Recursive and Nonrecursive Traversal Algorithms for Dynamically Created Binary Trees

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The Economist 经济学人常用词汇及解释

The Economist 《经济学人》常用词汇总结我眼泪都流出来了太珍贵了！！来源：商大就协的日志1、绝对优势（Absolute advantage）如果一个国家用一单位资源生产的某种产品比另一个国家多，那么，这个国家在这种产品的生产上与另一国相比就具有绝对优势。

2、逆向选择（Adverse choice）在此状况下，保险公司发现它们的客户中有太大的一部分来自高风险群体。

3、选择成本（Alternative cost）如果以最好的另一种方式使用的某种资源，它所能生产的价值就是选择成本，也可以称之为机会成本。

4、需求的弧弹性（Arc elasticity of demand）如果P1和Q1分别是价格和需求量的初始值，P2 和Q2 为第二组值，那么，弧弹性就等于-（Q1-Q2）（P1＋P2）/（P1-P2）（Q1＋Q2）5、非对称的信息（Asymmetric information）在某些市场中，每个参与者拥有的信息并不相同。

例如，在旧车市场上，有关旧车质量的信息，卖者通常要比潜在的买者知道得多。

6、平均成本（Average cost）平均成本是总成本除以产量。

也称为平均总成本。

7、平均固定成本( Average fixed cost）平均固定成本是总固定成本除以产量。

8、平均产品（Average product）平均产品是总产量除以投入品的数量。

9、平均可变成本（Average variable cost）平均可变成本是总可变成本除以产量。

10、投资的β(Beta）β度量的是与投资相联的不可分散的风险。

对于一种股票而言，它表示所有现行股票的收益发生变化时，一种股票的收益会如何敏感地变化。

11、债券收益(Bond yield）债券收益是债券所获得的利率。

12、收支平衡图（Break－even chart）收支平衡图表示一种产品所出售的总数量改变时总收益和总成本是如何变化的。

收支平衡点是为避免损失而必须卖出的最小数量。

《语言教学流派第二版》自己整理笔记

《语⾔教学流派第⼆版》⾃⼰整理笔记第⼀章A brief history of language teaching第⼆章The nature of approaches and methods前两章很简单，详见前⾯中⽂导读第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method in whichprinciples of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points arepresented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.⼀、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control⼆、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.—a list of the basic structures and sentence patternsa drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practiceThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errors(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentenceRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Choral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes the teaching ofspeaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialogues and drills. (c)discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) often makes use of contrastiveanalysis. The audiolingual method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in theUnited States, and has been widely used in many other parts of the world.⼀、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.⼆、Approach1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and productionModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar第五章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordination of speechand action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychologyat San Jose State University, California.⼀、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level⼆、Approachstructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)the central role of comprehension in language learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning )According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the samenaturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlesslyout of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.三、Designoral proficiency at a beginning levelA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.第六章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makes use of gesture,mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods (wooden sticks of differentlengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help the students to talk. The method takes itsname from the relative silence of the teacher using these techniques.⼀、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.⼆、ApproachBy the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、DesignAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the languageLearners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonFidel chartConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第七章Community Language Learning社团语⾔学习法It is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second and foreign languageteaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in group counseling to help people withpsychological and emotional problems. The method makes use of group learning in small orlarge groups. Thes e groups are the “Community”. The method places emphasis on thelearners’ personal feelings and their reactions to language learning. Learners say thingswhich they want to talk about, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”)translat es the learners’ sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.⼀、Background1、Rogerian counseling——Charles A. Curren2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation⼆、ApproachLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction betweenunequalsThe whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Designnot defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility：teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learnerGoal: attenting near-native like mastery of the target language.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection andbecome counselors to other learnersSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentMaterials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.⾃⼰想法：学校英语⾓活动Question for discussion:社团学习法把语⾔学习过程⽐作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个⽐喻合适吗？为什么？第⼋章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗⽰法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present and practise language, and in particular,makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning morecomfortable and effective.⼀、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning⼆、Approachwhole meaningful textsix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Designdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklytime duration——30 dayseach uniteach unitexpected teacher behaviorsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗⽰法强调⾳乐的作⽤，那么⾳乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作⽤？谈谈你们的看法。

完全二叉树非递归无堆栈先序遍历算法的研究

又被Ｍａｔｅｔｉ等人于１９８８年改进０。国内也一直有学者在做相关的研究。可从文献［４．１２］的研究主题可以看出，近１０年来对此主题的研究从未间断，并且近几年的关注度更高。
０引言
二叉树作为一种重要的数据结构是工农业应用与开发的重要工具。满二叉树的中序序列能够与一条有向连续曲线上的点列建立自起点到终点的一一对应的关系；二叉树的先序序列，能与植物从根部向枝叶的生长发育过程建立关联，可作为植物生产建模的基本数据结构模型。因此，研究二叉树的先序、中序相关算法成为工农业信息技术领域的关注点。
Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：Ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈａｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｔｈｅａｎａｌｙｔｉｃｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐａｍｏｎｇａｆｕｌｌｂｉｎａｒｙｔｒｅｅ，ｉｔｓｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｉａｌｓｔｏｒａｇｅｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅａｎｄｉｔｓｐｒｅｏｒｄｅｒ－ｔｒａｖｅｒｓａｌｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅ，ａａｌｇｏｒｉｔｈｍｓｉｓｏｂｔａｉｎｅｄ，ｗｈｉｃｈｃａｎｃｏｎｖｅ￣ａｆｕｌｌｂｉｎａｒｙｔｒｅｅａｎｄｉｔｓｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｉａｌｓｔｏｒａｇｅｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅｉｎｔｏｉｔｓｐｒｅｏｒｄｅｒ－ｔｒａｖｅｒｓａｌｓｅ· ｑｕｅｎｃｅ．Ｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｌ￣ｎｏｎ—ｒｅｃｕｒｓｉｖｅａｎｄｓｔａｃｋ－ｆｒｅｅａｌｇｏｒｉｔｈｍｓａｒｅｄｅｄｕｃｅｄｆｏｒｐｒｅｏｒｄｅｒｔｒａｖｅｒｓａｌｏｆａｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｂｉｎａｒｙｔｒｅｅａｎｄｆｏｒｉｎｔｅｒ－ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓｉｏｎｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｉａｌｓｔｏｒａｇｅｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅａｎｄｔｈｅｐｒｅｏｒｄｅｒ－ｔｍｖｅｒｓａｌｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅ．Ｔｈｅａｌｇｏｒｉｔｈｍｓｃａｒｌａ１］ＳＷｅｒａｑｕｅｒｙｏｆａｎｏｄｅｉｎｃｏｎｓｔａｎｔｔｉｍｅａｎｄｐｅｒｆｏｒｍａｔｒａｖｅｒｓａｌｉｎｌｉｎｅａｒｔｉｍｅ．Ｂｅｉｎｇｄｅｒｉｖｅｄｆｒｏｍｅｘａｃｔｍａｔｈｅｍａｔｉｃａｌａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｎｄｉｎｏｓｃｕｌａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｅｄｕｃｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｂｉｎａｒｙｅｎｃｏｄｅｓｔｈａｔｎａｔｕｒａｌｌｙｆｉｔｔｈｅｂｉｔｗｉｓｅｏｐｅｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅａｌｇｏｒｉｔｈｍｓａｒｅａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅｆｏｒｂｏｔｈｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎａｌｐｒｏｇｒａｍｍｉｎｇａｎｄｐｒｏｆｅｓｓｉｏｎａｌｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｓｓｕｃｈａｓｅｍｂｅｄｄｅｄｓｙｓｔｅｍａｎｄＳＯｏｎ．Ａｓａｍｐｌｅｅｘａｍｐｌｅｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄｔｏｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｅｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅａｌｇｏｒｉｔｈｍｓｉｎｖｉｒｔｕａｌ－ｐｌａｎｔｓｍｏｄｅｌｉｎｇ．Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：ｂｉｎａｒｙｔｒｅｅ；ｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｉａｌｓｔｏｒａｇｅｍｏｄｅｌ；ｐｒｅｏｒｄｅｒｔｒａｖｅｒｓａｌ；ｎｏｎ－－ｒｅｃｕｒｓｉｖｅａｎｄｓｔａｃｋ－－ｆｒｅｅ；ｖｉｒｔｕａｌｐｌａｎｔｓ

