 high-velocity environments 高倍速环境Iimpoverished management 放任式管理 income statement 损益表information transformation 信息转换 infrastructure 基础设施integrative process 整合过程 intelligent enterprises 智力企业internal audit 内部审计 internal stakeholder 内部相关者internship 实习 intrapreneurship 内部企业家精神intrinsic reward 内在报酬 inventory 库存, 存货internal integration 内部整合 interorganization relationship 组织间的关系intergroup conflict 团体间冲突 interlocking directorate 交叉董事会institutional perspective 机构的观点 intuitive decision making 直觉决策idea champion 构思倡导者 incremental change 渐进式变革informal organizational structure 非正式组织结构informal performance appraisal 非正式业绩评价Jjob description 职务描述 job design 职务设计job enlargement 职务扩大化 job enrichment 职务丰富化job rotation 职务轮换 job specialization 职务专业化Kkey performance areas 关键业务区 key result areas 关键绩效区Llabor productivity index 劳动生产力指数 laissez management 自由化管理large batch production 大批量生产 lateral communication 横向沟通leadership style 领导风格 least preferred co-worker(lpc)最不喜欢的同事legitimate power 合法权力 liability 负债liaison 联络者 line authority 直线职权liquidity 流动性 liaison role 联络员角色long-linked technology 纵向关联技术 losses from conflict 冲突带来的损失low-cost leadership 低成本领先Mmanagement by objective 目标管理 Managerial Grid 管理方格matrix bosses 矩阵主管 management champion 管理倡导者materials-requirements planning(MRP) 物料需求计划Mslow,s hierarchy of needs 马斯洛需求层次论marketing argument 管理文化多元化营销观 multiculturalism 文化多元主义multidivisional firm 多部门公司 moral rules 道德准则management by walking around(MBWA) 走动式管理matrix structure 矩阵结构 multinational enterprise(MNE) 跨国公司moral relativism 道德相对主义 mechanistic system 机械式组织middle-of-the-road management 中庸式管理 meso theory 常态理论multidomestic strategy 多国化战略mediating technology 调停技术Nna?ve relativism 朴素相对主义 need-achievement 成就需要norming 规范化 norms 规范nonprogrammed decisions 非程序化决策 nonsubstitutability 非替代性nonroutine technology 非例行技术 niche 领地Ooff-the-job training 脱产培训 on-the-job training 在职培训operational budget 运营预算 order backlog 订单储备organic system 有机系统 organizational development(OD) 组织发展orientation 定位 outcome interdependence 结果的相互依赖性outplacement services 外延服务 organization ecosystem 组织生态系统Pparadox of authority 权威的矛盾 paradox of creativity 创造力的矛盾paradox of disclosure 开放的矛盾 paradox of identify 身份的矛盾paradox of individuality 个性的矛盾 paradox of regression 回归的矛盾partial productivity 部分生产率 participative management 参与式管理path-goal model 路径目标模型 peer recruiter 同级招聘political action committees(PACs) 政治活动委员会polycentric manager 多中心管理者 portfolio framework 业务组合框架portfolio investment 资产组合投资 positive reinforcement 正强化production flexibility 生产柔性 profitability 收益率programmed decisions 程序化决策 psychoanalytic view 精神分析法paradigm 范式 personal ratios 人员比例pooled dependence 集合性依存 professional bureaucracy 专业官僚机构problem identification 问题识别 problemistic search 问题搜寻population ecology model 种群生态模型Qquality 质量 quality circle 质量圈question mark 问题类市场 quid pro quo 交换物Rrational model of decision making 理性决策模式realistic job preview(RJP) 实际工作预览reciprocal interdependence 相互依存性resource dependence 资源依赖理论routine technology 例行技术 retention 保留rational approach 理性方法 rational model 理性模型rational-legal authority 理性—合法权威Ssemivariable cost 准可变成本 sense of potency 力量感sensitivity training 敏感性训练 sexual harassment 性骚扰short-run capacity changes 短期生产能力变化 single-strand chain 单向传言链situational approach 情境方法 situational force 情境力量situational leadership theory 情境领导理论 sliding-scale budget 移动规模预算small-batch production 小规模生产 sociotechnical approaches 社会科技方法span of management 管理幅度 staff authority 参谋职权standing plan 长设计划 step budget 分步预算stewardship principle 管家原则 stimulus 刺激storming 调整阶段 strategic management 战略管理strategic partnering 战略伙伴关系 strategy formulation 战略制定strategy implementation 战略实施 strategic control 战略控制strategic contingencies 战略权变 satisficing 满意度subsystems 子系统 subunits 子单位synergy 协同 system boundary 系统边界structure dimension 结构性维度 sequential interdependence 序列性依存self-directed team 自我管理型团队 specialist 专门战略strategy and structure changes 战略与结构变革symptoms of structural deficiency 结构无效的特征Ttall hierarchies 高长型科层结构 task force or project team 任务小组或项目团队task independence 任务的内部依赖性 task management 任务型管理task-oriented style 任务导向型管理风格 total productivity 全部生产率Total Quality Management 全面质量管理 training positions 挂职培训training program 培训程序 transactional leaders 交易型领导transformational leaders 变革型领导 treatment discrimination 歧视待遇two-factory theory 双因素理论 two-boss employees 双重主管员工technical or product champion 技术或产品的倡导者Uunfreezing 解冻 unit production 单位产品Vvariation 变种子 variety 变量valence 效价 variable costs 可变成本vertical communication 纵向沟通 vertical integration 纵向一体化vestibule training 仿真培训 volume flexibility 产量的可伸缩性vertical linkage 纵向连接 venture team 风险团队value based leadership 基于价值的领导Wwin-lose situation 输赢情境 win-win situation 双赢情境workforce literacy 员工的读写能力 work in progress 在制品work flow redesign 工作流程再造成 work flow automation 工作流程自动化whistle blowing 揭发Zzero-sum 零---和zone of indifference(area of acceptance) 无差异区域(可接受区域)。

