语言学中descriptive定义

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语言学名词解释07790

名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。

规定性的研究以制定语言使用的规范和标准为主要目的，即为使用者指出语言的标准用法，什么是正确的用法，什么是错误的用法，为语言使用者提供典范。

ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。

英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isola tion, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.。

语言学概论名词解释

1. Design features of language:(1)Arbitrariness (任意性):there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.（声音和意思无直接联系）eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.（2）Duality(双重性)：the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units at another level. That is, sounds such as d, g, f, o, mean nothing separately. They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog, and god. 2．Descriptive grammars(描写性语法): attempt to tell what is in the language(语言第一，语法第二，语法是为语言服务)Prescriptive grammars（规定性语法）：tell people what should be in the language.3．Phonetics(语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they ate produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.It can be divided into 3main branches:(1) articulatory phonetics(有音节的), which is the study of how speech sounds are produced(2)acoustic phonetics（有关声音的）,which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air(3)auditory phonetics(听觉的)，which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.4.Assimilation(同化): a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a neighboring sound ,eg: a vowel becomes whenfollowed by a consonant.5．Phonology(音系学): the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.6．Minimal pairs（最小对立体）: a pair of words that differ by only a single sound in the same position, e.g. look/ took, spill/still and keep/coop Minimal set（最小对立体集）: when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme(always in the same position)eg: a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, and wig.7．Syllable（音节）: these units which are often longer than one should and smaller than a whole word. 1. phonetically, syllables are usually described as consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and which sounds comparatively loud.2.phonologically, syllables are defined by the way in which vowels and consonants combine to form various sequences.8．Stress (重音): the prominence given to certain sounds in speech. 9．Morphology (形态学)：the study of the structure of words.10．Root（词根）: the morpheme that remains when all affixes are strippes froma complex word. eg: system from un- +system + atic +ally11.Derivational morphemes（派生词缀）可能会改变词性: a morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. eg: -ment derives the noun from the verb establish; re- changes themeaning of the verb paint to "paint again".Inflectional morphemes（屈折词缀）不改变词性: which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.12.Allomorphs(语素变体): a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.plementary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution for they never occur in the same contest. Eg: the unaspirated /p/ always occurs after /s/ while the aspirated one always occurs in other places.14.types of word formation:(1)compounding(合成构词法):words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. Two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.(2)Derivation（派生构词法）：derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. A derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme. For example, by adding affixes un-, mis-, -ful, -less, -ism, we can get words like unhappy, misunderstand, careful, careless.(3)Blending(混成构词法): a process a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. eg: the English word brunch is made from breakfast and lunch.(4)Acronym（首字母拼音词）：some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words, as in NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)15.Syntax(句法学): used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.(1)Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法)：also called IC Analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.) eg. In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man” is divided into “old” and “man.” It was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933.(2)Recursion（递归性）:the feature of recursion permits a grammar of a finite number of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences. For example: This is the house that jack built. /This is the cat that lived in the house that jack built.16.Semantics（语义学）：the study of linguistic meaning.(1)Sense(意义)语言之间的关系：the inherent part of an expression’s meaning which, together with context, determines its referent. It is also called intension. Eg: knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the UnitedStates in 2004 allows one to determine that George W. Bush is the referent. (2)Reference(指称，参照)：the relationship between words and the things, actions ,events, and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object "tree" in the real world.17、Pragmatics(语用学)：a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(1)Anaphora(回指):the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(2)Cohesion(衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Coherence(连贯): :the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse of the sentences in a text.18、Iconicity(象似性)：the major types of iconicity in language which have frequently been proposed are those of order, distance, and complexity.(1)Iconicity of order(顺序象似性)：refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic of construction. (e.g. Caesar’s historic words “veni, vidi, vici”-I came, I saw, I conquered.) iconicity of order reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world.(2)Iconicity of distance（距离象似性）：accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. That is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(3)Iconicity of complexity(复杂象似性):accounts for our tendency toassociate more form with more meaning and, conversely ,less form with less meaning.19.The prototype theory（原形理论）：what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. eg: For some English speakers "cabbage" might be the prototypical vegetable.20.Lexical gap(词汇空缺) : the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull as horse covers stallion and mare.21.Associative meaning（联想意义）：connotative(内涵), social, affective（情感）, reflective（反射）, and collocative（搭配）meanings are called associative meaning.Reflective meaning(反射意义):is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.22.Allophone(音位变体)：a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.23.Diacritics（变音符号）：is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.。