整理蛛形学常用名称

蛛形学常用名称abdomen-腹部Acari --蜱螨目aciniform gland—葡萄腺Actinopodidae -线足蛛科Adams consen sus cladograms Adams—合意支序图Addition sequences —加入顺序Additions —加入Additive character transformation series —加性性状演变系列Additive coding —加性编码Adult stages—成体状态Advancement index —进步系数Agele ni dae—漏斗蛛科aggregate gland—** 腺Alternative cladograms —候选支序图alveolus —生殖腔窝Amaurobiidae —暗蛛科Amaurobioidea --暗蛛总科Ambiguous components —含糊的组份Amblypygi —无鞭目Ammoxenidae —沙蛛科Amphi nectidae —菲蛛科ampullata gla nd—壶状腺An unequivocal relationship of generality —普遍性的明确性关系anal tubercle —肛丘Analysis of distance data —距离数据分析法Anapidae—安蛛科Ancestral characters —祖先性状Ancestral taxon —祖先分类单元Annotated Linnaean hierarchy —注释林奈等级系统an terior eye row —前眼歹U anterior laterior eye—前侧眼an terior media n eye—前中眼Antrodiaetidae —穴蛛科Anyphaenidae —近管蛛科Apomorphies apomorphic characters-近裔性状Arachnida ―蛛形纲Araneae ―蜘蛛目Araneidae —园蛛科Araneoclada --蜘蛛分支类Araneomorphae --新蛛下目Archaeidae －古蛛科Area cladogram—区域支序图Argiopidae --金蛛科（现已并入园蛛科）Arrangement —安排Artificial classification —人为分类Artificial taxon —人为分类单元Atypidae —地蛛科Atypoidina --地蛛总科Austrochilidae —南蛛科Autopomorphies —自近裔性状Auxiliary principle—Hennig 的辅助原则Barychelidae —螯耙蛛科Binary character transformation series —二性状演变系列Binary coding —二态编码方法Biogenetic law —生物发生律Biotic hierarchy —生物等级系统book lung—书肺Branch swapping —分支互换Branch-and-bound searches —分板界限搜索Branching character transformation series —分支性状演变系列calamistru m—栉器Camin-sokal parsim ony —Cami n-sokal 简约法Cap o niidae-开普蛛科carapace-背甲cardiac mark —心斑Category —阶元cephalic—头cephalothorax 头―胸部cervical groove—颈沟Character code —性状编码Character data matrix —性状数据矩阵Character optimization —性状优化Character polarity —‘确定性状极向'Character polarization —性状极化Character state tree —性状状态树Character state —性状状态Character transformation series —性状演变系列Character tree —性状树Character weighting —性状权衡Characte—性状chelicera—螯肢Chummidae ?Cithaeronidae —琴蛛科Clade —分支Cladistics —支序系统学Cladoge nesis —分支发生Cladogram bisecti on and rec onn ecti on —二分支序图与重联Cladogram comparis ons —支序图的比较Cladogram len gth —支序图的长度Cladogram measures —支序图的量度Cladogram rearra ngeme nt —支序图的重新安排Cladogram —支序图Cladograms buildi ng —建立支序图Classificati on —分类clavate—棒状claw tuft —毛簇Clique analysis —集群分析Clubi on idae —管巢蛛科clypeus—额colulus —舌状体Commonality —内群共同性’Com mon ality —共同性Com mon-Is-Primitive: Twice Character Freque ncy An alysis —共同即为原始: 次性状分布频率分析Compatibility method —相容法Comp onent an alysis —组份分析Comp onents —组份con ductor—弓丨导器Consen sus an alysis —合意分析Consen sus cladogram tech niq ues —合意支序图技术Consen sus cladogram—合意支序图Consen sus tree tech niq ues —合意树技术Consen sus tree —合意树Con ti nu ous characters —连续性状Conv erge nt similarity —趋同相似性Corinni dae —圆颚蛛科coxal gla nd—基节腺coxa—基节Crassitarsae--厚跗类Cribellatae —筛器类cribellum gland—筛腺cribellum —筛器Cte ni dae —栉足蛛科Cte nizidae—螲当科*回复收起回复・3楼• 2012-01-28 12:09«我也说一句« keensunl•皇帝巴布10cuspule-疣突Cyatholipidae —杯蛛科Cybaeidae-并齿蛛科cybium—跗舟Cyclocte nidae—圆栉蛛科Cyrtauche niidae-弓蛛科Dei nopidae —妖面蛛科Dei nopoidea—妖面蛛总科Deletio ns —删除Derivatives of classification tree —分类树的衍生物Derived characters-衍生性状Desce ndant characters-后裔性状Desidae-潮蛛科diaxial —横螯Dicty ni dae —卷叶蛛科Dicty noidea --卷叶蛛总科Differenee matrix —差值矩阵Differe nee —差异Differential weighting —差值权衡Diguetidae —迪格蛛科Dio nycha --两爪类Dipluridae —长尾蛛科Discrete characters —离散性状distal haematodocha-端血囊Dollo parsimony —Dollo 简约法Drymusidae —丛蛛科Dysderidae —石蛛科Ecribellatae --无筛器类Orthog natha --直螯类embolus —插入器en dite—颚叶en doskeletor—内骨骼en doster nite-内胸板Ensemble consistency indices —总体一致性指数Entelegynae --复杂生殖器类epigastric furrow —生殖沟Epigenetic characters —后生性状epig yne, epig ynum —外雌器Equally parsimonious cladograms —同等简约支序图Equally parsimonious trees —同等简约树Eresidae —隆头蛛科Eresoidea --隆头蛛总科Evolutionary systematics—进化系统学Exact algorithms—精确算法Exhaustive searches-彻底搜索exoskelet on—外骨骼False components-错误组分fang—螯牙femur —腿节fertilization duct —受精囊Filistatidae—管网蛛科Fitch parsimony —Fitch 简约法folium —叶状斑Fornicephalae --拱头蛛类fovea —中窝F-statistic—f-统计量Functional ingroup —‘功能内群'Functional outgroup —功能外群F-value—f-值Gallieniellidae —加利蛛科Generalised parsimony 一般化简约法Generality —普遍性Generalized direct method 一般化的直接方法Global optimum —全局优化Globally parsimonious analysis —全局简约分析Gnaphosidae —平腹蛛科Gn aphosoidea-平腹蛛总科Gradungulidae —格拉蛛科Group compatibility algorithm —类群一致算法Hah niidae —栅蛛科Haplogynae --简单生殖器类Henn ig argume ntation— Henn ig 论证Hersiliidae —长纺蛛科Heuristic searches —启发式搜索Hexathelidae —异纺蛛科Hierarchy —等级系统'Holarchaeidae —全古蛛科Homal ony chidae —无齿蛛科Homologous characters or homologue —同源性状Homology —同源Homoplastic character —非同源性状Homoplasy excess ratio HER —非同源过量比率Homoplasy —非同源Hutto ni idae —胡通蛛科Hypochilidae —古筛蛛科Idiopidae —异蛛科Inclusion/exclusion rule —包括用卡除原则Index of consistency c —一致性原贝Uinferior claw—下爪In group an alysis —内群分析In group node —内群节点In group —内群Internal branch —内部分支Internode —节点间隔In tersectio n —交集In terval, INT —间隔In terve ning character —中介性状labium —下唇Lamp oni dae —灯蛛科lateral codyle —侧结节Lept on etidae —弱蛛科Lin ear character tran sformati on series —线性性状演变系列•回复收起回复■*4楼•2012-01-28 12:10*我也说一句« keensunl•皇帝巴布10Linear codi ng —线性编码Linn aea n hierarchy —林奈等级系统Lin yphiidae —皿蛛科Liocra nidae —光盔蛛科Liphistiidae —节板蛛科Listing convention —排列约定lobed gla nd—叶状腺Local optimum —局部优化Logical consistency —逻辑上一致Lycosidae —狼蛛科Lycosoidea --狼蛛总科Majority consensus cladograms —多数合意支序图Majority consensus tree —多数合意树Majority rule —多数规则Malkaridae —马尔卡蛛科malphighia n tube —马氏管Man hattan dista nee —曼哈顿距离maxilla —小颚Maximum likelihood —最大相似法Mecicobothriidae —墨穴蛛科Mecysmauche niidae-展颈蛛科media n apophysis—中突media n ocular area—中眼域Mesothelae --中纺亚目metatarsus-后跗节Micropholcommatidae —小幽蛛科Microstigmatidae —小点蛛科Migidae —四纺蛛科Mimetidae —拟态蛛科Miturgidae —米图蛛科Mixed coding —混合编码Monophylitic group —单系群Monophyly －单系Monotypic genus －单型属MPR 集Most parsimonious reconstruction sets, MPR sets －最简约的重建集，Multicharacter transformation series －多性状演变系列Multistate character transformation series －多态性状演变系列Mygalomorphae --原蛛下目Mysmenidae －密蛛科Natural classification －自然分类Nearest neighbor －最近邻居Nearest neighborur interchange-最近邻居互换Neighborhood —邻居关系Nels on consen sus cladogram Nels on—合意支序图Nels on consen sus tree Nels on —合意树Nemesiidae-线蛛科Neocribellatae --新筛蛛类Nephilidae—络新妇科n ephrocyte-肾原细胞Nesticidae—类球蛛科Nicodamidae—尼可蛛科Node—节点Nonadditive character transformation series —非加性性状演变系列Nonredundant linear coding —非冗余线性编码Numerical prefix scheme-数字前缀系统Numerical tax onomy—数值分类学Ochyroceratidae-花洞蛛科ocular area-眼域Oecobiidae-拟壁钱科Ontogenetic transformation —个体发育变化Ontogeny method —‘个体发育方法'On toge ny—个体发育Oon opidae-卵形蛛科Opiliones --盲蛛目opistosoma-后体Opsithothelae --后纺亚目Optimal cladogram —优化支序图Optimization of cladograms —支序图的优化Orbiculariae --圆网类Orbiculariae --圆网蛛类Orsolobidae—激蛛科Outgroup analysis —外群分析Outgroup node —外群节点Outgroup —外群Oxyopidae —猫蛛科palpal organ—触肢器Palpigradi --须脚目Palpimanidae －二纺蛛科Palpimanoidea --二纺蛛总科palp —触肢paracybium —副跗舟Parallelism —平行Paraphyletic group —并系群Paraphyly —并系Pararchaeida—拟古蛛科Paratropididae-鳞毛蛛科paraxial—直螯Parsim ony—简约法patella —膝节Patristic dista nee matrix —路径长度矩阵Patter ns of evoluti onary relatio nships—进化关系格局paturo n—螯基pedicel-腹柄pedipalp—触肢Periegopidae ？petiolus—腹柄Phenetic differences —表型差异Phenetics —表征分类学和表型分类学Philodromidae —逍遥蛛科Pholcidae—幽灵蛛科Phylogenetic systematics —系统发育系统学Phylogenetic tree—系统发育树Phyxelididae —菲克蛛科Pimoidae —派模蛛科Pisauridae-盗蛛科Plectreuridae —距蛛科Plesiomorphic character —近祖性状Plesiomorphic —近祖的plumose —羽状pois on gla nd—毒腺Polymorphic taxa —多态分类单元Polymorphism parsimony —多态现象简约法Polyphyletic group —多系群Polyphyly —多系Polytomy bush —多分支丛林porti on —头posterior eye row —后眼歹Uposterior laterior eye—后侧眼posterior media n eye—后中眼Posteriori character weighting —事后性状权衡Postorder traversal —后根次序遍历Predo minant character method—优势性状原贝UPreorder traversal —先根次序遍历Priori charavter weighting —事先性状遍历procurved—前凹Prodidomidae —粗螯蛛科prolateral surface—足的前侧面promarg inal tooth —前堤齿prosoma —前体proximal haematodocha-基血囊Psechridae-褛网蛛科Pseudoscorpi ones--伪蝎目pyriform gland—梨状腺Qualitative characters-定性性状Quan titative characters —定量性状radial furrow —放射沟rake—螯耙Rastelloidi na --耙蛛总科rastellum —螯耙rebordered-下唇前缘膨大而加厚Recon struct ing phyloge nies —重建系统发育Recursive swapp ing —递推式分支互换recurved —后凹Refere nee tax on —参考分类单元Reformulated bioge netic law —重新阐述的生物发生定律Relati on ships —关系Rescaled consistency index re —重新标尺的一致性指数Retention index r —保留指数Reticulate speciation —网状物种形成retrolateral surface-足的后侧面retromargi nal tooth —后堤齿Reversal —逆转Reversibility —逆转性Ricinulei --节腹目Root cladogram—根支序图Root node —根节点Root taxon—根分类单元*回复收起回复*5楼• 2012-01-28 12:10«我也说一句« keensunl•皇帝巴布10Root tree —根树Root —根RTA clade - RTA 分支类Salticidae—跳蛛科scapus-垂体Schizomida --裂盾目scopula-毛丛Scorpi onida --蝎目Scytodidae-花皮蛛科Segestriidae-类石蛛科Sele nopidae-拟扁蛛科Sen oculidae-六眼蛛科Seque ncing conven tio n —顺序约定serrated bristle-锯齿毛serrated-锯齿状serrula—微齿Sicariidae —刺客蛛科sigilla —肌斑silk gland—丝腺Sin opimoidae —华模蛛科Sister group —姐妹群Solifugae --避日目Sparassida—巨蟹蛛科spatulate-抹刀状Species category —种级阶元Species-物种spermatheca-纟内精囊spigot—纺管spinn eret—纺器squmiform —鳞状Stem species －基干种Stenochilidae －斯坦蛛科Steps －步数Stiphidiidae －斯蒂蛛科Strict comesnsustree －严格合意树Strict consensuscladogram －严格合意支序图stridulating ridge —发声嵴Subcladogram pruning and regrafting －亚支序图的修剪与嫁接Suboptimal chadograms —亚优化支序图Substitutions —替代Subtree pruning and regrafting —亚树修剪与嫁接Successive approximations weighting —连续近似权衡superior claw —上爪Symbiotic origin —共生起源的Symphytognathidae —愈螯蛛科Symplesiomorphous similarity —共近祖性状相似性Symplesiomorphy or shared ancestral characters —共近祖性状Synaphridae —?Synapomorphies or shared derived characters —共近裔性状Sy notaxidae-合蛛科Systematics of biosystematics —生物系统学tarsa orga n—跗节器tarsus-跗节Taxon —分类单元Telemidae—泰莱蛛科Ten gellidae—廷盖蛛科Termi nal branch—终端分支Terminal taxon —终端分类单元Tetrablemmidae—盔蛛科Tetragnathidae —肖蛸科Tetrapneumonae --四肺类The alternating out-group rule —交替外群规则The first doublet rule —第一成对规则The most recent common ancestor —最近共同祖先The smallest closed set —最小性状闭集Thelyphonida --有鞭目Theraphosidae —狒蛛科Theraphosoidae-捕鸟蛛总科Theridiidae—球蛛科Theridiosomatidae —球体蛛科Thomisidae—蟹蛛科thorax —胸tibia —胫节Titanoecidae —隐石蛛科Topological tree structure －拓扑树结构trachea——气管Transformed cladistics －改造支序系统学Trechaleidae －行蛛科Tree bisection and reconnection －二分树与重联Tree rearrangement －树的重新安排Trees building －建树trichobothrium —听毛Trionycha —三爪类Trochanteriidae 转蛛科trocha nter—转节True components —真实组份Tuberculotae --眼丘蛛类tubular gla nd—管状腺Uloboridae —妩蛛科Vector of character —性状矢量Venn diagram —套嵌框图Wagner algorithm —Wagner 算法Wagner cladogram —Wagner 支序图Wagner parsim ony —Wagner 简约法Wagner tree —Wagner 树Young stages —幼体状态Zodariidae —拟平腹蛛科Zoridae —狼栉蛛科Zorocratidae ？Zoropsidae —逸蛛科。