Economics of Agglomeration Cities,

Book reviewMasahisa Fujita,Jacques-Franc ¸ois Thisse,Economics of Agglomeration:Cities,Industrial Location and Regional Growth,Cambridge University Press,Cam-bridge,2002.This book explores the economic reasons for and consequence of firms and households cluster in regions,cities,and commercial districts.It provides compre-hensive characterizations of the patterns and scope of these clusters when generated under alternative market structures and evaluates the efficiency and equity implications of the resulting allocations.Adopting Papageorgiou’s [10]view that it would be futile to look for the model explaining different types of economic agglomerations,the book uses large variety of sophisticated models to explore agglomerations in different b geographical scales Q and b degrees of sectoral details Q .A substantial part of the analysis is based on earlier works by the authors and other relevant literature.In particular,the book is closely related to that of Fujita et al.[2].However,the main concerns of the two books and their framework of analysis differ considerably.Fujita et al.[2]endeavors to integrate urban economics,regional science,and international trade in a unified framework based on the emergence of agglomeration under monopolistic competition due to a preference for varieties and scale economies on the firm’s level.The book under review is mainly concerned with the phenomenon of agglomeration per se with a special focus on cities.Furthermore,it adopts a much wider perspective that allows it to explore the reasons for the emergence of agglomeration under alternative market structures.In its quest to provide comprehensive treatment of the issue,the authors rely heavily on the previous studies on agglomeration in the urban economics and industrial organization literature than Fujita et al.[2].Not less importantly,this book is concerned with the normative aspects of agglomeration,focusing on market failure and the distributive implications of the agglomeration process and its association with economic growth.These issues were completely ignored by Fujita et al.[2],who relegated them to subsequent studies.The book is organized into four parts.The first part,which is subdivided into five chapters,deals with the fundamentals of geographical economics.Chapter 2mainly concerns the failure of the (perfect)competitive paradigm to explain the emergence of specialization,trade and,consequently,agglomeration when space is homogenous (Starrett’s b spatial impossibility theorem Q ).It also discusses the two welfare theorems when equilibrium is viable (e.g.,when the landscape is heterogeneous).doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2004.07.001Regional Science and Urban Economics 35(2005)584–592Book review585 Chapter3deals with von Th q nen’s agricultural model and its application to the monocentric urban form paradigm.The imposition of a city which serves as a market or a CBD violates the premise of the spatial impossibility theorem that the landscape is homogeneous and,thus,allows the emergence of an efficient competitive market allocation.Chapter4concentrates on the fundamental trade-off between scale economies and transportation in generating agglomeration and determining its scope.When communities can capitalize the land rent into their payoff,they can offset the losses associated with scale economies and marginal cost pricing(the Henry George Rule).Then competition among profit-maximizing entrepreneurs yields an optimal allocation.Two alternative micro-economic foundations are used to explain the reduced form representation of scale economies in the city’s aggregate production function.The first is the advantage of large varieties of intermediate goods which are accessible in large cities.The second is the advantage of large cities in allowing a better match of heterogenous workers and firms’jobs which leads to higher wages.Higher wages compensate the workers for the higher cost of living in large cities,caused by the higher locational costs(commuting and rent). This chapter also discusses spatial competition and how the introduction of land market may help to eliminate the markup and the excessive number of firms.1 The first part of Chapter5differs from Chapter4in that the scale economies inherent in the provision of a pure local public good replaces the scale economies in the aggregate production function.The chapter also elaborates on the determination of number and size of public facilities under politics.City residents vote on the number of facilities and their location(in two steps)and the facilities are financed by a proportional income tax.Without land market,the voting outcome maximizes the Rawlsian but not the Benthamite social welfare function.With land market and free mobility,individual’s utility is equalized across locations and the equalized utility is maximized.The second part of this volume,which is subdivided into two chapters,is concerned with the structure of a metropolitan ing the findings of a series of earlier studies, which are based on Solow and Vickrey’s[11]modelling of communication interactions, the chapter explains the emergence of symmetrical unimodal rent and density functions in urban areas,both in residential cities,when the interactions involve individuals and in the CBD when the interactions involve firms.The chapter continues by examining the effect of two types of interactions:communication interactions among firms and interactions between individuals and firms(employment).The fundamental dilemma is the attraction of firms to each other in order to reduce the impediment of distance on the marginal productivity of communication,on the one hand,and the attraction of employees’housing to firm’s location to save on commuting costs,on the other.In determining its location, each firm maximizes profit given the locational variation of land rent,wage,and the aggregate net advantage to productivity of communication with other firms.In determining residential location,the individual maximizes utility given the locational variation of wage and land rent.Depending on the functional specifications and 1The introduction of land market,however,does not allow full decentralization through price-taking competition;an appropriate institution(a planner)is still required to allow each entrant to fully capitalize the increment in aggregate land rent given the predetermined expenditure of the consumers.parameters,the model yields alternative land use patterns,including monocentric,incompletely integrated land use,completely integrated land use,and several variations of polycentric cities.Independently of the specification,however,the model implies one common result:given the parameter representing the impediment of distance on the marginal productivity of communication interactions,a monocentric configuration emerges when commuting costs are sufficiently low and full integration emerges when they are sufficiently high.On a normative level,due to the external effect of communication (the agent ignores the advantage of its location decision on the benefit of communication interactions accruing to other agents),the spatial equilibrium tends to be insufficiently agglomerated.Chapter 7discusses clustering of firms within cities under monopolistic and oligopolistic competitions,illustrating that imperfectly competitive markets are a major reasons for the existence of agglomeration.The first model describes how alternative residential and commercial land use patterns are generated under monopolistic competition when the representative consumer’s utility (entropy-type specification)exhibits preference for varieties.In maximizing its objective function,each type of agent is spatially attracted to each agent of other type,whereas each agent competes on land with other agents,whether belonging to his own type or not.2There are two basic equilibrium land use patterns,mixed land use surrounded by either exclusive residential or exclusive business land use.The one that prevails depends on the average number of customers per store.In each case,the equilibrium and the first-best land use patterns are the same.3The second model is an extension of the Hotelling [5]spatial competition problem.Firms compete on price and location,where the utility of a representative consumer exhibits preference for varieties (entropy-type specification).A sufficient product differentiation and low transport costs yield clustering of all the firms in the market center under Nash equilibrium.The reason being that product differentiation relaxes price competition in the cluster and low transport costs implies that only a small segmented market can be secured by moving away from the cluster.This concentration is optimal and,with free entry of firms,their equilibrium number is also close to optimum.4Location concentration under Nash equilibrium may,however,be higher than first-best optimum,if transport costs are sufficiently high and or product differentiation is sufficiently low.The third main issue,studied in Section 7.4,is clustering of shops when heterogeneous customers do not know the variety each store offers and,therefore have to travel for searching among stores before choosing where and what to buy.Formally,consumers are distinguished by two parameters:location in a linear geographical space and idiosyncratic ideal variety in a circular characteristics space.The consumers are exogenously distributed on the envelope of a cylinder that portrays the geographical-characteristics space.The issue is to characterize the firms distribution in the geographical space under Nash equilibrium when only the firms’locations is known and the range of varieties offered in 2This description deviates somewhat from verbal description in the book.3This does not necessarily imply that the Nash equilibrium land use pattern is efficient because,given the markup pricing,efficiency requires a second best land use pattern,not a first-best.4Once again,it is not necessarily efficient because,given the markup,a second-best allocation is required.Book review586Book review587 the market,but not the variety offered by each ck of information about the address where each variety is offered and rational search strategy is shown to yield clusters of stores which need not be at geographical center.The formation of employment centers in a land use model is the subject of Section7.5. There is a continuum of identical exporting firms,each selling its output on the world market at a fixed price.Each firm uses a fixed amount of labor and land and variable quantities of differentiated intermediate goods.The contribution of each intermediate good to the output of an exporting firm is represented by an entropy-type function of its quantity.It follows that the exporting firm’s output increases with the mass of the intermediate goods.This model yields similar results to that of the residential–business competition model in Chapter6when we substitute exporting firms and specialized firms for housing and firms,respectively.Thus,integrating the two models allows higher resolution of urban mixed land use and a richer gallery of land use patterns than suggested by each model separately.The third part,which is subdivided into two chapters,discusses inter-regional industrial location.Chapter8discusses three models that portray industrial agglomeration under Marshallian externalities.According to the first,the centripetal force is generated by the positive scale effect of mobile skilled workers and the centrifugal force is created by the negative crowding effect of the aggregate local labor force,which includes both the mobile skilled and immobile unskilled workers.Each firm’s production function is a product of a CRS function of skilled and unskilled workers and a positive external effect of the aggregate skilled workers in the region.Each firm takes the external effect as given and, therefore,considers its production function to exhibit a CRS production function.Hence, the allocation is determined competitively.Skilled workers are attracted to that region which offers them higher utility.Stability implies that if the external effect of skilled workers is sufficiently strong,the skilled workers are(partially)concentrated in one region,and unskilled workers in that region earn a higher wages than unskilled workers in the other region.Otherwise,only a symmetrical allocation is a stable equilibrium.The second and the third models discuss cases where immobile population with quadratic utility is distributed equally between two regions.The analysis in both models focuses on the effect of localization economies on the firm’s location decision.In the second model, it is assumed that the advantage of localization economies varies between the regions and two firms compete strategically in price and location.The first-best allocation implies that if transport costs are sufficiently low,the two firms should be located in the region where the localization economies are larger,whereas strategic competition leads to such an agglomeration only if the localization economies in that region are sufficiently large.The third model examines the effect of localization economies with a continuum of firms each of which produces differentiated goods.The model implies that when transportation costs decline,the allocation is transformed from perfect symmetry to agglomeration.For sufficiently low transport costs,all the firms agglomerate in one region.The first-best allocation is never less agglomerated than the market equilibrium.Chapter9is devoted to the b new economic geography Q where agglomeration in the form of core–periphery structure is generated under monopolistic competition by preference for varieties and scale economies on a firm level.Beginning with the original version of the core–periphery model where the subutility of differentiated products is aCES function and the transport costs are represented by melting iceberg,it is shown that agglomeration,represented by a core–periphery structure,requires low transport costs.This observation is also corroborated by a modified model in which the subutility of the differentiated products is