语言学教程 我的复习
新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习
新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习首先，我们需要回顾英语的语音学。
英语语音学研究的是英语语音系统的各种音位及其规律。
要了解英语的音位组成，我们需要了解元音和辅音的分类。
英语中的元音可以分为单元音和复元音，单元音包括长元音和短元音。
而辅音可以分为清辅音和浊辅音，清辅音又可以分为塞音、摩擦音、破擦音和鼻音。
此外，了解英语的重音规律也是很重要的。
其次，我们需要复习英语的词法学。
词法学是研究词的形态和构词规律的学科。
在英语中，词可以从词根和词缀构成，我们需要了解常用的词根和词缀，以及它们在构词中的作用和意义。
此外，英语还有一些特殊的构词规律，比如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语态变化等，我们需要熟悉这些规律。
然后，我们需要回顾英语的句法学。
句法学是研究句子结构和成分关系的学科。
在英语中，句子可以分为简单句、复合句和复合复句。
我们需要了解句子的基本成分，包括主语、谓语、宾语等，并了解它们之间的关系。
此外，我们还需要熟悉常用的句型和句子的语序规律。
最后，我们需要复习英语的语义学。
语义学是研究词义和句义的学科。
在英语中，词义可以通过定义、例子、同义词和反义词等来解释。
句义可以通过上下文和语用信息来推断。
我们需要了解词义的多义性和语法义，以及句义的歧义和暗示。
综上所述，新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习需要回顾英语的语音学、词法学、句法学和语义学。
需要了解英语的音位组成、词的构词规律、句子的基本成分和句型、词义和句义的推断等。
通过复习这些内容，可以巩固所学知识，为期末考试做好准备。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记引言《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本全面介绍英语语言学的教材。
本文是根据该教材的内容整理出的复习笔记，旨在帮助读者复习和巩固所学知识。
本文将从语音学、形态学、句法学、语用学等方面进行总结和回顾。
一、语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和接收。
在英语语音学中，我们学习了音素、音节、音变等概念，以及发音方式和音系结构。
其中，音素是语音的最小单位，音节是由音素组成的单位，音变是音素在特定环境中发生的变化。
在语音学的学习中，我们还学习了国际音标的使用和表示方法。
国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统，其中每个音素都有一个唯一的符号来表示。
通过学习国际音标，我们可以准确地记录和描述语音。
二、形态学形态学是研究词素和词法规则的学科。
在形态学中，我们学习了词的构成规则和形态变化。
英语中的词缀是词的构成要素，可以分为前缀、后缀和中缀。
词缀的加入或删除可以改变词的意思、词性或词态。
此外，我们还学习了各种词的形态变化规则，如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语气等。
了解形态学规则对于理解和运用英语词汇是非常重要的。
三、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分之间关系的学科。
在句法学的学习中，我们学习了句子的基本成分，如主语、谓语、宾语和定语等。
我们还学习了句子的结构、成分之间的语法关系，以及句法规则的应用。
在英语句法学中，我们学习了句子的短语结构分析和句子树的表示方法。
通过短语结构分析和句子树，我们可以准确地分析句子的结构和成分关系。
四、语用学语用学研究的是语言的使用和交际。
在语用学的学习中，我们学习了语言的交际功能、意义和上下文的影响。
我们还学习了言语行为和语用规则，如请求、邀请、命令等。
了解语用学对于理解和运用英语是非常重要的。
结论《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本重要的英语语言学教材，其内容涵盖了语音学、形态学、句法学和语用学等方面的知识。
本文对该教材的内容进行了复习总结，并通过Markdown文本格式进行了输出。
语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。
5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
语言学概论各章节复习重点
引言、第一章语言的本质学习要点1.古代语文研究主要有哪三个国家地区？它们各有怎样的成果（著作、人物、时间）和擅长？中国古代语文研究的三个分支是什么？代表性著作（《尔雅》《方言》《切韵》《广韵》《说文解字》）、人物、年代？2.历史语言学的主要研究方法和成果是什么？代表性人物？“语文学”和“语言学”区别是什么？3.现代语言学的代表人物（索绪尔、布龙菲尔德、乔姆斯基）、著作、时间、流派？4.解释并举例说明：语言/言语、组合关系/聚合关系、共时语言学/历时语言学5.为什么说语言具有符号属性？语言符号由哪两个要素组成？试证明语言符号的任意性、线条性、稳定性。
6.语言的要素有哪些？如何理解？7.为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？8.为什么说语言具有社会属性（生理、心理、个人）？怎样理解语言是全民的交际工具？9.语言的定义是怎样界定语言的？第二章语音和音位学：1.复述语音的四个物理要素，举例说明其辨义作用。
2.画出舌面元音舌位图，标出8个正则元音。
3.元音和辅音的区别在哪里？能够描写8个正则元音及普通话中的元音辅音，能够用宽式国际音标记录普通话。
4.复述并举例说明：音素、音节、复元音、复辅音、开音节、闭音节；音节和音素的关系。
5.举例说明语流音变：同化、异化、弱化、脱落、增音。
6.复述并举例说明：音位和音位变体、分布、对立、自由、互补、宽式记音与严式记音、音位系统。
7.举例说明如何归并音位，说明音素和音位的关系。
了解普通话的声韵配合。
8.什么是非音质音位？举例说明调位和重位。
9.什么是音位的区别性特征？举例说明。
10.现代汉语语音有哪些特点？第三章语义复习1.语义单位有哪些？2.举例说明义素（语义特征）分析的过程。
3.语言中为什么存在大量同音词？汉语同音词主要有哪些来源？多义词和同音词有怎样的异同？4.什么是语义场？上下位词、义类词指什么？语义场对语言研究有怎样的价值？第四章复习1.举例说明概念：词法、句法、语法、语素、词、词组、句子、单纯词、合成词、复合词、派生词、词根、词缀、词干、词尾、形态、句法结构、语法形式、语法意义、语法手段、语法范畴。
【考研专业课笔记】胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)复习攻略(第2章)
好的，以下是考研语言学专业课复习攻略：
1.复习要点
第2章语音学的主要内容包括以下方面：
（1）语音符号：声母、韵母、声调和语调等；
（2）语音系统：语音库、音位、音系、音变等；
（3）语音规律：音位组合规律、音节结构规律、声调变化规律等；（4）语音变异：方言、口音、个体差异等。
2.学习目标
通过本章的学习，你应该能够：
（1）理解语音学的基本概念，包括声音、音素、音位、音系等；
（2）掌握各种语音符号的特点和用法，以及声调语调的分类和作用；
（3）了解语音规律和变异现象，掌握语音变异的基本类型和特点；
（4）掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术，如声谱分析、声学实验等。
3.时间安排
第一天：
上午：阅读第2章，理解语音学的基本概念和语音符号的特点和用法。
下午：掌握声调语调的分类和作用，了解语音规律和变异现象。
第二天：
上午：了解语音变异的基本类型和特点，掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术。
下午：进行实验操作或模拟练习，加深对语音学知识的理解和运用。
4.总结
通过以上复习要点和学习目标，你可以在2天内全面了解语音学的基本概念和知识体系，掌握各种语
音符号的特点和用法，了解声调语调的分类和作用，学习语音规律和变异现象，掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术。
建议在学习过程中注重实践和思考，多进行练习和实验操作，加深对概念和方法的理解和记忆。
同时，还应该注意扩大知识面，关注语音学的前沿研究和应用领域，为未来的学术研究和职业发展打下坚实的基础。
语言学复习提纲(完整版)
第一章对外汉语教学基础论第一节第一语言教学与第二语言教学一、四组概念（教材P31）1. 母语和外语母语：从一般意义来讲，母语就是指本国或本民族的语言，通常是指本国或本民族通用的语言。
（周）对于母语的界定，现在还有很多不同的意见。
再具体地说母语就是指自己的父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言。
是从亲属关系的角度命名的。
外语：指的是外国的语言。
是从国别的角度命名的，相对于本国语言。