Descriptive_Linguistics

3.在结构分析中主要运用分布和替换的方法，以便从一堆言语素材中切分出独立的单位并加以归类。
4.对句法结构进行层次分析，这是分布和替换的方法在句法研究中的具体运用，并由此发展出直接成分的分析法，即把句子或词按层次区分出它的组成部分。
5.建立语素音位这个新的单位，这是在语法和语音结合的基础上建立的一个新的单位。它是由出现于某个语素变体的一组音位所组成的语音单位（如英语名词复数的词尾-s, -z, iz是由不同的音位组成的同一个语素音位）。
The purpose of linguistic theory, so far as a practical linguist is concerned, is to make descriptions of morphology and syntax comprehensible. It is easy to see that the same data can often be described in different ways. For a while there was an active desire to find some measure which would allow some one description to be called the best. Today that goal seems to have been given up as chimerical.
6.强调验证。这一学派认为语言研究必须根据话语的素材，采用严格规定的步骤对这些素材做形式的分类，而且分析的结果必须经受验证。因此，它也被称为"操作主义"和"分类主义"。五十年代末，随着转换生成语言学的新起，它逐渐失去了原有的主导地位，影响减弱。

语言学的重要区分

• 共时语言学就是研究一种或多种语言在其历史发展中的某一阶段的情况，即语言状态(language state)，而不考虑这种状态究竟如何演化而来,又称静态语言学(static linguistics).
• 历时语言学集中研究语言在较长历史时期所经历的变化，又称演化语言学（evolutionary linguistics）
• Langue refers to the abstract linc system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
• langue is the set of conventions and rules which lg users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the applications of the rules.
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
Contents
• Descriptive vs Prescriptive • Synchronic vs Diachronic • Langue vs Parole • Competence vs Performance • Speech vs Writing
• Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)

语言学名词解释

语言学名词解释胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity,displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.Function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions include informativefunction, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.4.Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.5.Prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. layingdown rules for language use.6.Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.7.Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.8.Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.9.Displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.10.Phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.11.Metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies./doc/1716061846.html,petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.13.Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation./doc/1716061846.html,ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.15.Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).16.Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. (The study ofsounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.)17.Phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover theprinciples that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.18.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.19.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.20.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.21.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air./doc/1716061846.html,plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.23.Suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 24.Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.25.Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.26.Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme (the root or stem).27.Derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.28.Root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.29.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.30.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.31.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.32.Lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.33.Grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articlesand pronouns.34.Lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is, those which refer to substance, action andquality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.35.Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.36.Loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, insome cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.37.Loan blend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning isfully borrowed.38.Loan shift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.39.Acronym: is made up of the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modifiedheadword.40.Loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.41.Back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.42.Assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called. ”contact” or”contiguous” assimilation.43.Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determinesthought.44.Linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.45.Performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as opposed to aconstative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.46.Constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.47.Locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying l iteral meaning by means ofsyntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.48.Illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.49.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.50.Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.。

Descriptive Linguistics

The Trend of Modern Linguistics ……
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Accurate description of real speech is a difficult problem, and linguists have often been reduced to grossly inaccurate approximations. Almost all linguistic theory has its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. Phonology (and its theoretical developments, such as the phoneme) deals with how native speakers pronounce their languages. Syntax has developed to describe what happens when phonetics has reduced spoken language to a normalized control level. Lexicography（词典编纂） collects "words" and their derivations and transformations: it has not given rise to much gen调验证。这一学派认为语言研强调验证。强调验证究必须根据话语的素材，究必须根据话语的素材，采用严格规定的步骤对这些素材做形式的分而且分析的结果必须经受验证。类，而且分析的结果必须经受验证。因此，它也被称为"操作主义操作主义"和分因此，它也被称为操作主义和"分类主义"。五十年代末，随着转换类主义。五十年代末，随着转换生成语言学的新起，生成语言学的新起，它逐渐失去了原有的主导地位，影响减弱。原有的主导地位，影响减弱。