哲学术语英汉对照

哲学术语英汉对照-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1a prioria posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分 abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证 alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analyticsynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容 contingentnecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分 continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibnizs Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件 natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论nonEuclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何nonmonotonic logics 非单一逻辑OckhamRazor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性质 principle of noncontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator 严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russells paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjectiveobjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论thingsinthemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验threevalued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德。

高考英语易错点点睛与高考突破专题14 阅读理解

2013年高考英语易错点点睛与高考突破专题14 阅读理解【2013高考预测】阅读理解是我们学习英语的主要目的之一，是我们获取外来信息的重要途径。

阅读理解是综合读者各方面知识的过程，通过阅读能看出作者的主要意图和文章的基调；从有关资料中汲取有用的东西；对不重要情节或信息一带而过；根据阅读目的和材料的难易程度调整阅读速度和方法；根据作者的描述得出自己的结论；掌握并利用语境猜测词的多种含义的；根据阅读材料快速读懂图表；根据短文的内容填空等等。

一、命题趋向1.阅读材料更趋向于真实性、实用性和教育性关注实际生活的选材特点在近年的NMET阅读理解试题中已经呈现出明显的增强趋势。

这种趋势与当前基础教育的改革要求是一致的。

中学生语言学习的根本目的应当与基础教育的根本目标一致，即:学会求知、学会做事、学会合作、学会做人。

真实性和适用性选材是适应基础教育英语课程改革的目标而出现的；选材的教育性是基于阅读的第二层面而设立的，即考生不仅要懂得文章的意思，还要进行思考。

2.问题的创设将会更加灵活多样，尤以整体理解和推理为主阅读理解创设的问题大多不能按字面意思随手拈来，需要归纳、概括中心，推测作者意图、挖掘深层含义。

有些题目还要加以逻辑推理才能选择出正确答案。

3.由猜测词义到对整个句子意义的理解将是一个新的命题热点词义猜测题在近几年的阅读命题中屡见不鲜。

一般是利用上下文，通过对应结构或平行结构中同义词或反义词来进行判断。

近年来考试突破了这个圈圈，命题者要求考生在对文章的整体理解上来理解某个熟悉的词汇或短语在真实语境中新的含义。

4.所选材料的结构复杂化，生疏但能读懂的短语和表达方式将达到一定的数量英语新课程标准中，阅读理解的要求更高。

在典型例题卷的阅读理解中就出现了许多考生感到陌生的短语。

如B篇中有to look the otherway；E篇中的in the great majority of等。

这些短语的出现在一定的程度上加大了难度，但符合《考试说明》的要求，也体现了语言学习的适用性和灵活性。

06-RecursionFactorial

n! =
• • if n is 1, then n! = 1 if n > 1, then n! = n * (n – 1)!
What is the third thing printed when we call factorial(10)? A. 2 B. 3 C. 7 D. 8 E. Other/none/more
If you start at the front and proceed forward, each item you examine rules out 1 item
Imagine storing sorted data in an array
0 2
1 7
2 8
3 13
4 25
5 29
6 33
28
Wall of Fame
Classic CS problem: searching
Imagine storing sorted data in an array
How long does it take us to find a number we are looking for?
0 2 1 7 2 8 3 13 4 25 5 29 6 33 7 51 8 89 9 90 10 95
Factorial!
Recursive definition
n! =
• • if n is 1, then n! = 1 if n > 1, then n! = n * (n – 1)!
Recursive code
long factorial ( int n ) { if (n==1) return 1; else { int nminus1fact = factorial(n-1); return n*nminus1fact; } }

分治与递归的英语

分治与递归的英语Title: The Power of Divide and Conquer: Exploring Recursion in Computer ScienceIntroduction:In the realm of computer science, two fundamental concepts stand out for their elegance and efficiency: divide and conquer, and recursion. These concepts underpin countless algorithms and problem-solving strategies, enabling solutions to complex problems by breaking them down into simpler sub-problems. In this discourse, we delve into the essence of divide and conquer and recursion, exploring their significance, applications, and intricacies.Understanding Divide and Conquer:Divide and conquer is a problem-solving paradigm that involves breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable sub-problems, solving each sub-problemindependently, and then combining the solutions to form the solution to the original problem. This approach is rooted in the principle of decomposition, where complex tasks are partitioned into simpler tasks, facilitating easier comprehension and implementation.The Divide and Conquer Algorithm:At the heart of the divide and conquer strategy lies a recursive algorithm. The algorithm typically follows three key steps:1. Divide: The problem is divided into smaller sub-problems that are similar to the original problem but simpler in nature.2. Conquer: Each sub-problem is solved recursively. If the sub-problem is small enough, it is solved directly using a base case.3. Combine: The solutions to the sub-problems are combined to produce the solution to the original problem.Examples of Divide and Conquer Algorithms:1. Binary Search: A classic example of a divide and conquer algorithm, binary search efficiently locates a target value within a sorted array by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half.2. Merge Sort: Merge sort divides the array into two halves, sorts each half recursively, and then merges the sorted halves to produce a sorted array.3. Quick Sort: Quick sort partitions the array into two sub-arrays based on a chosen pivot element, recursively sorts each sub-array, and then combines them.Recursion in Computer Science:Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls itself in order to solve smaller instances of the sameproblem. It embodies the concept of self-reference, where the solution to a problem depends on solutions to smaller instances of the same problem. Recursion provides a powerful and elegant way to solve problems that exhibit self-similarity or repetitive structure.Key Elements of Recursion:1. Base Case: Every recursive function must have one or more base cases, which represent the simplest instances of the problem that can be solved directly without further recursion.2. Recursive Case: The recursive case defines how the problem is decomposed into smaller instances and how the solutions to these instances are combined to solve the original problem.3. Recursive Leap of Faith: Recursion relies on the principle of recursion, where we trust that recursive callswill eventually reach a base case and produce the correct result.Applications of Recursion:1. Tree Traversal: Recursion is commonly used to traverse tree structures such as binary trees, where each node is visited recursively.2. Factorial Calculation: The factorial function is often implemented recursively, where the factorial of a number is computed by recursively multiplying it by the factorial ofits predecessor.3. Fibonacci Sequence: The Fibonacci sequence is generated recursively, with each term being the sum of the two preceding terms.Challenges and Considerations:While recursion and divide and conquer offer elegant solutions to many problems, they also present certain challenges and considerations:1. Space Complexity: Recursive algorithms may consume a significant amount of memory due to the overhead of recursive function calls and the storage of activation records on the call stack.2. Stack Overflow: Excessive recursion can lead to stack overflow errors, especially if the depth of recursion exceeds the system's stack size limit.3. Performance Overhead: Recursive algorithms may incur additional performance overhead compared to iterative solutions, particularly for problems with a large number of recursive calls.Conclusion:In conclusion, divide and conquer and recursion are foundational concepts in computer science, providing powerful tools for solving a wide range of problems efficiently and elegantly. By decomposing complex problems into simpler sub-problems and leveraging the principles of recursion, programmers can devise elegant algorithms with clear logicand concise code. Despite their challenges, the beauty and elegance of divide and conquer and recursion continue to inspire and drive innovation in the field of computer science.。