2. 第一语言与第二语言第一语言：（first language）是人们出生后首先习得的语言，多数人的第一语言是母语。
第二语言：(second language)是人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。
第一语言和第二语言的区别是从学习的先后顺序的角度命名的。
3. 本族语和非本族语4. 目的语（Target language）正在学习并希望掌握的语言。
二、第二语言教学（一）第二语言教学的特点（1）第二语言教学主要是以培养运用目的语的交际能力（正确表述与合理表述）为目标；（2）第二语言教学以技能训练为中心，通过大量的练习和反复的实践将语言知识转化为技能；（教学方法）（3）第二语言教学以集中进行强化训练为主要教学形式。
（4）第二语言教学的教学对象有其独特性。
〓来自不同的民族和国家，有不同的文化背景；〓基础也不一样，因此要分班〓对于成人而言，已经形成了自己的认知体系，价值体系，对事物有自己的判断能力，在学习中他们善于总结和分析，并形成自己的学习方法。
（5）第二语言教学注重语言对比，通过与目的语与母语的对比，确定教学的重点和难点；（6）第二语言教学存在着母语对目的语的迁移；（同学们在学英语语音时经常会有这样的问题。
）(7)第二语言教学更加注重文化教学。
（您走好，您慢慢走）从大的方面来讲，文化的差异会影响外国人对异国的一些事物的看法和评价；从小的方面来讲，文化的差异在语言当中有所体现，会影响外国人的表达和理解。
（8）第二语言教学具体的教学目的和教学要求可能不同。
语言学基础复习(全)
语言学基础复习(全)
1. 什么是语言学？
语言学是研究语言的科学领域。
它探究语言的结构、性质和使用，并研究语言之间的相互关系。
2. 语音学
语音学是语言学的一个分支，研究语言中的音素、音系和语音规律。
它涉及到语音的产生、传播和感知。
3. 语法学
语法学是研究语言中的句法结构和规则的学科。
它研究句子的结构、词类和句法关系等。
4. 语义学
语义学研究语言中词语、短语和句子的意义。
它关注词义、义项和语义关系等。
5. 语用学
语用学研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。
它研究语言的意图、推理和上下文等因素。
6. 语言变异和语言变化
语言变异和语言变化是研究语言不同方言、变体以及语言演变过程的学科。
7. 语言学与其他学科的关系
语言学与其他学科如心理学、认知科学、社会学和人机交互等有紧密的联系和应用。
8. 语言学的研究方法
语言学采用多种研究方法，包括实地调查、语料库研究、实验
研究和理论推导等。
9. 语言学的应用领域
语言学的应用领域包括教育、语言教学、翻译、语音识别、自
然语言处理等。
10. 语言学的发展前景
随着科技的进步和社会的发展，语言学在多个领域将继续发展，如自然语言处理、人机交互、机器翻译等。
以上是对语言学基础的简要复习，希望能够帮助你加深对语言
学的理解。
语言学教程复习资料-胡壮麟
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3. Functions of language① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)② Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③ Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (Health, weather)⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)— description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined toform sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观 (Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words , such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech , the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴 in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realized in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体） and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态 and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements ina sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction (向心结构) is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e (主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener Rheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning (概念意义) is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：① The Referential Theory② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory 指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences① Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency (矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition (前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction (矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly (语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章nguage and Culture：①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis②Evidence Given by Whorf ③Implication of SWH ④Relation between Language and Culture2．SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (语言决定论): the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterationsnguage and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers）Bilingualism and DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Varieties ：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、 Language and gender、 Language and age、 Idiolect、 Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.11.Halliday’s Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、 tenor of discourse (语旨)、 mode of discourse (语式)12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.14．A pidgin : it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used forcommunicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s language.15.A creole : when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：① Performatives and Constatives② A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative (行事话语)。
语言学教程复习资料胡壮麟
语言学教程复习资料胡壮麟一、语言学教程概述语言学教程是研究人类语言的综合性、系统性、跨学科性的学科，它涉及到语言的结构、语言的发展、语言的习得以及语言在社会和文化中的作用等多个方面。