quadratic and the transport cost of a unit shipped between the regions is fixed in terms of the numeraire.In contrast to the original version,however,the modified version of the core–periphery model lend itself to welfare analysis.It is shown that agglomeration helps the mobile skilled workers who concentrate in the core and the immobile unskilled workers there,but hurts the immobile unskilled workers in the periphery.The loss of the unskilled workers in the periphery may outweigh the gain of the unskilled workers in the core.The second version of the core–periphery model is extended to include a mobile intermediate sector and perfect foresight.The fourth part of the book,which is subdivided into two chapters,is concerned with urban system and regional growth.Chapter 10discusses the stability of von Th q nen’s monocentric structure of and the evolution of the urban system when the population grows.The stability of the monocentric structure depends on low transport costs of the agricultural product relative to the cost of moving manufactured goods.When the population increases,the demand for agricultural products increases and the agricultural hinterland expands.The local prices of differentiated goods increase in the periphery,which attract manufacturing firms and,hence,new cities are established.By adding an intermediate goods sector to the model,a rich variety of results can be derived such as the emergence of a regular pattern of cities in accordance with some characteristics of the central place theory.Yet,the model does not yield a perfect hierarchy where each city trades with a limited set of cities and its agricultural hinterland.Rather,each city,which,according to the present model,specializes in its unique set of differentiated goods,trades with each of the other cities.The volume culminates in Chapter 11,which synthesizes the core–periphery model and growth theories and evaluates the prevailing policy aimed at restricting agglomeration.The basic idea is that knowledge is accumulated at a rate equal to the aggregate production of patents by skilled workers.It is assumed that the productivity of patents production is (indirectly)proportional to the stock of knowledge,where the coefficient of this proportion in a given region increases with its share in the aggregate skilled workers (reflecting the decay of personal knowledge spillover with distance).This assumption underlies the crucial association between the rate of increase of knowledge (aggregate output of patents)and agglomeration.Each new patent allows the establishment of a new firm which produces a new brand of differentiated goods.Hence,the rate of aggregate increase of varieties,which is a measure of the rate of growth,is increased with agglomeration.Solving the steady state growth path,it is shown that,with perfectly mobile patents,the R&D sector as well as a substantial part of manufacturing firms agglomerate in one region and when the transport cost is sufficiently low,both the R&D sector and the entire manufacturing sector agglomerate in one region.Under a core–periphery steady-state growth path,the welfare of unskilled workers in the core exceeds that of unskilled workers in the periphery.The welfare of the latter may,but need not,be hurt relative to what they enjoy under a symmetric growth path.Yet,a dispersion policy is likely to reduce global economic growth and may even hurt the unskilled workers in the periphery.This policy,however,may be justified when the criterion of horizontal equity is adopted and there is no way to compensate the workers in the periphery.Book review588Book review589 This volume provides the most comprehensive study of the fundamental reasons for agglomeration and the market incentives that drive agents to agglomerate.It is distinguished from earlier studies by its special focus on intra-urban agglomeration, integration of agglomeration analysis in urban and regional economics as well as industrial organization literature,novel exploration into normative issues associated with agglom-eration and growth,and last but not least,integration of agglomeration with growth models.No student of agglomeration can do without this study.Yet,I think that a coherent epilogue(Chapter12)is missing in this book.Indeed,at the book’s outset(page2),the reader is b warned Q not to expect to find the theory of agglomeration.Rather,citing Papageorgiou’s[10]conjecture that each type of agglomeration requires a different model, the authors offer a rich gallery of models,each adapted to different scale and sector. Accordingly,the quest to generalize results is confined to the concluding comments of the relevant chapters with only occasional cross reference to other similar models or models that yields opposing results.I do think that even in the case portrayed by Papageorgiou [10],a coherent epilogue is required for presenting the most concise set of explanations for the emergence of agglomeration,categorizing them,and surveying the main results derived in the book,while spelling out what is common and what is not and why.I will elaborate on this in the sequel.First,consider the following list of cited statements regarding the reasons for agglom-eration(it is not an exhaustive list):1.b According to Marshall(1890,1920,Chap.X),externalities are crucial in the formationof economic agglomerations...Q,(p.7).2.b The hypothesis that production sets are convex implies that production exhibits noincreasing returns to scale—whatever is scale...If the distribution of natural resources is uniform,the economy is such that each person produces for her own consumption, we therefore have backyard capitalism.Q(p.27).3.b1....the advantages that firms producing similar goods may exploit by collocating.For example,different agents own different bits of information and their gathering yields higher level of knowledge... 2.A large market...allows for a large of intermediate commodities...intermediate commodities can be used as inputs to enhance the productivity of the final sector...3.a large city allows for a better average match between heterogeneous workers and firms T job requirements.Q(p.98).4.b But why do households and firms seek proximity?Fundamentally,this occursbecause economic agents need to interact and distance is an impediment to interaction...one can view the agglomeration process...as an interplay between an interaction field among agents and competition on land market...the need to interact acts as a centripetal force,whereas competition for land has the nature of centrifugal force.Q(p.169).5.b...externalities are at the root of economic agglomerations.Q(p.210).6.b Such an externality effect may explain why economic agents are prepared to payhigh rent to live close to the centers of large cities where this effect is more intense"(p.211).7.b...the presence of imperfectly competitive markets is another major reason for theexistence of...agglomerations.Q(p.258).I would like to evaluate these statements in the light of what I learned from reading the book on the reasons for agglomeration.It can be summarized as follows:Convexity of the production set is indispensable for price-taking equilibrium.However,such convexity implies that,under the competitive paradigm,firms are motivated to disperse production according to the spatial distribution of demand in order to save on transport costs.Hence,in order to explain clustering of firms in relatively small areas,we need either non-convexity of the production set and,thus,non-competitive market structures or,alternatively,some centripetal forces which pull together either individuals (as consumers and workers)to individuals,firms to firms,and clusters of individuals to clusters of firms.Non-convexity of collective goods production and better matching of individuals in their social activities in large groups may explain the centripetal force which pulls individuals together.The advantage of information exchange may explain the centripetal force which pulls firms together.A better average match between heterogeneous workers and firms T job requirements (on a regional scale)and commuting costs (on a city scale)underlie the spatial attraction of individuals as employees to firms.An additional complication is added when the same force is both centrifugal and centripetal.Consider the effect of commuting costs on metropolitan structure (see discussion of Chapter 6).On the one hand,they induce employees to cluster close to their employment centers,thus increasing the overall residential densities.On the other hand,they attract firms to their employees to save on wages,thus reducing the density of the employment center.When commuting cost are sufficiently high,the city core,which accommodates the employment and shopping centers,may be dismantled.According to the above approach,statements 2,4and 7in the above list explain agglomeration,3includes special cases of 4,but statements 1,5,and 6are questionable.Indeed,pursuing the advantage of interactions,individuals and firms make some decisions which have external effects.For example,consider Chapter 6,where,in making a location decision,individuals and firms ignore the effect of their location decision on the benefit of communication interchange derived by other agents.The result is insufficient agglomeration.Suppose,for the sake of argument,that firms are altruists and,in making their location decision,take into consideration the communication benefit to other firms,such that the external effect disappears.Would not then the firm be willing to pay higher rent for locating closer to the city center than otherwise?Will not the agglomeration prevail and even increase?Furthermore,restricting ourselves to selfish firms,suppose that the city is run by a developer who maximizes the surplus of the city (the aggregate output minus the minimum aggregate cost required to allow the residents to achieve their reservation utility).Will not then the developer agglomerate firms in order to increase their productivity?Will not the resulting agglomeration be even higher than with the externality that distorts the allocation?All this boils down to my contention that externality deters rather than enhances agglomeration,as implied by the cited statements 1,5,and 6above.According to this approach,the fundamental advantage of interactions between agents mentioned in cited statement 4is unduly referred to as b externality Q and citing Marshall in this context is not a vindication.55The term b externality Q is vague in the economic jargon (see Lagueux [7]).One issue is whether externality can be identified by information on the fundamentals alone.The answer of Arrow [1]is negative.Book review590Book review591 The book could have also been benefited from including in the proposed epilogue acoherent discussion of the main results derived by each model and explaining the reasonsfor their differences.Two issues which occupy the discussion of most of the models are theeffect of transport cost on agglomeration and the market bias in inducing agglomerationvis a`vis optimum.Beginning with the first issue,the standard core–periphery model implies thatagglomeration requires low transport costs of manufactured goods.The same result isobtained when a quadratic utility and a linear transport cost function are,respectively,substituted for the CES utility and melting iceberg transport functions,as well as in someother models(see the models portraying industrial agglomeration under Marshallianb externalities Q under duopoly and Chamberlin’s large group competition in Sections8.3 and8.4,respectively).Yet,when the source of the centrifugal force is changed fromimmobility of unskilled workers to urban land scarcity,as in Helpman[4],Tabuchi[12],and Ottaviano et al.[9],the above functional relationship between transport cost andagglomeration collapses.Tabuchi[12]and Ottaviano et al.[9]derive an inverted u-shapedrelationship,whereas Helpman[4]shows that agglomeration requires sufficiently hightransport costs rather than sufficiently low.Furthermore,when intermediate goods areintroduced into the core–periphery setup,the relationship between agglomeration andtransport cost turns to be three dimensional.A core–periphery structure still requires thatthe costs transporting the manufactured good should be sufficiently low.However,thetransport costs of the intermediate goods should be sufficiently high.Krugman andVenables[6]assume that the same varieties are both final and intermediate goods andderive an inverted u-shaped relationship,similar to Tabuchi[12]and Ottaviano et al.[9].To make things even more complicated,in the von Th q nen setup(without intermediategoods),transporting manufactured goods should be sufficiently expensive relative to thecost of shipping agricultural goods.Hence,not only that each type of agglomerationrequires a different model,but the same parameter may have a different qualitative effectin the margin,depending on its size.6Turning to the normative issue,the results derived and the following policyimplications are not less contradicting.Most of the models discussed in the book implythat,if the market is biased,the bias is against agglomeration.This is the case with intra-city location pattern of households and firms portrayed in Chapter6,where the reason isthe presence of negative external effect.Similar externalities are present in other casessuch that the market is biased against agglomeration(the markets,portrayed in Chapter8,both in duopoly and Chamberlin’s large group case,tend to induce less agglomeration thanoptimum).Other reasons create such a biased in the core–periphery version of Helpman[4].7Yet,we know from Hotelling[5]that locational competition tends to induceexcessive agglomeration of firms selling identical products.Furthermore,in theoligopolistic market of retailers who sell differentiated goods,discussed in Section7.3,optimum implies full dispersion when transport costs are sufficiently high,but b...themarket may well provide insufficient geographical dispersion.Q This and more,in contrast6See also Hadar and Pines’[3]evaluation of the effect of aggregate population size on agglomeration in a two region model.7This result is not referred to in the book.。