英语语言学导论笔记

一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。

语言学知识复习总结

语言学知识复习总结-------重要概念梳理第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features)1. 任意性Arbitrariness: shu 和tree 都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言是由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning)3.多产性Productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences)4.移位性Displacement: 可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission: 语言需要后天在特定的文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language)1.传达信息功能Informative: 最主要功能The main function2.人际功能Interpersonal: 人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能Per formative: 现实应用--判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge, naming, and curses4.表情功能Emotive: 表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词（句）exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能Phatic: 应酬话phatic language,比如“吃了没？”“天气真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能Metalingual: 用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书，也可以用“book”这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1.核心语言学Core linguistic●语音学Phonetics: 关注语音的产生、传播和接收过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

语言学名词解释

名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。

ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。

英语语言学教程课后整理

Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.----Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.Prescriptive&Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)Prescriptive----Ifalinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(tradi tionalgr ammar)Descriptive----Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic) Synchronic&Diachronic共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperi odoftime)vidual.DualityAcousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother. Classificationofvowels（元音）Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels（单元音）Diphthongsorglidingvowels（双元音）Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:。

语言学名词解释及知识点(1)

语言学名词解释及知识点1.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.ngugage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1)Arbitrariness任意性refers that there is no logic or intrinsic固有的relationship between form(sound) and meaning.(2)Duality双重性means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level arecomposed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity多产性means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(4)Displacement means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.(5)Cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of thelinguistic system must be learned by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability互换性means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.nguage is human unique.5.Six prmary factors of any speech event and language functions（Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics 1960 Jakobson）:(1)context语境——referential（to convey message and information）(2)message——poetic（to indulge in language for its own sake）(3)addresser陈述人——emotive（to express attitudes，feelings and emotions）(4)addressee受话人——conative（to persuade and influence others through commands and requests）(5)contact接触方法——phatic（to establish communion with others）(6)code编码（手语等）——metalingual元语言的（to clear up表达intentions and meanings）nguage Functions: Informational信息功能；Interpersonal人际功能；Performative施为功能；Emotive；Directive；Phatic communion寒暄功能；Metalingual（the analysis of language itself）；Recreational7.Scope of Linguistics(1)Microlinguistics微观语言学: sound: phonetic语音学, phonology音系学; form：morphology形态学, syntax句法学;meaning: semantics语义学; pragmatics语用学(2)Macrolinguistics宏观语言学: interdisciplinary交叉学科, sociolinguistics社会语言学, psycholinguistics心理语言学,applied linguistics应用语言学, anthropological linguistics人类语言学, computational linguistics计算机语言学8.Key Concepts in Linguistics(1)Descriptive描写means the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.(2)Prescriptive规定means the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguage to tell people what they should say and not say.(3)Synchronic共时in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time 时间点(4)Diachronic历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.时间段(5)Langue语言is the set of conventions and rules, it is abstract and relatively stable.(6)Parole言语is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, it is concrete and varies fromperson to person, and from situation to situation.(7)Competence语言能力is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his or her language.(8)Performance语言表现is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (NoamChomsky Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965)9.Phonetics语音学is defined as the scientific study of speech sounds, especially on its production, transmission and perception.10.Consonants辅音are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity.11.Vowels元音are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction.12.Phonology音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of a specific language. It aims to discover the principles that governs the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.13.Relationship between phonetics and phonology;(1)Phonetics is the basis for phonological study while phonology is the extension of phonetics.(2)Phonetics is gloal while phonology is local.