胡壮麟先生作为中国语言学界的代表性人物之一，他的语言学教程被广泛使用，具有很高的学术价值和实用性。
二、胡壮麟的语言学教程特点1、全面性：胡壮麟的语言学教程涵盖了语言学的各个方面，从语言的基本性质到语言的各个层面（音韵、词汇、语法、语用等），再到语言的演变和习得，都有深入浅出的阐述。
2、国际化：胡壮麟先生长期致力于推进中国语言学的研究和发展，他的教程不仅具有中国本土化的特点，也融入了国际语言学界的最新研究成果，具有很高的国际化水平。
3、系统性：胡壮麟的语言学教程以语言的结构和发展为主线，将语言的各个层面有机地在一起，形成了一个完整的语言学体系。
4、创新性：胡壮麟先生在教程中不仅介绍了语言学的基本理论和方法，还融入了自己的研究成果和见解，具有很强的创新性。
5、实用性：胡壮麟的语言学教程以实例和案例为基础，通过分析真实的语言材料，帮助学生理解和掌握语言学的理论和方法，具有很高的实用性。
三、复习资料推荐1、《新编语言学教程》：由胡壮麟先生主编，包含了语言学的基本理论和研究方法，是学习语言学的重要参考书之一。
2、《语言学纲要》：由叶蜚声、徐通锵先生主编，系统介绍了语言学的基本概念、基本原理和研究方法，是学习语言学的重要参考书之一。
3、《普通语言学教程》：由索绪尔先生著，介绍了语言学的基本概念、基本原理和研究方法，是学习语言学的重要参考书之一。
语言学复习资料一、语言学概述语言学是研究人类语言的学科，它涵盖了对语言的结构、功能、演变和应用等方面的研究。
语言学具有交叉性和综合性的特点，与心理学、社会学、人类学等学科有着密切的。
二、语言学的基本概念1、语言：语言是人们交际和表达思想的工具，是一种符号系统。
它由词汇、语法、语音等构成。
2、言语：言语是人们运用语言进行交际的过程，是个人表达思想的方式。
语言学教程[第二章语音]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第二章语音复习笔记I．语音学和音系学的定义1．语音学语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
2．语音学研究的三大领域(1)发音语言学研究语音的发生。
(2)声学语音学研究语音的物质特征。
(3)感知语音学 (或听觉语音学)研究语音的感知。
3．音系学音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。
换句话说，音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法。
Ⅱ．发音器官1．发音器官是人体参与语音发生的那部分，包括肺、气管、喉、鼻和口。
2．清音在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动，这样所发出的音叫做清音。
3．浊音在发音过程中，发音时声带振动，这样所发出的音叫做浊音。
4．国际音标(1)国际音标是一个标准的、被国际上广泛接受的语音描述系统。
(2)它的基本原则是用不同的字母符号来表示不同的发音。
(3)经过几次修正，目前国际音标仍然被语音学家和语言学家广泛使用。
Ⅲ．辅音和元音1．定义(1)发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。
(2)发音时，声道不受任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流的紊乱或停滞，由此产生的音叫做元音。
2．辅音(1)发音方式和发音部位①发音方式指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位时的方式。
②发音部位指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。
(2)辅音的分类①按发音方式分类，辅音可分为爆破音、鼻音、擦音、近音、边音、颤音、触音和闪音以及塞擦音。
爆破音：[p，b，t，d，k，g]鼻音：[m，n，n]擦音：[f，v，o，6，s，z，J，3，h]近音：[w，J，j]边音：[l]颤音：[ts，dz，tr，dr]②按发音部位分类，辅音可分为双唇音、唇齿音、齿音、齿龈音、齿龈后音、卷舌音、硬腭音、软腭音、小舌音、咽音和声门音。
双唇音：[p，b，m]唇齿音：[f，v]齿音：[0，6]齿龈音：[t，d，n，s，z，j，l]齿音后音：[f，3]硬腭音：[j]软腭音：[k，g，n]声门音：[h]3．元音(1)基本元音基本元音是指一系列约定俗成的、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。
(完整word版)语言学概论总复习
语言学概论总复习绪论部分小学普通语言学具体语言学语言学史中的重要代表人物及作品语言学的三大发源地人类传递信息的五个过程第一章语言的功能1.语言的功能。
2.语言和思维的关系3.思维能力是全人类相同的，语言是各民族不同的。
第二章语言符号任意性线条性二层性组合关系聚合关系1.为什么说语言是一种符号系统？2.秦赵高指鹿为马，但结果鹿还是鹿，马还是马，这是为什么？用语言符号的理论回答3.同样表示“父亲”“母亲”，汉语用“baba mama”,英语用father mother,为什么会有这样的差别？4.什么是语言的结构二层性？用汉语为例加以说明5.说话只能在有限和无限、自由和不自由的矛盾中进行。
6.语言符号的系统性表现在哪些方面？7.人类语言和动物“语言”的本质区别是什么？第三章语音音素音位音位变体自由变体条件变体音质音位非音质音位音位的区别特征语流音变音节1.语音四要素以及之间的关系。
2.请举例说明语音的社会属性。
3.元音和辅音的区别4.元音的音质由哪些方面的音素决定的？举例说明5.元音舌位图的设计原理？6.怎样认识音位和音素的关系？7.举例说明区分、归并音位的原则。
8.怎样认识音位和音位变体的关系？9.音位的系统性表现在哪些方面?请以普通话为例说明．10. 语流音变有哪些具体表现？请结合具体例子理解。
11.举例说明汉语音节结构的特点。
12.按普通话读音给“他天天在书房里画画儿”注上国际音标。
这句话里有几个元音音位？13.判断下列说法的正误，并说明理由。
英语／P／音位和汉语普通话／P／音位不是对等的．第四章一、语法单位；词；语素；单纯词；合成词；词缀；词根；派生词缀；屈折词缀；词类；语法形式；语法意义；形态；语法范畴；语法的递归性；变换分析；屈折语；孤立语；黏着语二、变换下列句子，使其具有句法同义：1. 我打破了杯子；2. 我们找到了小王三、用变换分析法区分句法多义1.关心的是他母亲。
2.虚构的故事吓坏人。
语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料语言学复习资料语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、语言的起源和发展、语言的功能等方面。
对于学习语言学的学生来说，复习资料是必不可少的工具。
本文将为大家提供一些语言学复习资料的建议和推荐。
一、教材和课堂笔记首先，教材是学习语言学的基本资料。
学生可以仔细阅读教材，理解其中的概念和理论。
同时，课堂笔记也是很重要的复习资料。
在上课的过程中，学生可以记录下老师的讲解和重点内容，以便后期复习和回顾。
二、参考书和专业期刊除了教材和课堂笔记，学生还可以阅读一些与语言学相关的参考书和专业期刊。
这些书籍和期刊通常更加深入和专业，可以帮助学生更好地理解语言学的理论和实践。
一些经典的语言学著作，如《语言学导论》、《语言学概论》等，都是不错的选择。
三、学术论文和研究报告学术论文和研究报告是了解最新语言学研究进展的重要途径。
学生可以通过查阅学术数据库或者专业期刊网站，获取最新的语言学研究成果。
阅读这些论文和报告，可以帮助学生拓宽视野，了解不同的研究方法和观点。
四、在线资源和学习社区在互联网时代，学生可以利用各种在线资源和学习社区来获取语言学的复习资料。
有很多网站和平台提供免费的语言学课程和教学视频，学生可以根据自己的需要选择合适的资源进行学习。
此外，一些学习社区也可以提供交流和讨论的机会，学生可以与其他学习者一起分享心得和经验。
五、实践和应用除了理论知识，语言学的学习还需要实践和应用。
学生可以通过参加语言学实验、进行语言调查或者分析语料库等方式，将所学的理论知识应用到实际问题中。
这样不仅可以加深对语言学理论的理解，还可以提高解决问题的能力。
六、复习方法和技巧最后，学生还需要掌握一些复习方法和技巧。
例如，制定合理的复习计划，将学习内容分成小块进行复习；使用概念地图或者笔记整理法来整理和总结知识；进行自测和练习，检验自己的掌握程度等。
这些方法和技巧可以帮助学生更加高效地进行复习。
总之，语言学复习资料的选择和使用对于学生的学习效果至关重要。
语言学教程复习资料
语言学教程复习资料语言学教程复习资料语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、语音、语义、语法等方面。
对于学习语言学的学生来说，复习资料是必不可少的工具。
本篇文章将为大家提供一些语言学教程的复习资料，帮助大家更好地掌握语言学知识。
一、语言学基础知识1. 语言的定义和特征：语言是人类交流和思维的工具，具有发音系统、词汇系统和语法系统等特征。
2. 语言的分类：世界上存在着众多的语言，按照语系可以分为汉藏语系、印欧语系、阿尔泰语系等；按照语言类型可以分为属格语、主谓语等。