顾建光《公共管理英语》修订版词汇汇总

Lesson1citizen 公民municipalgovernment 市政府administrativeaffairs 行政事务行政事务 transparency 透明度accomplishment 成就，成绩financialbudget 财政预算财政预算 implementation 实施，实行obligation 义务，责任lagbehind 落后于落后于 bulletin 公告，公报naturaldisaster 自然灾害togrant 授予，认可授予，认可 license 许可证booth 货摊，小摊civilaffairs 国内事务国内事务domicileregistration 居民登记matrimonialregistration 婚姻注册婚姻注册e-government 电子政府tofacilitate 使更容易regulation 规章制度，条例规章制度，条例 healthcare 医疗卫生HandlingAffairsOnline 在线事务办理在线事务办理toretain 保留，保存保留，保存Lesson2 bureaucracy 官僚机构，官僚作风bureaucraticconstrain 官僚式约束官僚式约束 toinhibit 抑制，约束citizenry 平民，公民toespouse 信奉信奉cynic 愤世嫉俗者torender 表现，使成为quasi-market 准市场准市场tostreamline 使简化，使有效率，使现代化slackenoff 放慢，放缓放慢，放缓 inconjunctionwith 与。

结合起来statusquo 现状现状rewardandappraisalsystem 奖励与褒扬制度toreshuffle 改组改组commitment 承诺承诺Lesson3publicadministration 公共管理，公共行政decentralization 分权化liberalization 自由化thrust 冲击centralization 权力集中化权力集中化diagnosis 诊断，判断impetus 推动力，刺激permanenttension 长期的压力revenue 财政收入revival 复兴，恢复consolidation 联合，统一联合，统一autonomy 自治，自治权infrastructure 基础设施jurisdiction 司法权，裁判权 innovation 创新，革新responsiveness 回应interdependence 互相依赖互相依赖 remit 汇出atodds 争议，争吵localauthority 地方政府地方政府centralauthority 中央政府ceiling 上限，天花板performance 绩效，成就绩效，成就 emergence 出现statute 条例，法令条例，法令Lesson4privatesector 私营部门，民营部门togenerate 产生，造成产生，造成judicialservices 法律服务know-how 技术秘诀regulation 管制管制oversight 疏忽，失察entrepreneur 企业家企业家grossnationalincome grossnationalincome（（GNI GNI）国民总收入）国民总收入）国民总收入 Euromoney 欧洲货币creditworthiness 信贷价值publicsector 公共部门vibrant 充满活力的，活跃的tolevy 征税progressivity 进步incentive 动机动机 monopoly 垄断budget 预算accessibility 可达性，可获得性可达性，可获得性affordability 可承担，可负担性stark 完全的，巨大的完全的，巨大的Lesson5community 社区interpersonal 人与人之间的predisposition 倾向倾向toembody 使具体化，具体表现indelible 不可或缺的，永恒的不可或缺的，永恒的toexile 放逐，流散totranscend 超越static 静止的，静态的静止的，静态的heritage 遗产，继承物遗产，继承物 Lesson6performancemanagement 绩效管理toforge 打造，锤炼diagnostic 诊断的integrative 综合的，一体化的holistic 总体的，全部的mission 使命使命 unitarist 一元论的alogicalprogression 一种逻辑级数一种逻辑级数performanceappraisal 绩效评估diagnosis 诊断诊断Lesson7indicator 指标inaggregate 总起来看，总起来说总起来看，总起来说systemofnationalaccounts 国民账户体系statistics 统计，统计数据统计，统计数据 currency 流通货币grossnationalincome grossnationalincome（（GNI GNI）国民总收入）国民总收入）国民总收入unincorporatedbusiness 综合经营的商业multipleexchangerate 多重汇率多重汇率 Lesson8 disparity 不同，差距coastal 沿海的interior 内陆的内陆的financialsector 经济部门surge 波动，汹涌drought 干旱干旱housingmortgageloan 住宅抵押贷款disposableincome 税后收入，可支配收入税后收入，可支配收入 totrigger 引发，引起state-ownedenterprises 国有企业国有企业fiscalrevenue 财政收入expenditure 支出，花费allowance 津贴，补助extra-budgetaryfunds 预算外资金unauthorizedspending 未授权的花费未授权的花费 treasurybond 国库券stockmarket 股票市场A-shareA 股Indices Indices（（index 的复数）指标，指示物quota 配额torebound 反弹反弹tandem 纵列的consecutivefiscalstimulus 连续的财政鼓励rebaterate 折扣率折扣率 aggravatedeflationary 加重通货紧缩phytosanitary 植物检疫的，控制植物病害的害的 Lesson9well-off 小康的，富裕的incomprehensive 范围有限的toshakeoff 摆脱，甩掉摆脱，甩掉 toillustrate 例示，说明multiplicationscenario 乘法情境乘法情境divisionscenario 除法情境toconformtothetideofthetimes 符合时代潮流符合时代潮流 toendeavortofoster 努力培育householdcontractsystem 家庭联产承包责任制家庭联产承包责任制 initiative 进取性tousherin 引进wrestling 对抗，斗争对抗，斗争resourceshortage 资源短缺positivefactor 积极因素，有利因素hegemony 霸权unswervinglyboost 坚定不移地推进坚定不移地推进Lesson10recipient 接受者foreigndirectinvestment foreigndirectinvestment（（FDI FDI）外商直接投资）外商直接投资）外商直接投资momentum 动力，势头beattributedto 归因于，由于。