教育心理学术语

教育心理学术语抽象模仿abstract modeling人经过对数次模仿体验所得信息的整合形成某种原理或概括。

学业多样性academic diversity学生的个体差异所造成的学习技能及学习方法上的差异。

加速acceleration给学生提供更早地进入教育课程的一种教育方法，或涉及以快于平常的步子传播课程的一种教育方法。

顺应accommodation按皮亚杰学派的理论的说法，根据经验改变现有图式的行为。

顺应失能生accommodation for students with disabilities对失能生的评定、教学乃至训导的方式做出改变。

成就动机achievement motive成功完成具有挑战性任务的愿望。

成就测验achievement tests旨在测量学生已获得的技能或知识的量。

行动研究action research由教师发起的基于学校的研究。

积极倾听active listening一种沟通技能，涉及传达对他人交流的理解与接纳。

活动强化物activity reinforcer按普雷马克原理来实施的、赋予学习者对其会产生强化效果的某种特权或行为。

适应adaptation按皮亚杰学派的说法，适应由学习者用于形成和精致图式的两个过程（同化和顺应）所组成。

附设提问adjunct question文中插入的提问或呈现，有助于引发学习者的注意。

青少年自我中心主义adolescent egocentrism按埃尔金德的说法，某些青少年的自我意识往往具有过于强烈的倾向。

先行组织者advance organizer从事新的学习之前所呈现的材料，旨在帮助学生将新的知识与先前更为一般的、更具包摄性的知识联系起来。

审美需求aesthetic needs按马斯洛的说法，其为一种体验美的愿望，希望发现及创造对称与完整。

附属动机affiliation motive希望与他人建立、维持以及恢复有效的相互关系的一种愿望。

哲学术语英汉对照

a prioria posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analyticsynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容contingentnecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibnizs Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论nonEuclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何nonmonotonic logics 非单一逻辑OckhamRazor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性质principle of noncontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator 严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russells paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjectiveobjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论thingsinthemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验threevalued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德。

java 递归

Recursive Programming
// This method returns the sum of 1 to num public int sum (int num) { int result; if (num == 1) result = 1; else result = num + sum (n-1); return result; }
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley
Recursive Definitions
• The recursive part of the LIST definition is used several times, terminating with the non-recursive part:
number comma LIST 24 , 88, 40, 37 number comma LIST 88 , 40, 37 number comma LIST 40 , 37 number 37
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley
Infinite Recursion
• All recursive definitions have to have a nonrecursive part • If they didn't, there would be no way to terminate the recursive path • Such a definition would cause infinite recursion • This problem is similar to an infinite loop, but the non-terminating "loop" is part of the definition itself • The non-recursive part is often called the base case