3. 语音学：语音学研究的是语言中的音素、音节、音变等内容，包括发音器官、音素的分类和音变规律等。
4. 语义学：语义学研究的是语言中的词义、句义等内容，包括词汇的意义、句子的意义以及语义关系等。
5. 语法学：语法学研究的是语言中的句法结构、语法规则等内容，包括句子的成分、短语结构、句法关系等。
二、语言学理论1. 结构主义语言学：结构主义语言学是20世纪初兴起的一种语言学理论，它强调语言的结构和系统性，关注语言的内部规则和规律。
2. 生成语法：生成语法是20世纪中叶兴起的一种语言学理论，主要包括转换语法和广义语法，它们试图从语言的生成过程来解释语言现象。
3. 语用学：语用学是研究语言使用的学科，它关注语言的交际功能、语境和语用规则等内容，包括言外之意、语用推断等。
4. 言语行为理论：言语行为理论是20世纪后期兴起的一种语言学理论，它研究的是人们使用语言时的意图、目的和效果等，包括承诺、请求、命令等。
三、语言学研究方法1. 田野调查：田野调查是语言学研究中常用的方法之一，通过实地观察和采访来获取语言数据，了解语言的使用情况和语言变化。
2. 实验研究：实验研究是语言学研究中常用的方法之一，通过设计实验来观察和验证语言现象，例如语音实验、语法实验等。
3. 语料库研究：语料库研究是语言学研究中常用的方法之一，通过收集和分析大量的语言数据来揭示语言的规律和变化。
00541《语言学概论》知识点复习(一).docx
00541《语言学概论》知识点复习（一）第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型（一）只有人类才有语言1、语言的概念：语言是一种符号系统，是由语音和语义构成的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
2、，语言，是人类所独有的，语言能力是人跟动物的最重要区别。
其显著特点有：（1）,内容更多，人在各种场合说话、用各种方式说话、说这种话都离不开语言。
（2）, 用处更大'人类语言有多种功能，包括：交际功能、记录功能、思维功能、认知功能等。
（3），能够创造，人类的语言是由严密灵巧的规则构造出来的，具有极强的生成和运转能力。
注意：只有人类才有语言人类具有语言能力，是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志。
（二）语言和民族、国家的关系1、语言是识别民族和国家的标志一一，相互能够听懂’ （欧洲国家）多数情况下一个民族、一个国家使用同一种语言。
2、语言并非识别民族和国家的标志（欧洲以外的国家）一个民族的成员可以使用不同的语言，不同民族的成员也可以使用同一种语言。
3、西方学界的双重标准——，相互能够听懂’：弱国——用语言识别民族；对，汉语’的看法。
强国一一不用语言识别民族，美国、英国、澳大利亚和加拿大（三）语言特点和语言类型1、不同的语言有自己的特点，各种语言在语音、词汇、语法方面差距显著。
根据语言的特点，把语言进行分类，主要有，语言的谱系分类，和，语言的形态分类'2、从语言的，历时，角度划分，谱系分类是一个层级系统：语系一语族一（语支）一语群一语言一方言一次方言（土语）。
3、形态分类主要分为两种：形态语（综合性语言）和孤立语（分析性语言）——汉语。
（1）形态语（综合语）：通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言，主要有屈折语（词的形态变化丰富，如德语、俄语）、黏着语（词的形态变化为前后词缀, 如维吾尔语、日语）（2）孤立语（分析语）——汉语：语法手段无需谓词词形变化表现，时、体、态’；无需名词词形变化的，性、数、格'，突出语序和虚词；词类与句法成分不对应。
语言学复习内容精简版
语言学复习范围1.语言研究可以分为哪两个阶段？两个阶段各有什么主要内容？（传统语文学的三大研究中心以及现代语言学的各个流派）（1）阶段：传统语言学或古代语言学时期，现代语言学时期。
（2）内容：传统语言学研究以古代文献和书面语为主，现代语言学则以当代语言和口语为主。
现代语言学的主要任务——描写各种语言的现状（结构规律 )、追溯它们的历史(演变规律）、探索人类语言的共同规律。
（3）中心：中国、印度、希腊是语言学的三大发源地。
（4）流派：历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学知识链接：（5）古代语言学研究与现代语言学研究的区别：1.研究对象不同:古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料,不重视口头语言的研究,而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究,如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等,都要依据口语的研究成果;2.研究目的不同:古代语言学研究语言,主要是给政治,哲学,宗教,历史,文学方面的经典著作作注解,而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构,以此探讨语言发展的共同规律.3.研究地位不同：传统语文学始终处于附属地位，因此不能形成独立的科学。
现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科，随着现代科学的发展又产生了许多边沿性学科。
2.什么是语言学？谈谈语言学的基本分类？（1）语言学就是以语言为研究对象的科学,研究语言的本质,语言的结构和发展规律。
（2）从六个方面来分。
1.功能角度：理论语言学和应用语言学2.具体研究对象：普通语言学和个别语言学3.研究时段：共时语言学和历时语言学4.研究方法：描写语言学和对比语言学5.研究对象的状态：静态语言学和动态语言学6.研究角度和范围：微观语言学和宏观语言学3．为什么动物没有人类的语言？A.动物不同于人，与人类有着本质的区别。
B.语言能力是人类特有的。
掌握语言需要发达的头脑和灵活的发音器官，即要有高度的抽象思维能力和灵巧的发音能力。
人类高度的抽象思维能力和灵巧的发音能力是在长期的劳动中形成的。
普通语言学教程知识点总结
普通语言学教程知识点总结第一部分：语言学概论1. 语言的定义语言是一种符号系统，通过语音或文字来传递意义，是人类思维和交流的重要工具。
2. 语言学的研究对象语言学研究语言的结构、形式、功能、发展以及语言在社会和文化中的作用。
3. 语言的基本特征语言的基本特征包括：任意性、符号性、交际性、复杂性、可变性、文化载体等。
4. 语言的层次结构语言的层次结构包括语音层、词汇层、词组层、句子层和语篇层。
第二部分：语言习得1. 语言的习得过程语言习得是指个体在学习自己的母语时所经历的过程，包括语音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的发展。
2. 语言习得的阶段语言习得包括婴儿期、幼儿期、儿童期、青少年期和成人期等不同阶段，每个阶段都有其特定的语言发展特点。
3. 习得语言与学习语言的区别习得语言是指自然而然地掌握母语的过程，而学习语言则是指通过学习来掌握一门语言。
第三部分：语音学1. 语音学的对象和内容语音学研究语音的发音、形成规律和分类，以及语音在语言中的功能。
2. 语音的分类语音可以分为辅音和元音，辅音可以再分为浊音和清音，元音可以分为前元音、中元音和后元音。
3. 语音的发音器官人类语音的发音器官包括声门、喉头、口腔、舌头、鼻腔等部位。
4. 语音的基本特征语音的基本特征包括调音的高低、音量的大小、音调的升降和语调的变化等。
第四部分：语音学1. 语法学的研究对象和内容语法学研究语言的结构和形式，包括词类、句子成分、句法关系等内容。
2. 词法和句法词法研究词汇的组成和形态变化规律，句法研究句子的结构和成分之间的关系。
3. 语法现象的分类语法现象可以分为形态学现象、句法现象和语义现象等。
4. 语法规则和规则性语法规则是语言使用中的规范，语法规则性是指语法现象的稳定性和规律性。
第五部分：语义学1. 语义学的研究对象和内容语义学研究语言中的词汇和句子的意义和语用规则。
2. 语义的分类语义可以分为词义和句义两个方面，词义是指词汇的意义，句义是指句子的意义。
语言学教程复习题与答案一