全球能源治理英语专业

全球能源治理英语专业In the ever-evolving landscape of global energy, governance plays a pivotal role in ensuring sustainable and equitable distribution. The quest for energy efficiency and renewable sources is a collective effort that transcends national boundaries.The English language, as a global lingua franca, is instrumental in facilitating international dialogues on energy policies and strategies. It bridges the gap between diverse cultures, fostering a unified approach to tackling the world's energy challenges.Education in the field of global energy governance is crucial for the next generation of professionals. English proficiency is not just a communication tool; it's a gateway to understanding and implementing international standards and agreements.As the world shifts towards greener energy solutions, the role of English in global energy governance becomes more pronounced. It is the medium through which innovative ideas are shared and collaborative projects are launched.The integration of technology with energy governance is another area where English excels. Technical jargon and complex concepts are more easily disseminated and understood when communicated in English, ensuring clarity and precisionin the industry.Moreover, the English language aids in the dissemination of research findings and the development of educational materials on energy governance. This helps to raise awareness and promote best practices globally.In conclusion, the nexus between global energy governance and the English language is indispensable. It is the cornerstone of international cooperation, driving the world towards a more sustainable and energy-efficient future.。

经济六级英语作文

经济六级英语作文In the contemporary era, globalization has emerged as adriving force that shapes economies across the world. This essay aims to explore the multifaceted impact ofglobalization on the economy, highlighting both itsadvantages and challenges.First and foremost, globalization has facilitated the liberalization of trade and investment. The reduction oftrade barriers has allowed countries to specialize in producing goods and services where they have a comparative advantage. This specialization has led to increasedefficiency and productivity, which in turn has contributed to economic growth. For instance, the ability to import raw materials at lower costs and export finished products hasbeen a boon for many developing economies.Moreover, globalization has spurred technological advancements and innovation. The free flow of information and ideas across borders has enabled businesses to adopt best practices and cutting-edge technologies. This has not only improved the quality of products and services but has alsoled to the creation of new industries and job opportunities.However, globalization also poses significant challenges. One of the most prominent is the uneven distribution of its benefits. While some countries and individuals have prospered, others have been left behind, leading to increased incomeinequality. This disparity can cause social unrest and political instability, which can have negative repercussions on the economy.Additionally, globalization has made economies more vulnerable to external shocks. The interconnectedness of financial markets means that economic crises can spread rapidly from one country to another. For example, the 2008 global financial crisis had a domino effect, affecting economies worldwide.In conclusion, globalization has had a profound impact on economies around the world. While it has opened up new avenues for growth and development, it has also introduced new risks and challenges. It is imperative for policymakers and stakeholders to address these issues proactively to ensure that the benefits of globalization are shared more equitably and that economies are resilient to global economic shocks.。

公共管理专业英语

The Role of English in Public Management: Bridging the Global DivideIn the fast-paced and interconnected world of today, the importance of English in the field of public management cannot be overstated. English, as a lingua franca, has become the common language of communication across borders, sectors, and professions. In public management, this global language plays a pivotal role in bridging the divide, facilitating the exchange of ideas, and enabling effective collaboration.Firstly, English acts as a bridge between different cultures and perspectives. In the public sector, where policies and decisions often have far-reaching impacts, the ability to communicate effectively with stakeholders from diverse backgrounds is crucial. English enables public managers to convey complex ideas and concepts, regardless of their native language, fostering a more inclusive and collaborative decision-making process.Moreover, English facilitates access to a vast repository of knowledge and research. The global nature of public management demands that practitioners stay abreastof trends, best practices, and innovations from around the world. By reading and writing in English, public managers can tap into this rich resource, enhancing their professional capabilities and informing their policies and strategies.Additionally, English is essential for public managers seeking to engage with international organizations and partners. In an era of globalization, cross-border cooperation and partnerships are becoming increasingly common. By communicating in English, public managers can build relationships, share experiences, and collaborate effectively with their peers from other countries, contributing to the global public good.Furthermore, English acts as a tool for professional development. Public management is a dynamic field that requires continuous learning and adaptation. English-language courses and training programs provide public managers with the opportunity to enhance their skills, expand their networks, and prepare themselves for leadership roles in the global arena.In conclusion, English is indispensable in public management. It acts as a bridge between cultures, facilitates access to knowledge, enables international collaboration, and drives professional development. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the role of English in public management will continue to grow, making it even more crucial for practitioners to master this global language.**公共管理专业英语的重要性：跨越全球鸿沟**在当今快节奏、高度互联的世界中，英语在公共管理专业中的重要性不言而喻。