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。

社会学英语名词解释

社会学英语名词解释Aaccounting 说明过程人们提供说明以理解世界的过程。

（俗民方法论）accounting practices 说明过程的实践某人提出说明而其他人接受或拒绝该说明的方式。

（俗民方法论）accounts 说明行动者解释（描述、批评及理想化）特定情境的方式。

（俗民方法论）act 行动米德理论的基本元素，包含冲动、知觉刺激、对知觉感到的客体采取行动，并利用该客体满足原先的冲动。

action 行动人们所做之事是意识过程创造的结果。

actual social identity 实际的社会认同人们真正是什么样的人。

(戈夫曼)adaptation 适应帕森斯的四种必要功能之一。

系统必须能适应它的环境，并能调整环境以符合系统所需。

更详细地说就是，系统必须能处理外在情境的危险及突发事件。

affectivity-affective neutrality 情感-情感中立此模式变量系指对某种社会现象要投注多少情绪(或情感)。

(帕森斯)affectual action 情感性行动由情绪引起的非理性行动。

(韦伯)agency 能动力(性)系指行动者所做之行动;亦即，如果不是行动者介入并采取所谈论之行动，所发生之事可能不会以那种方式发生。

agents 行(能)动者有能力为社会世界带来影响的行(能)动者;行(能)动者拥有权力。

alienation 异化人们与其生产活动、所生产的物品、一起共事的同僚及其潜能之间的自然联系崩解了或被分离了。

(马克思)anomie 失序伴随有机连带社会而兴起的一种感觉，亦即不知道自己该做什么。

人们在社会游荡，并且缺乏清楚、具安全感的寄托。

(涂尔干)对默顿而言，当社会结构个文化之间发生严重断裂，被结构创造出来的人们依文化规范和目标运作，但当规范和目标发生严重断裂时，就产生失序的情形。

appearance 外表观众眼中的行动者;尤其指那些能暗示出表演者社会地位的项目。

(戈夫曼)ascription-achievement 先赋-成就此模式变量关心的是，当我们判断某一社会现象时，是以它被赋予了什么，还是以它成就了什么来判断的。

老蒋考研英语二真题词汇

老蒋考研英语二真题词汇bull run (股市)活跃期，牛市dramatic a. 戏剧性的;引人注目的auction n. /vt.拍卖;竞卖file n. 文件夹，档案bankruptcy n. 破产，倒闭momentum n. 动力，势头 bewilderingly adv.令人困惑地reckon vt.推断，估计;设想;认为 greedy a. 贪心的;渴望的controversy n. 争论，争执 contemporary a. 属同一时期的;当代的 fluctuant a. 波动的，起伏的address n.演讲;地址vt.向......演说/讲话 conversation n.谈话，会话episode n.插曲;一集，一节crystallize vt.使成形，使具体化wreak vt.施行报复，惩罚virtual a.实质上的，事实上的tangible a.真实的;实际的n.有形资产 stereotypical a.老一套的;陈规的swine flu 猪流感epidemic 传染病，流行病heightened 提高的，增加的alert 警惕，警戒assemble 召集，召开（会议）severity 严重程度in progress 在进行中hospitalization 长期住院，住院治疗crop up 突然出现，突然发生virtually 几乎，事实上stockpile 库存，积蓄vaccine 疫苗dose （药物的）剂量，一剂relay 转送，转发（信息，消息等）place order 订购，下订单take order 接受订单deliver order 交付订货give order 下订单，订购prevalent 流行的，普遍的agony 极大的痛苦，痛楚ward 监护，守护；挡住，架住；避开；收容ward off 避开，挡住auctioneer 拍卖师，拍卖商bid 出价，投标bull run 牛市态势申请，提交momentum 势头bewilderingly 令人费解地reckon 认为rise bewilderingly 急剧增长enormous egos 膨胀的自我unfashionable 不合时宜的，过时的auction house 拍卖行downturn （经济活动、生产等）下降、衰退fluctuant 波动的slump （价格、数值等）暴跌、不景气、萧条address 发表演说、向…讲话suburban 郊区的crystallize 使明确化、使具体化irony 具有讽刺意味的情况wreak （对某物）造成破坏，造成混乱havoc 灾难，混乱wreak havoc with 给…带来浩劫virtual 实际上的，事实上的tangible 确凿的、实在的，有形的（资产）stereotypical 典型的，带有成见的cue 提示、暗示hygiene 卫生（学）subtle 微妙的disinfecting 消毒的shrewd 精明的adolescent 青春期的ritual 仪式，例行公事slip A in between B and C 将A悄悄放在B和C之间viable 可行的ruthless 无情的、残忍的tactic 策略；战术，战略jury 陪审团qualification 限定性条件，资格，授权entitled 有资格的verdict 裁定，裁决intentional 有意的elite 精英，掌权人物blue-ribbon 一流的、头等的eligible 有资格的，合适的，合格的exempt 免除、豁免unconstitutional 违反宪法的，不符合章程trumpet 大声宣告、大肆宣扬substantially 实质上、大体上intimate 亲近的aviation 航空sustainability 忍受力，持续性sign on with 与…签约translate 导致、造成reciprocate 报答，回报stagnant 停滞的fundamental a.基本的n.基本原理fundamentally ad. 本质上的absorb vt./vi. 吸收，吸引manufacture vt. (大量)制造，加工multiple a.多重的n.倍数shrewd a.精明的;机灵的feature n.特征，特色merciala. 商业的 n. 商业广告;宣传controversy n.争论;争议;[法律]民事纠纷emerge v. 出现;显露erupt vi. (火山)爆发，突然发生2011真题sweep across 席卷，横扫lawless 不守法的，不受法律控制的，无法无天的credential 证书，凭据issue （组织或某官员）发给，分发issue a passport/permit/visa 分发护照、许可证、签证carry on sth 继续进行，继续从事某事linger on 逗留，继续存留in effect 实际上，事实上thriving 繁荣的，昌盛的delight 高兴，愉快initiative 倡议，新方案；主动性；自发的，创始的，初步的mentality 心态，思想状况envision 展望，想象indifference 冷漠，冷淡under fire 受到攻击和批评bonus payouts 奖金支出outside director 外部董事presumably 据推测，大概，可能，想来weather 平安渡过（难关），挨过，经受住a firm’s board 公司董事会make one’s wealth and reputation 功成名就subsequently 其后，随后，接着restate 重申，重新申报，再次声明proxy statement 股东委托书restate earnings 重申盈利federal class-action lawsuit 联邦集体诉讼incentive 动机，鼓励，刺激；刺激性的，鼓励性质的a blow to reputations 有损名誉chronicle 将（某事物）载入编年史subsidize 以津贴补助，以金钱收买flee to the Internet 转向互联网shrug off 对…满不在乎，不屑一顾afloat 漂流者的，飘浮不定的stay afloat 维持运营push sb/sth overboard 抛弃、甩掉某人/某事have the nerve 好意思做某事，有胆量做某事desperate measures 孤注一掷的措施whirlwind 旋风；猛烈的势力；破坏性的力量或事物distinctive 有特色的，与众不同的，区别的bureau （美国政府部门）局，处，科；（提供某方面信息的）办事处savagely 野蛮地；残忍地；粗野地line up 排队marriage bureau 婚姻登记处take up posts 就职derive from 由…起源，取自sophisticated 复杂的，精致的signature phrase 口头禅mask the fact 掩盖事实mission 委任，授予；委员会aesthetic 美学的，审美的forthright 直率的，直截了当的，（观点）明确的cheerleader 啦啦队队长，（强有力的）支持者chronic 慢性的，长期的，习惯性的devaluation （货币）贬值disintegration 瓦解，奔溃stuck 动不了的，被卡住的，被难住的sanction 制裁，处罚suspension 暂停，悬挂rigour 严苛，严酷backed by 依靠，在…支持下a small majority 微弱多数intervene 介于…之间，干预，介入fiscal 财政上的murmur 发牢骚，私下抱怨intervene in 介入，干预blunt 使迟钝benign 温和的，仁慈的，善良的write off 毁掉，结束掉，认定…不重要（或无用、不可救药），忽视halt 使停止，使中断，阻止inconceivable 不能想象的，不可思议的，难以置信的bold 勇敢的，无畏的，莽撞的inducement 诱导，诱惑，诱因lure 吸引，引诱takeaway 外卖食品，外卖店radical 激进的，彻底的back 支持take a toll on 造成损失（或危害，伤亡）jury n.陪审团democracy n.民主，民主政治qualification n.合格证明;资历，资格petent a. 能胜任的，合格的defendant n.被告人prohibit vt. 禁止;阻止discrimination n. 歧视;辨别，区别eligible a. 有资格的;适合的justify vt.为......辩护;是......的正当理由constitution n. 体制，政体;法规，宪法2012真题mindless 愚笨的，盲目的，无谓的tear…away from sth 使依依不舍地离开，忍痛离去brutal 残忍的，野蛮的rebel 反叛，反抗bear 承受，忍受（负担）modity 商品article 物件，物品turn over 移交，交托；仔细考虑pass down 继承，遗传personality 性格，个性portray 描绘，扮演（某角色）colony 殖民地，群体patrol 巡逻，巡查mute 上下班往返，经常往返（于两地）parallel 与…相似，与…并行counteract 抵消，中和from the outset 从开始时scorn 蔑视，鄙视revise 改变，修正ritual 惯例，老规矩，例行公事，仪式impoverish 贫困的chaotic 混乱的implication 含义，暗示on one’s own 独立做某事flat 固定的across-the-board 一刀切的thorny 棘手的put on hold 搁置，暂缓实施pervasive 普遍的，无处不在的intrinsically 从本质上（讲）fuse 使熔合be obsessed with 痴迷于…be pervasive in 充斥于…nursery 育儿室，托儿所pastel （色彩）淡的，柔和的toddler 幼童counsel 建议agitated 紧张不安的，焦虑的preliminary 初步的，预备的overturn 使倾覆，打翻monopoly 垄断者，垄断企业file 提出，提交，发表file a brief 提交案情提要the Supreme Court 最高法院file a patent for 就…提交专利申请convention 会议，惯例，习俗coach sb on sth 对某人就某事进行培训prudent 明智谨慎的，节俭的，精明的reckless 轻率的，鲁莽的，不顾后果的find silver linings 寻找一线希望stagnation 经济停滞、不景气reinforce 加强，强化resentment 怨气，怨恨，不满discern 识别，看清，领域lean 不景气的，贫瘠的，精干的poll 民意调查，民意测验trivial 无关紧要的，平凡的craze 时尚，时髦，热潮exemplary 模范的，可做楷模的cunning 狡猾，狡诈ruthlessness 无情，冷酷memorate 庆祝，纪念resolute 坚决的，坚定的steadfast 忠诚的，坚贞不渝的epochal 具有时代意义的immense 巨大的wage 发动，进行（战争，战斗）multiplicity 多样性downstairs 底层阶级upstairs 上层阶级brain drain 人才流失deprive 剥夺follow the warranty policy 履行保修协议2013真题(just) around the corner 很近，就在附近e to fruition 完成，实现around 出现，有reverse 承认错误，放弃（立场），反转resume 重新开始，继续eliminate 消除，清除pass down 遗传，沿袭withdraw 提，取（银行账户中的款项）fraud 欺骗，诈骗alter 修改，改变manipulation 操纵，控制trail 踪迹，痕迹average is over 告别平庸textile 纺织品textile mill 纺织厂stubbornly 顽固地；倔强地stand out 突出，脱颖而出shed 去除，摆脱shed workers 裁员above average 超越平庸，高于平均水平sojourner 旅居者；逗留者for good 永远地；一劳永逸地affectionate 深情的；充满深情的birds of passage 候鸟，漂泊的人along with A e B 做某事的既有A，又有B rigid 严格的；僵硬的，死板的mightily 很，非常thrive 兴旺发达，繁荣，蓬勃发展straddle 跨立于；跨越jurisdiction 管辖范围in motion 在运动中的middle ground 中间立场，中间地带prone 有…倾向的；易于；倾向于snap 仓促的，匆忙的hard-wired 直觉的，天生的，本能的be prone to 易于…，有…的倾向snap decision 快速决策，仓促决定important defense mechanism 重要防御机制be hard-wired to do sth. 天生会做某事exclusive 独有的，专有的，独占的realm 领域，范围prime 使准备好be exclusive to 专为…所独享prime sb to do sth 使某人准备好应付某种情况screener 筛选者real estate agent 房产中介retreat 僻静处，隐居处，休息寓所mute 减弱…的声音；引申为控制，抑制intermittently 间歇地，断断续续地contemplate 沉思，思忖temptation 引诱，诱惑物board 董事会，委员会，理事会corporate boards 董事会pel 强迫，迫使mandate 授权，命令，指令frustration 挫折，挫败quota 定量，定额，指标ladder 阶梯，途径，梯状物binding 有约束力的legally binding provisions 具有法律约束力的条款run counter to 违反，与…背道而驰，逆向的，相反的meritocracy 英才教育；精英管理班子fancy 喜爱，想要anonymity 匿名，不知名e in handy 派得上用场surplus 剩余的，过剩的frugal 节俭的，朴素的，花钱少的overwhelmed 受宠若惊的，不知所措的，压倒charity sale 义卖for the sake of 为了on the verge of …的边缘be desirous of 希望desired 喜欢的，心仪的in financially strained families 家境贫寒的erosion of study time 侵蚀学习时间2014真题overweight 体重超常的，超重的deficiency 缺乏，不足；败血症condition 健康状况，健康deficiency 缺乏，不足obesity 肥胖mass 质量moderately 适度地，不过分地collegiate 学院的，学院学生的conversely 相反地，以相反的方法in terms of 依据，按照in respects of 关于，在…方面in essence 本质上，实质上in turn 转而，相应地qualify 可被认为是，可算作是disgrace 耻辱，丢脸的事；出丑stereotype 陈词滥调，刻板印象，陈规旧习harbor 心怀，怀有institute 建立，制定initiative 新倡议、行动、方案；自发的；初步的despise 轻视，鄙视ground in/on sth. 以…为根据widow 寡妇lottery 彩票jackpot 头奖，最高奖could do worse than 不妨试试…counterintuitive 违反直觉的wear off 逐渐消逝，减少，磨损creep in 悄然而至be packed with 挤满；塞满bang for your buck 所做的努力值得；钱花得合算sparingly 保守地，节俭地；慎用地；爱惜地be better off 过得更好an object of obsession 令人痴迷之物scarcity 不足，缺乏mandate 批准；授权incentive 激励empirical 以实验（经验）为依据的deep-seated 深层的，根深蒂固的amass 聚集（尤值大量）illusory 错觉的，虚假的oceans of 海量的，极大量的rose-tint 染了玫瑰色，精饰、美化esteem 尊重，尊敬stalk 高视阔步地走hot stuff 奇才；非凡的人物stalk around 趾高气扬地大踏步行走oversee 监督；监管lineup 阵容，一组deliberation 考虑；深思熟虑flattering 使人显得更漂亮的；讨好的，谄媚的doctor 篡改，伪造，修改profound 深刻的，极大的，严重的，意义深远的delusion 错觉；谬见；妄想viscerally 发自肺腑地wit 才思，才智portray 描绘instinctively 本能地boom and bust 繁荣与萧条outmoded 使过时；使不流行insatiable 贪得无厌的，不知足的hail from 来自reinvent 彻底改造innovate 改变；改革；创新；引入新事物institution 制度，风俗习惯shove 挤；撞；猛推cap （可用或可借资金的）最高限额be down to sb. 是某人的责任；由某人负责expire 期满，终止，失效coalition 联合；联盟pressing 迫切的，紧急的typify 代表；作为…的典型sole 唯一的，单独的，仅有的embodiment 体现，具体化obscure 费解的，难以理解的prise 包含，包括unwittingly 不知不觉地，不知情assault 攻击，袭击gravitate 被吸引到，受吸引permeate 渗透，弥漫perpetually 永恒地，持久地gorgeous 极好的humble 简单的，粗陋的2015真题virtually 几乎，实际上，实质上，事实上beat into 强迫某人做某事plug into 深陷于，沉浸于weird 怪异的，不可思议的，奇怪的perceive 察觉，认识到unconventional 非传统的rip off 扯掉，撕掉band-aid 创可贴，绷带tuck 把…塞入muter 通勤者，（远距离）上下班往返的人do away with 废除，去掉a place of refuge 避难所nonparents 无子女者conventional wisdom 传统观点，普遍看法hold true for 适用于，对…有效home front 家庭后方；战时后方lag behind 落后，拖欠life-sustaining 维持生命的draw out 取得division 分配clinically 不偏不倚地，客观地methodically 系统地，有条不紊地，有条理地lag 落后于dropout 退学，辍学paradox 自相矛盾的情形，悖论forthing 即将到来的outline 概述，勾勒next-to-no-cost 接近零成本的recipients 接受者grant 助学金，拨款thesis 论点，论题modest 较小的intervention 干预navigate 理解，应对right-brained 右脑的，感性的parachute 空降，空投infuse 把…注入；灌溉allegiance 忠诚，拥护terminology 学科术语，专门用语amid 在…中间，在…当中buzzword 某一领域内的时髦用语linguist 语言学家nonsense 无稽之谈，胡说，荒谬的想法buy into it 买账，认可outside of employment 失业，非就业grieve 为…而悲伤，为…感到伤心inopportune 不合时宜的mindset 心态，思想倾向weigh down 使负重担，保持留心perceive 发觉，感知，意识到know…like the back of one’s hand 对…十分熟悉，了如指掌twist and turn 迂回曲折refuge n.