语言学教程复习题与答案一语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studiesthe basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable inany linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningfulsentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can becombined to form words iscalled morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words intosentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning notin isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point intime.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.deSaussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lettergiven:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rulesof his language./doc/8c745149.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions andapplication of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thepheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaninglessindividual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, itis said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed. C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires hismother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue andparole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15. T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally definedas the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how soundsare put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context ofuse is calledpragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference tothe workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: Thestudy of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to theapplication of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refersto the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such asthe recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the designfeatures of language. It means that there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative inthat it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by itsusers. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be usedto refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in thepast, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be usedto refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the definingproperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system ofcommunication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the idealuser's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance isthe actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cationof the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a sys tem, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondl y, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different language s have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good i llustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with object s, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed t heir writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that l anguage is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the c ommunication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" m eans that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with ex amples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance,there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ev er sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning s. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it. 4)Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away p laces. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Huma n beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) writte n language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is t he concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Lang ue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is c oncrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is rel atively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from per son to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of hi slanguage. This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarras sment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you thi nk are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language isarbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, theonomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two el ements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are containedin three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alv eolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every wayexcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the na sal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark t he choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _________ __.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. se mantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. so und C. allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophonesIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. P honology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence III. There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular lan guage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic com munication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er. 53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds a re transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment a nd distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: T ones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.。
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语言学概论Chapter: Invitation to linguistics一、language1、DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于交际的一套有声符号系统。
It evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contents. (human specific)2、The history（origin）(1)The bow-wow theory 模仿说（imitation）People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. Onomatopoeic words(拟声词)(2)The pooh-pooh theory本能说（instinct）In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they Utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy .Interjections like oh ,ah ai yo.(3)The yo-he-ho theory号子说（rhythmic grunts）As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts(咕哝) which gradually developed into chants and then into languages.(4)The divine-origin theory神授说（creation）(5)The invention theory 人造说（invention）(6)The evolutionary theory进化说（evolution）3、design features of language语言的普遍特征●language distinguishes human beings form animals in that it is far more sophisticatedthan any animals communication system.Eg.(philosopher Bertrand Russell ) no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannottell you that his parents were poor but honest.再会叫的狗，他也不会说出他的父母很穷但是很务实的话来●design features(1)Arbitrariness任意性There is no logical connection between sounds and meaning.(Saussure first refersto the fact that the forms of a linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning.) We do not know why the book is called the book.(2)Duality二元性It means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements the secondary level and each of the twolevel has its own principles of organization.(3)Creativity创造性it means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness(递归性)。
Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endlesssentence.(4)Displacement移位性:Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.(5)Culture transmission文化传递性:Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturallytransmitted.4、the function of language语言的功能（1）Informative信息功能：The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and peopleoften use it to communicate new information.（2）interpersonal function人际功能：It is the most important sociological use of language. The interpersonal functionmeans people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.（3）performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status ofpersons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.（4）Emotive function感情功能The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is socrucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.（5）phatic communion寒暄功能The phatic communion means the social interaction of language. such ritualexchanges as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortablerelationship between people without any factual content.（6）recreational function娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it,such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.（7）metalingual function元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. Ican use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.二、linguistic1、definitionIt is the systematic investigation of the common features of all natural human languages.2、main branches of linguistic(1)Phonetics语音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatoryphonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.从自然属性研究人类语音(2)Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing ofspeech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究语音结构、分布和排序的规则以及音节的形状。