(3)Phonetic transcription音标is in [ ] (square brackets) while ponemic transcription is in / / (slashes).14.Phoneme音位is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in a language and which can distinguish two words.(phonology)15.Phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.But a phone does not distinguish meaning. (phonetics)16.Allophone音素的变位means the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.17.Tone is useless in English. (X) ; English is tone-language. (X)18.Morphology形态学is the study of word-formation and the study of the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components, that is morphemes.19.Morpheme词素is the minimal unit in terms of relationship between expression and content(form and meaning), a unit which can not be devided without destroying or drastically极端地altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.20.Word is a minimum free form which is stable and relatively uninterruptible.21.Allomorph语素变体is any of the different shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme. (cats,dogs,horses中的s,z,iz是复数词尾s的变体）22.Word-formation: compounding复合词(blackboard,wedding-ring,coffee table); derivation派生(happy-unhappy); coinage新造词; blending合成词(brunch,smog); back-formation逆生词(commentate is a back-formation from commentator); clipping缩减; acronymy缩写; analogical creation类比创造; borrowing借词23.Types of Morphemes：(1)Affix词缀is the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.(2)Root词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(free：friend；bound：-ceive）(3)Stem词干is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix may be added, eg.possibility+esparing inflectional屈折(不改变意义和词类，只能是后缀；三单,-ed,-ing,-en,pl,所有格,-er/-est) and derivational派生morphemes：①In terms of productivity②Whether the word class of the stem词干is changed or not③Grammatical need vs semantic need④Order: derivational morpheme + inflectional morpheme⑤Suffix后缀: derivational + inflectional; Prefix前缀: derivational25.Syntax is the study of the internal structure of sentences(clauses and phrases) and the rules that govern the formationof sentences.26.Morphology + Syntax= Grammar27.Autonomy自主性of syntax is the unique feature.28.Endocentric向心structure is one whose distribution is functionaly equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is a head中心语. (NP,VP,PP,AP,TP)29.Exocentric离心structure refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, There is no head.30.Systemic Functional Grammar系统功能语法：related to social settingsGenerative Grammar生成语法（形式语言学，Chomsky）：do not care about social settings31.Semantics语义学is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.32.Reference指称意义means the relationship between the linguistic form and what it refers to in the non-linguistic world of experience or physical world.33.Sense is the inherent固有的meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and decontextualized.34.Contextualism: one can derive meaning from observable contexts which include situational context and the linguistic context.35.Behaviorism: meaning is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls for the in the hearer.36.Semantic Componential Analysis语义成分分析法is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing is into its atomic features. It shows the semantic feature of a word.37.Pragmatics语用学is the study of meaning in context, the study of speakers’ meaning and the study of utterance meaning.38.Pragmatics = Meaning - Semantics39.Utterance 话语meaing: units of language in useSentence meaning: abstract units of the language system.40.Context is the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.41.Speech act theory 言语行为理论由Austin 提出How to Do Things with Words 196242.Locutionary act以言指事（言内行为）is the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.43.Illocutionary act以言形事（言外行为）is the act performed in saying something.Illocutionary force: the most interesting part for pragmatic study.44.Perlocutionary acty以言成事（言后行为）is the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.45.Cooperative Principle(CP)合作原则——The essential thesis: Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purposes or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.四个准则：maxim of quantity 数量准则；maxim of quality 质量准则（修辞）；relation；manner46.Sociolinguistics社会语言学is the subfield of linguistics that studies language in relation to society. It is interested in how social factors influence the structue and use of language.47.The key issue in sociolinguistics is variation.nguage and Gender(1)Major ideas concerning language and gender:①Men and women speak differently.②Language is discriminatory against women.(2)Features of women’s language①Frequent use of hedges like “I’m afraid that…”, “I’m not sure but…”, “kind of ”, and “sort of “.②Abundant use of tag question as in “The lecture is terribly interesting, isn’t it?”③Greater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men: “awfully”, “lovely”, “terribly”, and “fascinating”, among others.④Preference for use of the standard form of a language, and more polite than men’s language(3)Language sexism①Job stereotypes: nurse, teacher, clerk, president②In word-formation: author/ authoress, actor/ actress, widow寡妇/ widower鳏夫, hero/ heroine③In meaning: governor/ governess保姆; master/ mistress情妇。

语言学名词解释37440

名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。

ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。

Chapter1语言学名词解释1

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。

Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will.Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form。

Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal nguage is human specificDesign features:those features of human language,which are thought to distinguish it from other kinds of animal communication.It includes Arbitrariness;Duality;Productivity (creativity)Interchangeability;Displacement;Specialization;Cultural transmissionArbitary: No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.e.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)mansion (French)房子(Chinese)Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, pho tocopy…Duality (Double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units(words)at another level.Productivity(creativity):Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.Displacement: Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached manner. Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his role as the speaker and hearer can be exchanged at ease.Functions of languages:Language is used for communication:Phatic function/communion;Directive function;Informative function;Interrogative function;Performative function ;Evocative function;Expressive function;Metalingual functionPhatic function/communion: language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and hearer. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather serve this function. For example, the expressions such as How do you do?Directive function:Language is used to get the hearer to do something, such as orders and requests. Most imperative sentences are of this function. For example, the sentence “Close your book and listen to me”Iterrogative function:l anguage is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function. What’s your idea?,However, rhetorical questions do not have theinterrogative function, such as Shelly’s famous sentence O, Wind, if winter comes, can spring be far behind?.Informative function :Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function. For instance, the symbol “Road closed” on a road serve this function.Expressive/emotive function :Language is used to express attitudes, feelings and emotions. Ejaculations serve this function, such as My God! and Good heavens!.Evocative function :language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this function.Performative function :l anguage is used to do things or to perform acts. The judge’s imprisonment sentences, the president’s declaration of war or the Queen’s naming of a ship, etc. Microlinguistics:Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.Phonology----sound patterns of languages Morphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Semantics----the meaning of language.When the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics.Macro-linguistics :Interdisciplinary branches of linguistics,Language can be also studied in relation with something else, resulting in many interdisciplinary branches which overlap with anthropology, communication, foreign language teaching and learning, psychology, or sociology. Here are some of those subfields:Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language. It studies such mattes as the linguistic identity of social groups, social attitudes to language, standard and non-standard forms of language, the patterns and needs of national language use, and so on. Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.Related with psycholinguistics is the study of language processing and language presentation in the brain, which is now known as neurolinguistics or neurological linguistics. It typically studies the disturbances of language comprehension and production caused by the damage of certain areas of the brain.Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts, but it also investigates spoken language sometimes. It is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. Since stylistics is the scientific study of literary style, it can be called the “science of literature”.Discourse analysis, or text linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. It deals with how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews, and the various devices used by speakers and writers when they connect single sentences together into a cohesive and coherent whole. The recent developments of discourse analysis have been carried out on classroom discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis, and cognitive discourse putational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer. It includes the analysis of language data, the research on machine-aided translation, electronic production of artificial speech and the automatic recognition of human speech. It has produced programmes for collecting and evaluating large amounts of language data for making frequency word lists, for automatically indexing, and for producing concordances (word lists with contexts)Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. It is sometimes called a paradigm or a school of linguistics. The analysis of the conceptual and experiential basis of linguistic categories is of primary importance within cognitive linguistics: it primarily considers language as a system of categories. Therefore, the main topics that cognitive linguistics is interested in are categories and categorization, conceptual metaphor and metonymy, iconicity, and grammaticalizationApplied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience. The most well-developed branch of applied linguistics is the learning and teaching of foreign languages and sometimes the term is used as if this were the only field involved.Descriptive ----describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.paradigmatic relations are relations of substitution, that is, linguistic forms (e.g. letters, words and phrases) can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence.General speaking, scholars of linguists can be divided into two major camps: one is functionalism, and the other is formalism.Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the form of language in reference to their social function in communication. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way which she or he acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in her or his social environment. Functionalism tends to explain the forms of language by attributing a determining role of its function. The function is presumed to be communication. It holds that the use of language influences its form. Therefore, linguistics should study the functions of language. Most contemporary linguistics in Europe since the Prague School is functional Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes on the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities. The most outstanding representative of formalism is Noam Chomsky’stransformational generative grammar.Linguistics vs. traditional grammar: First, linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Linguistics describes languages as they are and does not lay down rules of correctness; traditional grammar emphasizes such matters as correctness and aims to prescribe what is right.Second, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Third, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages (Latin patterns and categories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, present and future. For example, some grammarians stated that English had six cases because Latin had six cases. ), while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.Linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for the others. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind..。

英语语言学中的一些基本定义

定义1.语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

prescriptive和descriptive例子

prescriptive和descriptive例子在语言学中，有两个常见的术语——“prescriptive”和“descriptive”，用于描述语言的不同层面和角度。