避难所，庇护 vt./vi. 庇护motivate vt.刺激，促进contradicting a. 矛盾的，冲突的conventional a. 传统的，惯例的lingua franca 通用语emotional a. 情绪的，易激动的strategy n. 战略，策略corporate a.法人的，共同的 n.公司orient v.使适应，使朝向 n.东方coincidence n.巧合，一致dominate vi./vt.控制，占优势explicitly adv.明确地，明白地conscious a.意识的，故意的，清醒的infuse vi./vt. 灌输，浸泡allegiance n. 忠诚、效忠associate n. 结合、vi./vt. 联合fulfilment n.履行，实行prompt a.敏捷的 v.促进，推动boundary n. 边界、界限、范围blurring 模糊的bargain 交易，便宜货mental a. 精神的，脑力的sustain vt.维持，支撑，忍受clarity n.清楚，清晰，透明suppose vt./vi.假想，设想clinically ad.临床地，门诊部地methodically ad.方法地，系统地inadequate a.不足的，不充分的threaten vt./vi. 威胁，恐吓apparently ad.显然，似乎，表面上infinite a.无限的，无穷的 n.无限unemployment n. 失业，失业率decent a. 正派的，得体的overlook v. 俯瞰，忽视 n. 忽视voluntarily ad.自愿地distinction n. 区别差别evidence n.证据 v. 证明recession n. 衰退、不景气difference n. 差异、不同、争执survey n./vi./vt.调查，测量insurance n. 保险，保障2016真题inclination 意向，倾向Gallup polling 盖洛普民意测验publicly traded firms 公开交易的公司，上市公司sure enough 果然，果真如此intensity 强度，力度be headquartered 总部设在某地hold （熟词僻义）继续适用，继续有效echo 声音回响、回应或反映invented 虚构、创造headquartered 总部设立于resume 中断之后继续或重新开始codified 刻板的、固守成规的、循规蹈矩的sentiment 情感、情绪attribute to 把…归因于…take a long-term view 采取更加长远的眼光、把眼光放长远plausible 有道理的、可信的forward-thinking 前瞻的、有远见的hint at 暗示、暗指lean towards 倾向于，向…倾斜catch up 赶上，追上assistant dean （学院）副院长jobs gap 职位空缺pack 塞满，挤满brim 口，边沿drive…away 赶跑，使离去boot camp 训练营curriculum 课程gear 使与…相适应，使适合于drop out of 退学，辍学turnover 倾覆，翻转coax 劝诱lend sth. to sth. 给…增加，增添（某种特色或特性）crash 暴跌，猛跌desperate 危急的，严峻的designate 指定，认定confrontational 对抗性的，挑起冲突的regulatory power 监管权力crack down on 严厉打击，镇压prosecute 起诉，控告，检举unintentionally 无意地，非故意地interim 临时的，暂时的，过渡期间的in the driver’s sea t 处于控制地位，主导地位mournfully 悲哀地，凄惨地thorny 棘手的flywheel 飞轮，惯性轮spin 旋转，转动overwhelmingly 势不可挡地，压倒地instrumentally 起作用地，有帮助地immersive 沉浸式的conveyor belt 传送带mind-set 思想倾向slot in 安置，安排fuel 刺激，使加剧ritualistic 仪式的，例行的distraction 使人分心的事物backdrop 背景poll 民意调查，民意测验draw a road map to success 绘制一幅成功路线图prize 珍视，高度重视strikingly 惹人注目地，醒目地prioritize 按优先顺序列出；优先考虑financially secure 经济有保障aftermath （战争、风暴、事故的）后果，余波searing 炽热的，灼热的；灼痛的，剧痛的virtually 实际上，几乎，事实上spread through 蔓延到overwhelming 巨大的，压倒性的signpost 路标，标志物mortgage 抵押贷款，按揭therapy 治疗，疗法suppress 抑制（感情）brush/sweep sth. under the carpet 掩盖某事（尤指错事）silver bullet 解决某一难题的良方，高招indulge 沉溺于，沉湎于，纵情于giggle 傻笑infection 传染病mortgage 按揭spree 作乐，狂欢（尤指花钱或喝酒）side effect 副作用backfire 发生意外，产生事与愿违的结果byproduct 意外收获，额外收获；附带的结果lure 引诱，诱使sheer 十足的，彻底的，纯粹的hone 打磨，锤炼，使精通read extensively 广泛阅读，博览群书a broad knowledge base 广泛的知识基础keep abreast of 了解…的最新情况sustained efforts 长期不懈的努力illuminating 有启发性的unwind 使松弛，放松recharge 放松休息，恢复精力antidote 克服…的良方revitalized 焕发生机的relieve pressure 舒缓压力e into contact with 接触到，遇到have one’s share of 有自己的一份儿…attach meaning to 对…赋予意义2017真题boast 吹嘘，自吹自擂speculate 推测，思索，投机capital 资本impoverished 穷困的wasteland 荒地，不毛之地resolution 解决，决心wisdom 智慧pensative 补偿alongside 和…在一起leave behind 留下；永久脱离set aside 不顾；驳回；撤销mutually exclusive 互相排斥purposelessness 无目的mortality 死亡人数agonizing 痛苦难忍的dullness 沉闷，无聊downsides 不利的一面，缺点yield 屈服；产生；放弃virtue 优点，长处，美德follow from 是…的必然结果overblown 夸张，过分渲染degrading 丧失体面的，丢脸的tricky 难对付的；狡猾的scarce 不足的，稀少的leisure time 空闲时间counterbalance 使平衡，抵消staff 为…配备工作人员，在…工作pledge 发誓，保证legacy 遗产lever 用杠杆撬动couch 沙发retrospection 回想，反思in the run-up to sth. 重要事件的前夕ethos 精神特质，理念shine 干得出色，出类拔萃bidder 投标人intimidating 令人胆怯的puffed-out 气喘吁吁的，上气不接下气的preside 主持，指挥，掌管thrive 兴隆，繁荣，茁壮成长grassroots 草根，基层民众wordy 冗长的，啰嗦的engagement 参与度disengage 脱离，不再感兴趣bleed-over 渗透routine 常规，惯例；生活乏味；tablet 平板电脑verbal 文字的，言语的sue 要求separate 单独的tension 紧张关系，紧张状况bid 努力争取，出价，投标blank 没表情的，不感兴趣的disconcerting 使人不安的distressed 痛苦的，悲伤的，苦恼的capture n. 捕获；战利品，俘虏exquisitely 精致地，近乎完美地sensitive 敏感的be wired to do 天生，自然就会ideology 意识形态oppressive 压制的，令人焦虑的expose vt. 揭露，揭发；使曝光；显示get a lot out of sth. 从…中获益良多get sth. out of the way 把某事处理完widespread 普遍的、广泛的immediately 立即、马上conjunction 结合、同时发生increasingly 越来越多silly 奇怪academic 学术的、学院的condemn vt. 谴责；判刑，定罪；声讨constant adj. 不变的；恒定的；经常的perpetuated v. 使持续，使长存，使永久化（尤指不好的事物）misconception n. 误解；错觉；错误想法overlook 忽略，未注意到condemn 谴责perpetuate 使永久化，使持续lessen vt. 使…变小；使…减轻；使…变少blunder n. 愚蠢（或粗心）的错误，大错freshman n. 大学一年级新生；新手figure out 把……算清楚lucrative 赚大钱的，获利多的misconception 错误认识，误解pursuit 事业，消遣，爱好brand new 全新的，崭新的acclimation 适应blunder 愚蠢（或粗心的）错误inherent 固有的，内在的mandatory 强制的，法定的，义务的curriculum 全部课程upkeep 保养，维修prone 易于发生某事的；很可能…的magnifying glass 放大镜hazard 危险，隐患equation 影响因素，综合体at the expense of 以…为代价perception 认识，观念，看法unleash 发泄，突然释放，使爆发out of necessity 出于必要tease 梳理；挑逗，取笑do away with 终结，废除，去掉，消灭e to terms with 与之妥协pay a price for 付出代价refrain 老调，一再重复的话take a hit 遭到打击，被击中outsourcing 外包boomer 婴儿潮一代（尤指1947-1961年间）生育高峰期出生的人millennial 千禧一代，20世纪的最后一个世代grapple with 尽力解决（某困难问题）stiff 激烈的，严厉的get exposed to 接触，体验flustered 紧张的，慌乱的，激动的recession （经济）衰退，萧条clear a hurdle 成功克服困难economic downturn 经济衰退be laid off 被辞退trade 行业，职业lure 吸引，引诱sewing 缝纫personality 有突出个性的人promotion 推广secondary school 中学move on to sth./doing sth. 继续某事，接着做某事fashion design 时装设计Chinese martial arts 中国武术annual growth 年度增长line chart 折线图cultural infrastructure/facilities 文化基础设施public cultural undertaking 公共文化事业underpin 构成…的基础people’s well-being 人民福祉2018真题resolve 消除，解释清楚；解决inherent 内在的，固有的；生来就有的willingness 乐意；心甘情愿stimuli 刺激（stimulus的复数）twist 意外转折electrified 带电的incur 招致；遭受；引起subsequent 随后的，继…之后的reproduce 使再次发生；再现fingernail 手指甲chalkboard 黑板schooling 学校教育withdrawal 撤走；收回inquiry 探究；探索；调查self-reliant 自力更生的self-destructive 自毁的，自残的self-evident 不证自明的，显而易见的self-deceptive 自欺的instinct 本能；直觉backfire 产生事与愿违的结果insight 洞悉；深刻见解profound 知识渊博的，理解深刻的，意义深远的resist 按捺；抗拒trace 追溯；找到overlook 忽视，忽略conceal 隐藏，隐瞒follow through 进行到底；坚持完成ahead of time 提前，提早determine 查明；测定；确定endeavor 尝试，努力justify 证明别人认为不合理的事有道理，为…辩护as though 好像，似乎utterly 完全地，十足地overwhelm 使不知所措，压倒geometry n. 几何学graffiti 涂鸦，乱涂乱画accepted wisdom 传统信念，普遍看法mechanical memorization 机械记忆stuck with sth 粘住，无法摆脱insidious adj. 阴险的；隐伏的；暗中为害的；狡猾的prejudice 偏见inferiority 低等，劣等engine n. 引擎，发动机；机车，火车头；工具vocational education 职业教育evaporate 逐渐消逝headlong 轻率仓促的principle n. 原理，原则；主义，道义；本质，本义；根源，源泉one-size-fits-all 一刀切；一体适用；万全之策indicate vt. 表明；指出；预示；象征frustrate vt. 挫败；阻挠；使感到灰心turn sth. on its head 使人完全改变思路be staring sb. in the face 非常清楚/容易看见（你却看不见）wake-up call 叫醒电话，警示，警钟one-size-fits-all 一刀切momentum 势头go on line 在运转，在运行mitment 承诺farsighted 有远见的plummeting 直线下降的，暴跌的stem from 出自，来源于notably 尤其是，特别是take the lead 取得领先地位underline 强调dismiss 拒绝考虑，否定，搁置play with 被接受，买账quick 聪明的，明锐的，反应快的put-down 贬损的话，奚落的话skeptic 持怀疑态度的人in part 在某种程度上place big bets on 在…上下大赌注be a rarity 极为罕见spike 激增mean less and less 作用越来越小upmarket 高级的，高端的acquire 购得，收购intricate 错综复杂的grocery chain 连锁杂货店physical product 实体产品enormously 极其，非常revealing 揭示内情的，泄密的plot 密谋，策划go through 被认可，成交；通过not so much…but… 与其说毋宁说break the promise 食言clumsy 笨拙，不灵活的remedy 纠正，改正；治疗，救治to sb’s disadvantage 对…不利predatory 捕食性的，食肉的spammer 垃圾邮件发送者analogy 类推；类似；类比bat 防止，减轻distracted 心烦意乱的，思想不集中的put/place/set a premium on sb./sth. 重视，珍视retreat 静修期间ritual 程序，仪轨；习惯throughout the day 终日，整天keep to 坚持；信守；固守prioritise 按重要性排列craft 精心制作demotivate 使失去动力，使消极render 使变得；使处于某状态improvisation 即兴表演reap 收获，取得（成果）downtime 停工期，休息indulgence 沉溺，放纵psychiatry 精神病学pay a unique pliment 致以特别的赞美make the first move 迈出第一步，先采取行动stuck 卡住的jolt 颠簸，震动，摇晃；一阵强烈的感情（尤指震惊或惊讶）all of a sudden 突然wholeheartedly 全心全意地tick 打勾encyclopedia 百科全书institute 制定（政策等）；实行avenue 途径；手段passionately 炽热地，狂热地reschedule 重新安排terribly 非常necessitate 使…不可避免pie chart 饼状图per capita 人均dine out 外出进餐disposable ine 可支配收入primary concern 首要关心的问题catering panies 餐饮企业respectively 各自地其他dominoes 多米诺骨牌slap on the wrist 象征性的惩罚show the door 开除，扫地出门insensitive 缺乏同情心的misconduct 不端行为hold sb to higher standards 对某人有更高要求integrity 正直，诚实pragmatic 实用主义的overlook A for the sake of B 为B忽略A ethical lapse 道德败坏，道德堕落accountable 有责任的，负责的fallout 影响，结果harshly 严厉地，严酷地paper over 隐瞒the best bits of 最好的部分pelling 令人信服的premise 前提，假定levy 征收fine 罚款enact 颁布，制定法律overarching 包罗万象的spray around 分散，喷洒obscure 隐藏，掩盖imposition 实施，强加take off 起飞，腾飞article 条款coalition 同盟，联合kick off 开始，发起distraction 使人分心的事物take effect 生效，起作用back 支持revenue 税收收入，财政收入in the long run 长远来看divert 转移，使…转向transition 过渡，转变polar opposite 完全相反，正好相反be indicative of 显示出，表明，象征condense 浓缩，凝结sketchy 粗略的，不完全hold up 经得住检验in and of itself 就其本身而言take a cue from sb 学某人的样credit 归功于credibility 可信度not cut it 达不到要求，达不到标准substantial 实实在在的，真实的disclose 揭露，公开raise a red flag 引起注意，发出警示setback 挫折look to 希望（做某事）unmet 未满足的cling to 坚持，不愿放弃overwhelmingly 压倒性地rigid 僵硬的，死板的collide with 与…冲突/抵触confront 面对recruitment fair 招聘会climb the career ladder 晋升extracurricular 课外的perceive 看待，理解diminish 削弱，贬低（重要性或价值）chronic 慢性的，长期的uneven 不均匀的，不平坦的deterioration 恶化，退化，堕落agonising 痛苦难忍的，苦恼的drastic 激烈的，猛烈的advanced 晚期的procedure 治疗，手术malpractice 治疗失当，医疗纠纷shutter 停止运行，关闭fury 狂怒，暴怒press ahead 推进，加紧进行rational 理性的，合理的auction 竞卖，拍卖curb 抑制，控制，束缚ideological 思想上的，意识形态的shake off 摆脱saw 格言，谚语obscure 模糊的，晦涩的in the unlikely event 在不太可能的情况下tariff 关税eligibility 合格，资格explain away 为…辩解conspiracy 阴谋，共谋，反叛gratify 使高兴，使满意fancy 异常复杂的，太花哨的，昂贵的bear/take/suffer the brunt of 受到最严厉的攻击、批评inexorably 不可阻挡地reconcile 使和解，调停opaque 司法制度arbitrary 独断的，专制的radical 重大的，彻底的hamper 妨碍boast 自夸，自吹自擂spouse 配偶sphere 范围，领域overdue 迟到的，未兑现的humility 谦卑，谦逊arrogance 傲慢，自大soever 不论何种，无论render 使得derive…from…从…中得到…be prone to 易于…的。