经济管理专业外语单词

一、political system reform 政治体制改革二、Economic system reform 经济体制改革3、Social system reform 社会体制改革4、Fiscal fixation system reform 财税体制改革五、The administrative system reform 行政体制改革六、The administrative and law enforcement system reform 行政执法体系改革7、The medical and health system reform 医疗卫生体制改革八、The cultural system reform 文化体制改革九、The judicial system reform 司法体制改革10、The science and technology system reform 科技体制改革1一、the ecology system reform 生态体制改革1二、the positive energy of reform 改革的正能量13、anti corruption uphold integrity 反腐倡廉14、economic responsibility audit 经济责任审计1五、economic pattern 经济模式1六、economic over heat 经济过热17、economic panic 经济恐慌1八、economic plunder 经济掠夺1九、economic protection 经济保护20、economic depression 经济萧条2一、economic slack 经济衰退2二、economic slide 经济滑坡23、economic resource 经济资源24、economic prediction 经济预测26、economic punishment 经济制裁27、economic report 经济报导2八、economic power 经济实力2九、economic potential power经济潜力30、economic pressure 经济压力3一、economic profit 经济利益3二、economic cooperation 经济合作33、economic competition 经济竞争34、economic crisis 经济危机3五、economic prosperity 经济繁荣3六、economic cost/invest 经济投资37、economic crime 经济犯法3八、economic court 经济法庭3九、economic cycle 经济周期40、economic data 经济数据4一、economic decision 经济决议4二、economic demand 经济需求43、economic discrimination 经济歧视44、economic diplomacy 经济外交4五、economic disharmony 经济失调4六、economic embargo 经济禁运47、economic expansion 经济膨胀4八、economic giant 经济巨人4九、economic structure 经济结构5一、the emerging market economic 新兴市场经济体5二、the developing economy 发展中的经济体53、the economy in transformation 转型中的经济体54、the high-income economy 高收入经济体5五、Economics of New structure 新机构经济学5六、the continuing innovation of technology 技术的不断创新57、the upgrade of industry 产业的不断升级5八、the constant improvement of the labour productivity 劳动生产力的不断提高5九、the late-mover advantages of economic growth 后发优势经济增加60、gradual double-track system 渐进的双轨制6一、shock treatment 休克疗法6二、the subsidy policy of special production 特殊产品补助政策63、comparative advantage 比较优势absolute advantage 绝对优势64、potential advantage 潜在优势6五、growth potential 增加潜力6六、comparative potential 相对潜力67、catching-up and overtaking strategy 赶超战略6八、developing creating strategy 发展和创新战略6九、human capital 人力资本7一、the total amount of foreign trade 对外贸易总量7二、the Asia-Pacific Regional Economic integration 亚太区域经济一体化73、the innovation and development of economic 经济创新发展the reform and growth of economic 经济的改革与增加全方面基础设施和互联互通建设hard connectivity 硬联接soft connectivity 软联接people to people connectivity 人与人联接APEC Business Travel Card APEC商务旅行卡7五、economic reformation 经济改革7六、new economic新经济77、economic of innovation 经济创新7八、tolerated support 包容性支持7九、urbanization 城镇化80、reasonable distribution of population 人口的合理散布8一、optimize the allocation of public resource 公共资源的优化配置8二、adjust the space layout of economic development 调整经济发展空间布局83、atmosphere controlling 大气治理84、decentralization of metropolis 去中心城市化8五、the Bohai Economic Circle 渤海经济圈8六、the Capital Economic Circle 首都经济圈87、regional development strategy 区域发展战略8八、sustaining economic growth and promoting employment 保经济增加，增进就业8九、AIIB- Asia infrastructure investment Bank 亚洲基础设施投资银行90、econometrics 计量经济学9一、economics of management 管理经济学9二、economics of agriculture 农业经济学93、economics of industry 工业经济学94、economics of commerce 商业经济学9六、economics of energy 能源经济学97、economics of environment 环境经济学9八、economics of human capital 人力资源经济学9九、economics of information 信息经济学100、economics of innovation /creation 创新经济学10一、economics of population 人口经济学10二、produce more but consume less 高产低耗103、advanced with the times 与时俱进104、all-round well-off society 全面小康社会10五、planned market economy 计划市场经济10六、free market economy 自由市场经济107、monopoly capital 垄断资本10八、financial market 金融市场10九、financial crisis 金融危机110、crisis of confidence of 信赖危机11一、crisis management 危机管理11二、financial incentive/stimulus 金融刺激113、4 trillion Yuan fiscal incentive 4万亿经济刺激计划114、inflation/expanding of currency 通胀11五、increase the domestic demand to pull up the economic growth 扩大内需拉动经济增加Bretons Wood System-fixed exchanging rate 布雷顿丛林体系11六、consumer economics 消费经济学117、consumer’s association 消费者协会11九、consumer Protection Act 消费者保护法120、consumer Bill of Right 消费者权益法12一、consumer price index（CPI）消费者物价指数12二、shopping confidence index 购物信心指数123、stabilize the real estate market and stock market 稳定房地产市场和股票市场124、optimization of the economics structure 经济结构优化12五、we are competitors，friends but not enemies 咱们既是竞争者又是朋友但不是做人12六、environment protection 环境保护127、reduction of exhausted and carbon dioxide emission 减少废气和二氧化碳排放12八、energy conservation，emission control and environment protection 节能减排环保12九、high growth，high pollution 高增加高污染130、resource saving enterprise 节能型企业13一、resource hungry country 资源匮乏国家13二、state environment protection standard 国家环保标准133、SEPA-State Environment Protection Agency 国家环保局134、SASAC-The State-owned Assets Supervision and administration Commission 国资委13五、NDRC-national development and reform commission 国际发改委NGO-non-government organization 非政府组织NPO-non-profit organization 非营利组织137、non-renewable resource 不可再生资源13八、pollution intensive goods 高污染产品13九、tariff barrier/wall 关税壁垒140、overall national power/strength 综合国力14一、per capital cultivated land 人都可耕地14二、real income per capital 人均实际收入/人都可支配收入143、facing new opportunities and challenges 面对新机缘和挑战144、a controversial issue 有争议的议题14五、the inevitable result of social development 社会发展不可避免的结果14六、the rapid development of economy 经济高速发展147、the advanced science and technology 先进的科学技术14八、（in）all aspects of human life 人们生活的方方面面14九、the increasingly fierce competition of 不断增加的激烈竞争150、we still have a long way to go 咱们还有很长的路要走。

国内外城市群研究的理论与实践

等多学科的交叉作用下，运用新科学方法与技术手段，国外城市群的相关研究在理论和实践两方面都有着十分丰富的积累和成果。

（一）田园城市理论（Garden City）1898年英国社会活动家霍华德（Eb-enezer Howard）出版了题为《明天：通往真正改革的平和之路》（《Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform》）的论著，针对当时工业革命以后大城市所面临的拥挤、卫生等问题，提出关于城市规划、区域发展的设想，后被称作“田园城市”（Garden City）理论。

其主要内容包括：（1）疏散过分拥挤的城市人口，使国内外城市群研究的理论与实践◎ 裘丽岚摘要：本文对城市群的理论发展和研究成果做了概括性的回顾和梳理。

重点叙述了国外的圈层结构理论、田园城市理论、区域规划理论、中心地理论、增长极理论、大都市带理论、城市空间相互作用理论、核心—边缘理论，以及国内的点轴系统理论和双核（港城）模式，还对国内外其他学者的相关研究作了简单的介绍。

关键词：城市群理论实践【中图分类号】K90目前，联合国人类聚落中心将城市聚集区（Urban Agglomeration）用作衡量城市规模的标准，是指一群密集、连续的城镇所形成的人口居住区。

现在城市群的英文名称便来源于此。

按照《中华人民共和国国家标准—城市规划基本术语标准》（1998）的定义，城市群（Agglomera-tion）是一定地域内城市分布较为密集的地区[1]。

随着中国城市化进程的加快，城市群的研究越来越引起人们的关注。

一、国外城市群理论综述在地理、人口、交通、社会、经济、政治【基金项目】成都市社会科学联合会2011年项目《成都平原城市群产业分工转移和空间布局协调研究》研究成果，项目编号：ZSR11-05。

中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金2011年项目《成都平原城市群功能结构及区际协调研究》的研究成果之一，项目编号：11SZYQN17。

长三角城市群数字经济发展对城乡融合的影响

2023年8月（第37卷第8期）Aug.，2023（Vol.37，No.8）East China Economic Management长三角城市群数字经济发展对城乡融合的影响王军，柳晶晶，车帅（中国石油大学（华东）经济管理学院，山东青岛266580）摘要：目前，城乡融合发展是高质量发展的重要一环，数字经济是城乡融合的新动能和新引擎。

文章选取2011—2020年数字经济发展水平较高的长三角城市群26个城市的面板数据，运用固定效应和机制检验模型探究数字经济对城乡融合的影响程度、作用路径和异质性。

由非线性模型回归可知，在“数字鸿沟”和“虹吸效应”的影响下，数字经济对城乡融合的影响呈“倒U”型，但目前长三角地区发展处在拐点左侧，数字经济对城乡融合具有促进作用；由机制检验可知，数字经济通过影响产业结构升级和创业活跃度来影响城乡融合水平；异质性分析发现，在长三角地区，中心城市的数字经济发展对城乡融合水平的促进作用小于外围城市。