(3)Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.研究单词内部组成(4) Syntax句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 研究组词造句的规则(5)Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.语言的意义(6)Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.研究语言在环境中的意义3、Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.（1）Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing andproducing utterances and in language acquisition for example.（2）Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language andsociety, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.（3）Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in acommunity.（4）Computational linguistics计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use ofcomputers to process or produce human language.4、the principles of linguistic study语言学研究的规则exhaustiveness objectivity consistency economy5、Important distinctions in linguistics几对重要的区别性概念（1）Descriptive vs. prescriptive规定性研究与描述性研究（2）Synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时（3）Langue & parole语言与言语（4）Competence and performance语言能力与语言应用Chapter two: speech sounds(two major areas of study: phonetics and phonology)Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.Phonetics语音学1、definition:Phonetics is the study of production, transmission, perception .description and classification transcription(标记) of speech sounds.2、three branches of phonetics(1)Articulatory phonetics (physiological phonetics生理语言学) 发音语言学the study of the production of speech sounds(2)Acoustic phonetics（physical phonetics物理语言学）声学语言学the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech(3)Auditory phonetics （psychological phonetics心理语言学）听觉语言学the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.3、speech sounds: are sounds that convey meaningAre sounds that are systematically used in human linguisticcommunication.4、speech organs发音器官Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.【the lungs 肺the trachea or windpipe 气管the throat喉（larynx 喉pharynx咽vocal folds\cords声带）the nose鼻the mouth口】-----vocal tract声道The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts:the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities （pharynx the nasal cavities the oral cavities）.5、the IPA chart国际音标图=International Phonetic AlphabetFirst version: August 1888 last version : 2005Main principles:● a separate letter for each distinctive sound一音一符●The same symbol should be used for that sound in anylanguage in which it appears.同音同符●The alphabet was to consist of as many roman alphabet lettersas possible.●Using new letters and diacritics only when absolutelynecessary.变音符号6、classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类（1）vocal & consonant (according to the articulatory characteristics)(the obstruction of airstream气流受阻与否)Vocal (元音)：sounds produced without the obstruction of airstream.Consonant（辅音）:sounds produced with the obstruction of airstream.（2）voiceless sound & voiced sound(the vibration of vocal cord声带的振动与否)Voiceless sound（清音）：when the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass througheasily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.Consonant[p s t f k]Voiced sound(浊音)：when the vocal cords are close together, the airstream causesthem to vibrate against each other and the reluctant soundis said to be voiced. Consonants[b z d v g]7、classification of consonants 辅音的分类[t]: voiceless stop alveolar [l ]:voiced alveolar approximant⏹Vocal glides滑音---monophthongs [i] and diphthongs[ei]单元音和双元音⏹The height of the tongue raising----high mid low⏹The position of the highest part of the tongue-----front central back⏹The length of tenseness of the vocal----long(tense) short(lax)⏹Lip rounding---rounded unrounded 圆唇非圆唇E.g.