中序遍历英文缩写

中序遍历英文缩写Binary trees are a fundamental data structure in computer science, and one of the most important operations performed on them is the traversal of their nodes. The in-order traversal, also known as the "central" or "symmetric" traversal, is a specific method of traversing a binary tree. This traversal technique visits the left subtree, then the root node, and finally the right subtree, resulting in a sequence of nodes that is sorted in ascending order.The in-order traversal of a binary tree is denoted by the abbreviation "InOr" or "I". This abbreviation is commonly used in various algorithms and data structures that involve binary trees, and it is important for developers and computer scientists to understand its significance.One of the key applications of in-order traversal is in the representation and manipulation of mathematical expressions. Binary trees can be used to represent mathematical expressions, with the internal nodes representing operators and the leaf nodes representing operands. By performing an in-order traversal of such a tree, we can recover the original expression in its standard infix notation, where the operators are placed between their operands.For example, consider the expression "(A + B) * (C - D)". This expression can be represented as a binary tree, with the root node representing the multiplication operator, the left subtree representing the addition of A and B, and the right subtree representing the subtraction of C and D. By performing an in-order traversal of this tree, we can recover the original expression in its infix form.In addition to its use in expression representation, in-order traversal is also important in the implementation of various binary tree-based data structures, such as binary search trees (BSTs). In a BST, the in-order traversal of the tree will visit the nodes in ascending order of their values, which can be useful for efficient searching, insertion, and deletion operations.Furthermore, in-order traversal is a fundamental technique used in the design and analysis of algorithms that operate on binary trees. Many algorithms, such as those for finding the minimum or maximum value in a BST, rely on the properties of in-order traversal to ensure their correctness and efficiency.To perform an in-order traversal of a binary tree, the following recursive algorithm can be used:1. Traverse the left subtree (if it exists)2. Visit the root node3. Traverse the right subtree (if it exists)This algorithm can be implemented in various programming languages, and it is a common interview question for aspiring computer scientists and software engineers.In conclusion, the in-order traversal of binary trees is a crucial concept in computer science, with applications in the representation and manipulation of mathematical expressions, the implementation of binary tree-based data structures, and the design and analysis of algorithms that operate on binary trees. Understanding the in-order traversal and its associated abbreviation "InOr" or "I" is essential for any developer or computer scientist working with binary trees and related data structures.。

Environmental Sociology

ANNUAL REVIEWS
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Ann. Rev. Social. 1979. 5:243-273 Copyright © 1979 by AnnUQ/ Reviews Inc. All rights reserved
ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY
1978; Ophuls 1977; SCEP 1970; Woodwell 1978). What people are doing to
the environment upon which their existence depends has aroused widespread concern, expressed in legislation such as the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act and in events such as the 1970 "Earth Day" and the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. It has also drawn the atten tion of a growing number of sociologists and has led quite recently to emergence of a new sociological specialization- "environmental sociol ogy." The purpose of this review is to describe the emergence of environmental sociology and to delineate the essential characteristics that qualify this new specialization as a distinct area of inquiry. In order to accomplish this a number of more specific issues are addressed. First, since sociologists were clearly not in the forefront of recent efforts to comprehend the causes and consequences of changing environmental conditions, we briefly discuss disciplinary traditions that made it difficult for sociology to recognize the importance of environmental problems and ecological constraints-to the extent that several important precursors of contemporary environmental sociology were largely ignored. Second, we give a brief history of recent organizational developments within sociological associations that signalled the gradual emergence of en vironmental sociology. Implicit in these organizational developments is a

非空的单向循环链表的尾结点满足（...