关键词：长三角城市群；数字经济；城乡融合；非线性回归中图分类号：F49文献标识码：A文章编号：1007-5097（2023）08-0033-09 The Impact of Digital Economy Development on Urban-Rural Integrationin the Yangtze River Delta City ClusterWANG Jun，LIU Jingjing，CHE Shuai（College of Economics and Management，China University of Petroleum（East China），Qingdao266580，China）Abstract：At present，urban-rural integration development is an important part of high-quality development，and the digital economy is a new driving force and engine for urban-rural integration.This paper selects the panel data of26cit‐ies in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration with a high level of digital economy development from2011to2020，and uses the fixed effect and mechanism test model to explore the extent，path，and heterogeneity of the impact of digital economy on urban-rural integration.According to nonlinear model regression，under the influence of the"digital divide" and"siphon effect"，the impact of the digital economy on urban-rural integration shows an"inverted U"shape.However，at present，the development of the Yangtze River Delta region is on the left side of the turning point，and the digital economy has a promoting effect on urban-rural integration；according to the mechanism test，the digital economy affects the level of urban-rural integration by affecting the upgrading of industrial structure and entrepreneurial activity；hetero‐geneity analysis has found that in the Yangtze River Delta region，the promotion effect of digital economy development in central cities on the level of urban-rural integration is smaller than that in peripheral cities.Key words：Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration；digital economy；urban-rural integration；nonlinear regression一、引言城乡关系一直是备受社会各界关注的问题。

西部民族地区广域城镇风貌规划管控技术探索——以《青海省海南藏族自治州城镇风貌规划》为例

西部民族地区广域城镇风貌规划管控技术探索——以《青海省海南藏族自治州城镇风貌规划》为例□　曹　炎，齐立博[摘　要]新时代国土空间规划秉持全域全要素管控导向，明确要求各地“加强风貌管控，突出地域特色”。

与单个城镇类风貌规划相比，广域尺度的市州级城镇风貌规划在国内实践较少，这对地广人稀的西部民族地区具有突出的指导意义。

这类规划采取“全覆盖、全要素、多尺度”的空间治理思路，将宏观尺度的自然、人文、经济类要素和微观尺度的城乡风貌要素相结合，以实现“整体塑魂、分级塑形、差异引导、多规协同”的广域风貌引导目标。

文章以《青海省海南藏族自治州城镇风貌规划》为例，以ArcGIS 平台量化统计数据完成风貌要素建库，建立“州域—县城—重点镇/特色镇—一般镇”多层传导的风貌规划管控体系，并运用“正向引导、负面管控、图则指引”的方式落实管控要求，探索了广域城镇风貌规划的创新编制技术方法。

[关键词]城镇风貌规划；广域尺度；风貌管控；青海省海南藏族自治州[文章编号]1006-0022(2021)03-0051-07　[中图分类号]TU984　[文献标识码]B[引文格式]曹炎，齐立博．西部民族地区广域城镇风貌规划管控技术探索——以《青海省海南藏族自治州城镇风貌规划》为例[J]．规划师，2021(3)：51-57．Cityscape Planning and Governance of Western Ethnic T owns: Qinghai Case/Cao Y an, Qi Libo[Abstract] National land and space planning in the new era requires strengthening cityscape governance and highlightingvernacular character via all elements control. Wide area prefecture level cityscape planning is rarely practiced, and it is of great guidance to sparsely populated western ethnic region. The plan adopts “full coverage, all elements, multiple scales” governance concept, combines macro natural, humanistic, economic elements and micro urban-rural features, and realizes cityscape guidance vision of “general spirit, levels of forms, differentiated guidance, and multi-plan integration” . With Hainan Tibetan prefecture as an example, the paper establishes a cityscape element library with ArcGIS platform, sets up a cityscape planning system with “prefecture-county-town” levels, consolidates governance requirements by “positive guidance, negative list governance, graphic guidance” methods, and explores the wide area cityscape planning compilation technique.[Key words] Cityscape planning, Wide area, Cityscape governance, Hainan prefecutre, Qinghai province[作者简介]曹　炎，注册城乡规划师，现任职于江苏省城镇与乡村规划设计院有限公司。

铝熔体净化用的新型泡沫陶瓷过滤板_柯东杰

收稿日期:2005-02-15基金项目:福建省科技中小企业创新基金项目(20037012W) 第一作者简介:柯东杰(1963-),男,福建泉州人,高级工程师。

铝熔体净化用的新型泡沫陶瓷过滤板New Type CFF for Cleaning Molten Aluminum 柯东杰1,2,黄双溪1,陈群2,柯艺勤2KE Dong -jie 1,2,HUANG Shuang -xi 1,CHEN Qun 2,KE Y-i qin 2(1.福州大学有色金属熔炼新材料装备研究所,福建福州350002;2.福州麦特新高温材料有限公司,福建福州350000)摘要:简要介绍了泡沫陶瓷过滤板的特性及其在铝加工业中的应用状况,着重介绍一种新型活性泡沫陶瓷过滤材料的特性、过滤净化机理,讨论了如何选用新一代泡沫陶瓷过滤板以及使用中要注意的问题。

关键词:铝熔体;净化;泡沫陶瓷过滤板中图分类号:TG292 文献标识码:B 文章编号:1007-7235(2005)06-0008-03铝合金的熔炼是铝合金加工过程的重要环节,体现在熔炼过程的合金化、净化、细化处理技术。

采取炉内熔剂处理和炉外泡沫陶瓷过滤去除铝合金熔体中非金属夹杂早已成为铝液净化的重要手段。

泡沫陶瓷是一种开口气孔率高达80%~90%,密度为0 3g/c m 3~0.6g/cm 3,具有独特的三维立体网络骨架和相互贯通气孔结构的多孔陶瓷制品。

最早的泡沫陶瓷过滤器是1978年美国Consolidated Alu -minum 公司的Mollard F R 和Davison N 研制成功并用于铝合金熔铸系统的,并于1980年4月在美国铸造年会上发表了他们的研究成果,从那时起世界各地相应研制、开发泡沫陶瓷过滤材料,在冶金行业普遍应用。

泡沫陶瓷过滤器(Cera mic Foa m Filter CFF)的生产普遍采用一种三维网状结构和连通气孔的有机泡沫塑料作载体,将其浸入具有触变性的特种陶瓷浆料中,并采取特殊的辊挤工艺,使陶瓷浆料均匀敷于载体的骨架上,然后经烘干固化再高温焙烧而成[1~5]。

英语作文论题

1.The Impact of Technology on Modern Education Discuss how technological advancements have transformed the way we learn and teach.2.The Role of Social Media in Shaping Public Opinion Explore the influence of social media platforms on public perception and how it affects societal issues.3.Environmental Conservation:A Collective Responsibility Argue the importance of individual and collective efforts in preserving the environment.4.The Benefits of Bilingualism Elaborate on the cognitive,social,and professional advantages of being bilingual.5.The Ethics of Genetic Engineering Analyze the moral implications of genetic engineering and its potential impact on society.6.The Influence of Cultural Diversity on Global Business Discuss how cultural diversity can enhance or challenge international business practices.7.The Importance of Mental Health Awareness Advocate for the significance of mental health awareness in reducing stigma and improving wellbeing.8.The Effects of Globalization on Local Economies Examine the positive and negative economic impacts of globalization on local communities.9.The Role of Art in Society Reflect on how art can serve as a medium for expression, communication,and social change.10.The Challenges of Climate Change Discuss the scientific,political,and social challenges posed by climate change and potential solutions.11.The Evolution of Privacy in the Digital Age Consider how the concept of privacy has evolved with the rise of digital technology and its implications for individuals and society.12.The Impact of Urbanization on Rural Communities Analyze the effects of urbanization on rural areas,including migration,economic shifts,and cultural changes.13.The Significance of Education in Achieving Gender Equality Argue how education plays a crucial role in promoting gender equality and empowering women.14.The Role of Sports in Promoting National Identity Discuss how sports can foster asense of national pride and unity.15.The Ethics of Animal Testing Debate the ethical considerations surrounding the use of animals for scientific research and product testing.16.The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment Consider the potential job displacement and creation due to advancements in AI and automation.17.The Importance of Sustainable Development Discuss the principles of sustainable development and its role in balancing economic growth with environmental protection.18.The Influence of Media on Body Image Explore how media representations of beauty can affect individuals selfesteem and body image.19.The Challenges of Refugee Crises Analyze the global refugee crisis,its causes,and the international communitys response.20.The Power of Volunteering Reflect on the personal and societal benefits of volunteering and its role in community development.。