前者指的是语言规范和规则，而后者指的是对实际语言使用的描述和分析。

本文将详细介绍prescriptive和descriptive的定义、区别以及各自的例子。

首先，prescriptive（规范性）语言学是指对语言的规范和规则进行研究的一个学科领域。

它主要关注的是语言规范的正确与否，提供给人们关于如何正确使用语言的建议和指导。

prescriptive语言学的目标是维护语言的准确性和规范性，使人们能够遵循固定的语法和规则，以避免语言使用上的错误。

举个例子，英语中有一条prescriptive的规则是句末必须加上标点符号。

这意味着每个句子的末尾必须用句号、问号或感叹号做结尾。

这个规则是为了在语言中建立起一个清晰的句子边界，以便更好地理解句子的意义和表达方式。

在prescriptive语法中，违反这一规则可能被视为语言上的错误。

与之相对的，descriptive（描述性）语言学是对实际语言使用进行描述和分析的研究。

它关注的是人们在日常语言中的实际表达方式，而不是某种规范或约束。

descriptive语言学的目标是记录语言的实际使用情况，研究人们如何在实际交流中运用各种语言结构和规则。

再以英语为例，descriptive语言学会研究实际生活中人们的语言表达方式，包括口语、书面语以及各种变体和方言。

例如，人们在北美口语中常常使用“ain't”这个词来代替“is not”或“are not”。

从prescriptive角度看，使用“ain't”是非标准的，因为它不符合传统的语法规则。

但从descriptive角度看，人们在实际使用中仍然频繁使用它，因此该词的存在可以被认为是一种实际存在的语言现象。

区别prescriptive和descriptive的一个重要方面是它们对语言规则和语法的态度不同。

语言学专业术语

1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

prescriptive和descriptive例子 -回复

prescriptive和descriptive例子-回复中括号内容：prescriptive和descriptive例子文章主题：解释和比较prescriptive和descriptive的概念，给出相关例子，以帮助读者更好地理解这两个概念。

Prescriptive和descriptive是两个在语言学、哲学、社会科学等领域中经常使用的术语。

本文将为您详细解释这两个概念，并给出一些相关例子，以帮助您更好地理解。

Prescriptive一词用于描述有规定或规则的方式或方法，旨在指导行为或决策。

它通常涉及制订标准、规章或建议，以约束人们的行为。

Prescriptive 方法强调规则和规范，并提供了一种明确和规范的框架。

它通常被用来描述规范、道德、法律和语法等方面。

一个常见的prescriptive例子是语法规则。

在语法中，存在一系列规则和标准，规定了构成句子的正确方式。

例如，英语中的主语和谓语动词之间必须有一致性，即主语为单数时谓语动词也必须是单数形式，主语为复数时谓语动词也必须是复数形式。

这是一种prescriptive规则，用于规定英语句子的正确构成方式。

另一个常见的prescriptive例子是领导者所拥有的权威性。

领导者通常拥有权力和责任，以规定并制定组织内的规则和指导方针。

他们为组织内成员设定目标和指导行为，以达到最佳结果。

这种权威性是prescriptive的，因为它指示了组织中成员应该如何行动。

相比之下，descriptive用于描述已经存在的情况或观察到的现象。

它试图客观地解释和呈现事实，而无需提供任何规范或评价。

Descriptive方法关注描述和解释现象，以及发现并揭示背后的原因和联系。

一个典型的descriptive例子是社会科学研究中的调查研究。

研究人员可能会收集某个特定社会群体的数据，然后分析这些数据以了解该群体的特征、意见和行为。

这种研究是descriptive的，因为它旨在描述社会现象，而不是提供规范或建议。

语言学中descriptive定义

语言学名词解释07790

英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)

语言学概论 名词解释

Descriptive_Linguistics

语言学的重要区分

语言学名词解释

Descriptive Linguistics

英语语言学导论笔记

语言学知识复习总结

语言学名词解释

英语语言学教程课后整理

语言学名词解释及知识点(1)

语言学名词解释37440

Chapter1语言学名词解释1

英语语言学中的一些基本定义

prescriptive和descriptive例子

语言学专业术语

prescriptive和descriptive例子 -回复

语言学概论名词解释