非空的单向循环链表的尾结点满足（The end nodes of non emptyone-way circular chain meet）Examination paper code: 1252The Open University of China 2007-2008 academic year second semester "open undergraduate" final examComputer science and technology professional data structure (this) examination questionsJuly 2008A single choice (2 points per day, a total of 30 points)1. non empty one-way loop chain tail node to meet () (set head pointer is head, pointer P point to the tail node).A.p->next = = NULL,B.p= = NULLC.p->next = = head,D.p = = head2. a logical structure ().A. can have different storage structuresB. can only have a unique storage structureC. refers to the storage relationship between a data elementThree statements above n are incorrect3. store data into a computer and embody the logical structure between the data elements called ().A. physical structureB. logical structureC. algorithm to achieve the specificD. distribution of storage units to the relevant variables4., in a single chain table, P refers to the node after insertinga s refers to the node, executable ().A.p->next = s; s->next=p->next =B.p->next = s->nextC.p = s->next,D.s->next = p->next; p->next = S5. in a chain team, assuming that f and R are header and tail pointers, the operation of the inserted s node is ().A.f->next = S; F = S,B.r->next = s; r = SC.s->next = R; r = SD. S->next = f; F = SThe 6. elements L, 3, 5, and 7 are put in the stack in sequence, and the impossible output sequence of the stack is (), which can be alternated with the stack.A.7, 5, 3, 1,B.1, 3, 5, 7C.7, 5, 1, 3,D.3, l, 7, 57., with a symmetrical matrix A of 20 order, using compressed storage method, the lower triangular part of the order of the main order stored in the one-dimensional array of B (subscript 1 from the array), then the element a in the matrix. 2, the subscript in the one-dimensional array B is ().A.41B.32C.18D.388., with two strings P and Q, the calculation of the location of the first occurrence of Q in P is called ().The A. connection B. substrC. string longD. pattern matching9. in a two fork tree, if the child with the number "I" has a left child, then the order of the left child is ().A.2i,B.2i, one, 1C.2i+1D.2i+210. set a n tree with two leaf nodes, each with a degree of 2 except the leaf nodeNode.A.2nB.2n+lC.2n+2,D.2n, one, 111, known as a graph shown in Fig. L, if a path is traversed by the depth first search method from the vertex a, a vertex sequence may be obtained ().A.abecdfB.acfebdC.aebcfdD.acdfrb12. linear table (to) can be stored, bisearch.The order in which the A. keywords are orderedB. orderC. linksD. two interpolation tree13. have a length of order in Table 12, the table lookup by binary search, compared with equal probability in case the number of successful search ().A.35 / 12B.39 / 12C.41 / 12D.37 / 1214. set the order of M elements, select the first m+1 element in the sequence that is not arranged, and make the first m+1 element sorted in only one element exchange. The method is ().A. binary sortB. bubble sortC. merge sortD. simple selection sort15. a set of key columns that are recorded (47, 80, 57, 39, 41, 46) are constructed using heap sorting (the top element is the smallest element) and the initial heap is ().A.39, 41, 46, 80, 47, 57B.39, 47, 46, 80, 4L, 57C.41, 39, 46, 47, 57, 80D.39, 80, 46, 47, 41, 57Two, fill in the blanks (2 points per day, a total of 24 points)1., the data elements in the structure have one to many relations, called "structure".2. for the two n matrix product, the algorithm's basicoperations and time complexity are and -.3. in a one-way linked list, you want to delete the P pointer,Q is known to point to the precursor node of the node referred to by P. You can use the operation - -.4. executable h and H = s when a s pointer is inserted into the chain stack of a stack top pointer. (the pointer field of the node is next)The two most basic storage methods for the 5. string are -- and --.6. compress the sparse matrix, three tuples corresponding to each nonzero element in the matrix, including the three - - - - - - - - Elements of the element.7., with a depth of 4 complete two fork tree, there are 5 nodes on the fourth layer, the tree has a node.(the root node is first layers)8. in a --y. tree, there are 2n, 2 sides (connections between nodes), each of which has 2 degrees of non leaf nodes, and then the tree has a non leaf node.9., as shown in Figure 2 of the two fork tree, where the sequence of traversal is --.10. hash function is to record the key value and the recordbetween the corresponding structure constructed.11. when a direct sort of a set of records (55, 39, 97, 22, 16, 73, 65, 47, 88) is inserted, when the seventh record 65 is inserted into an ordered table, a comparison is needed to find the insertion position.12.n elements for bubble sorting, usually need to go - ---- bubble, J bubble will be carried out-- a comparison between secondary elements.Three, comprehensive problems (to match each 10 points, a total of 30 points)1. set the look-up table for (7, 15, 21, 22, 40, 58, 68, 80,, 88, 89120), elements index followed by 1, 2, 3,...(1) draw on the look-up table corresponding to the binary search decision tree (tree node with the subscript said)(2) shows how many comparisons are required to successfully find element 40(3) seek the average number of comparisons to be successfully searched under equal probability conditions2. (1) if any of the two binary tree node values are larger than the left child value, less than the value of the right child, the tree is two binary sort tree, this is correct? If that is correct, the correct answer, if that is not correct, is forexample.(2) set up data sets {40, 29, 7, 73101, 4, 55, 2,, 81, 92, 39}, and then take the data in the set, and construct the tree two fork sorting tree.3. (1) with 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9 as the right of the leaf node, construct a Huffman tree, give the corresponding weight value, the Huffman coding of leaf node.(2) a Huffman tree has n leaf nodes. How many nodes are there in it? Why?Four, fill in the blanks (2 points per minute, 16 points)1. set the linear table for (6, 10, 16, 4), the following procedures are used to illustrate the structure variables to establish a one-way linked list, and output the list of nodes in the data.#define NULL 0Void, main (){NODE, a, B, C, D, *head, *p;A.data = 6;B, data = 10;C.data = 16;D.Data = 4; / *d is the tail node *Head= (1);A.Next = &b;B.next = &c;C.next = &d;(2) * / * end of table building process *P=head / / *p as working pointer, ready to output list * /DO{printf ("%d / N" (3) -);(4) -;}while ((5) -);}2. the following procedure is recursive traversal of two binary tree program, completed part of the program in space (tree structure of left and right pointer domain were left and right, data domain data as string, BT point to the root node).Void lnorder (struct, BTreeNode, *BT){if (BT,:NULL) {(1) -;(2) -;Inorder (BT->right)})Use the above procedure to traverse the right picture, and the result is (3) -;Examination paper code: 1252The Open University of China 2007-2008 academic year second semester "open undergraduate" final examComputer science and technology professional data structure (Ben)Examination questions, answers and scoring criteria(for reference)July 2008A single choice (2 points per day, a total of 30 points)1.C,2.A,3.A,4.D,5.B6.C7.D8.D9.A 10.(d)11. 12. 13. 14. 15.二、填空题 (每小题2分, 共24分)1.树形2.乘法, 0 (n3).3. q - > next＝p - > next.4.s - > next＝h.5.顺序存储链式存储6.行下标列下标非零元素值7.8.n一19.dgbaechif10.存储地址11.3- i 12.n一1三、综合题 (每小题10分, 共30分)1.(1)(2) 4次(3) asl＝ (1 + 2x 2 + 3 * 4 + 4 * 4) ／11＝3 2.(1) 不正确, 例(2)2;...3 t(d)7 108 i9 13(2) 2n一1个, 因为非叶结点数比叶结点数少一个.四、程序填空题 (每空2分, 共16分)(1) & a(2) (- > next＝ = null(3) p - > data(4) p = p - > next(5). ＝null2. (1) inorder (bt) leh)(2) printf ("% c" bt "data.(3) dbeafc我们都不是好孩子.。

编译原理术语中英文对照表

间接地址
In direct left recurs ion
间接左递归
In directly recursive date type
间接地归数据类型
In direct register address ing
间接寄存器地址
In duct ion proof
归纳证明
Infinite loops
无限循环
In herited attribute
Delayed evaluati on mecha nism
计算延迟机制
Delimiter
分界符
Dependency graph
依赖图
Derivati on
派生
Determi nistic finite automata
确定性有限自动机
Digit
数字
Directed acyclic graph
有向无环图
链
Character classes
字符类
Characters
字符
Child link
儿子链接
Chomsky hierarchy
乔姆斯语法层次
Closure
闭包
Code gen erati on
代码生成
Collisio n resoluti on
冲突解决方法
Comme nt delimiter
注释分隔符
中间表示
In terpreter
解释器
ISO(i ntern ati onal sta ndard orga ni zati on)
国际标准组织
Item
项
No.
English
Chinese
chapter

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