多中心治理理论的起源_发展与演变

2009年12月第11卷增刊　东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版)Journal of Southeast University (Philo sophy and Social Science )　Dec 12009Vol 111Supplement多中心治理理论的起源、发展与演变王志刚(东南大学人文学院江苏南京211189)[摘　要]多中心理论源起经济领域对于计划经济和市场经济的比较研究,之后在政治行政领域获得进一步发展,并趋向成熟。

现代治理理论伴随着政治和经济全球化,成为国际上逐渐关注的公共管理理论,并在我国的政府治理研究中获得了一定发展。

多中心和治理理论两者随着时代需求逐渐结合,形成了一种新的政府公共管理范式。

[关键词]多中心;治理;多中心治理[中图分类号]D0　[文献标识码]A [文章编号]16712511X (2009)0S 20035203[收稿日期]2009-09-08[作者简介]王志刚,男,河北正定人,东南大学人文学院2007级硕士研究生,研究方向:公共政策。

“多中心性”认识最早来自经济领域,通过比较集中指挥的计划经济和自由竞争的市场经济,演绎出多中心任务,进而提出在政治、社会、文化领域也存在着多中心性。

现代治理是在全球化过程中形成的新的公共管理机制理论。

多中心与治理共同特征是分权和自治。

前者自治凸显为一种竞争性,后者自治强调合作性。

当两种理论结合时,多中心治理便形成了包含了多个中心主体的竞争与合作的新公共管理范式。

一、多中心理论的起源英国学者迈克尔・博兰尼在《自由的逻辑》一书中首先提出了“多中心”的话语,他从人类科技发展的历史和市场经济优于高度集中计划经济的分析中逐步理出自由智识的逻辑,总结出“自发秩序”和“集中指导”秩序两种对自由安排的方式。

他认为前者才是真正意义上的自由。

在对自发秩序的进一步说明中,他看到商品经济活动中利润对人的激励作用,从而洞察到了“多中心性”选择的存在。

博兰尼认为,自由社会的特征是公共自由的范围———由此个人主义可以实现其社会功能———而不是社会上无效的个人自由之程度。

Urbanization and Biodiversity Loss

Urbanization and Biodiversity Loss Urbanization and Biodiversity Loss: A Complex RelationshipUrbanization, defined as the process of population shift from rural areas to urban areas, has been a long-standing trend in human history. Today, more thanhalf of the world's population lives in urban areas, and this proportion is expected to increase in the coming years. While urbanization has brought about many benefits, such as improved access to healthcare, education, and job opportunities, it has also led to biodiversity loss, which is the loss of variety and abundance of living organisms in a given ecosystem. This essay will explorethe complex relationship between urbanization and biodiversity loss, taking into account multiple perspectives.One perspective is that urbanization is a major driver of biodiversity loss.As cities expand, they often encroach on natural habitats, leading to the destruction of ecosystems and the displacement of wildlife. For example, the construction of roads, buildings, and other infrastructure can fragment habitats, making it difficult for species to move and access resources. Additionally, urbanization often leads to pollution, which can have negative impacts on wildlife. For instance, air pollution can harm the respiratory systems of animals, while water pollution can affect aquatic ecosystems and the species that depend on them. As a result, many species are declining or facing extinction due to urbanization.Another perspective is that urbanization can have positive impacts on biodiversity. For example, urban areas can provide habitat for some species that are adapted to living in human-dominated environments. These species, known as urban-adapted species, include animals such as pigeons, rats, and cockroaches. Additionally, urban areas can serve as refuges for some species that arethreatened by habitat loss in rural areas. For instance, some bird species have been found to thrive in urban parks and gardens. Furthermore, urban areas can provide opportunities for conservation and restoration efforts. For example,cities can implement green infrastructure, such as parks, green roofs, and rain gardens, to support biodiversity and provide ecosystem services.A third perspective is that the relationship between urbanization and biodiversity loss is complex and context-dependent. While urbanization can havenegative impacts on biodiversity in some cases, it can also have positive impactsin others. For instance, the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity can vary depending on the type of urban development, the location, and the species involved. Furthermore, the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity can be influenced byother factors, such as climate change and land-use change. Therefore, it is important to consider the specific context when assessing the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity.A fourth perspective is that addressing biodiversity loss in urban areas requires a multi-disciplinary approach. Urban biodiversity loss is a complex problem that requires solutions from multiple disciplines, including ecology,urban planning, and social sciences. For example, urban planners can incorporate biodiversity considerations into their designs, such as by creating greencorridors and wildlife crossings. Additionally, social scientists can study the attitudes and behaviors of urban residents towards biodiversity and develop strategies to promote pro-environmental behaviors. Furthermore, ecologists can study the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity and develop strategies tomitigate these impacts.A fifth perspective is that addressing biodiversity loss in urban areas requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders. Urban biodiversity loss is a problem that affects many different stakeholders, including residents, businesses, governments, and non-governmental organizations. Therefore, addressing this problem requires the involvement and collaboration of multiple stakeholders. For example, residents can participate in citizen science projects to monitor biodiversity and provide data to researchers. Additionally, businesses can implement sustainable practices that support biodiversity, such as using green roofs and reducing pollution. Furthermore, governments can implement policies and regulations that protect biodiversity and promote sustainable urban development.In conclusion, the relationship between urbanization and biodiversity loss is complex and multifaceted. While urbanization can have negative impacts on biodiversity, it can also have positive impacts in some cases. Therefore, it is important to consider the specific context when assessing the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity. Addressing biodiversity loss in urban areas requiresa multi-disciplinary approach and the involvement of multiple stakeholders. By working together, we can develop strategies to promote sustainable urban development and protect biodiversity in our cities.。

公共经济学专业英语词汇整理

公共经济学专业英语词汇整理本文档旨在整理公共经济学专业相关的英语词汇，帮助研究者扩大词汇量并提高专业英语能力。

1. 宏观经济学（Macroeconomics）- Aggregate demand: 总需求- Aggregate supply: 总供给- Business cycle: 商业周期- Economic growth: 经济增长- Fiscal policy: 财政政策- Inflation: 通货膨胀- Monetary policy: 货币政策- Unemployment rate: 失业率2. 微观经济学（Microeconomics）- Demand: 需求- Supply: 供给- Market equilibrium: 市场均衡- Price elasticity: 价格弹性- Consumer surplus: 消费者剩余- Producer surplus: 生产者剩余- Monopoly: 垄断3. 经济学方法与理论（Economic Methods and Theories）- Cost-benefit analysis: 成本效益分析- Game theory: 博弈论- Rational choice theory: 理性选择理论- Supply and demand model: 供需模型- Economies of scale: 规模经济- Externalities: 外部性- Opportunity cost: 机会成本- Production possibility frontier: 生产可能性边界4. 公共财政（Public Finance）- Government budget: 政府预算- Taxation: 税收- Public debt: 公共债务- Tax incidence: 税负分担- Public goods: 公共产品- External debt: 外债- Tax evasion: 逃税- Revenue: 收入5. 发展经济学（Development Economics）- Poverty alleviation: 扶贫- Sustainable development: 可持续发展- Foreign direct investment: 外商直接投资- Human capital: 人力资本- Microfinance: 小额信贷- Economic inequality: 经济不平等- Millennium Development Goals: 千年发展目标以上仅为公共经济学专业部分相关英语词汇的简要整理。