[i:] high front tense unrounded vocal[u] high back lax rounded vocal[e]倒着写mid central lax unrounded vocal9、cardinal vocals are a set of arbitrary reference points established in thedescription of vocals10、the vocals of RP :the standard pronunciation of southern British English ,known asRP----received English11、coarticulation协同发音The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation逆协同发音: If the sound becomes more like the followingsound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation顺协同发音: If the sound displays the influence of thepreceding sound, as in the case of map, it isperseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.12、phonetic transcription语音标记（标音法）It is method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way以系统一致的方式记录语音二、phonology音系学1、definitionIt is the study of sound patterns in a given language.(language-specific)phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.it deals with the sound system of a languageby treating phoneme as the point of departure.2、phone音素[] phoneme 音位/ / allophone音位变体Speech sound------phonePhoneme (Distinctive sound) : A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that cansignal a difference in meaning.Allophone (Non-distinctive):Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called itsallophones.3、Phonological processes音位过程（1）phonological rules音系学规则Assimilation同化refers to the process or result of one sound taking on somecharacteristics of a neighboring sound.（2）Distinctive features区别性特征4、suprasegmentals超音段特征Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.Four principles:⏹Syllables音节：onset节前+ rhyme 韵基（peak or nucleus节峰+code节尾）⏹Stress重音:refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.⏹Tone音调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates ofvibration of the vocal cords.⏹Intonation语调:Chapter there: form Morpheme to phrase(morpheme and morphology)The grammatical hierarchy of a language:clause complexClauseWord group/phraseWordmorpheme一、morpheme词素，语素------------1、definitionMorpheme is the smallest unit of language In regard to the relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smallerunits without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.Morphology形态学studies the internal structure of words and word information rules.Morphemes and word formation process语素和形成过程Two fields------inflectional morphology曲折形态学（研究语法的曲折变化及表达）Derivational morphology派生形态学（研究构词法及词义表达）2、Types of Morphemes(1).Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和粘合词素（In terms of their capacity of occurring alone)Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitutewords by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are calledbound morphemes.(2). Root词根, affix 词缀and stem词干● A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed withoutdestroying the meaning. (can be free or bound)●An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used onlywhen added to another morpheme. ( it is a bound morpheme) ----prefixsuffix infix● A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.(3).Inflectional affix屈折变化（反映语法关系）：Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixesderivational affix派生变化（反映词性关系）：Derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.it often changes the lexical meaninge.g. Friendships --------stem(friend+ship)friend---root ship---inflectional suffix s----derivational suffix3. morpheme and allomorph语素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. (map---maps)4. morphological change形态学的变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.The plural forms of nouns have also changed.二、word词1、definition定义Word is a unit of linguistic expression that has universal intuitive recognition by narrative speakers.2、lexical items词条refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms.( Boy and boys are one word, but are two lexical items. )3、Identification of words词的识别⏹Stability: chairman-----manchair unacceptable⏹Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word evenwhen there are several parts in a word. * dis appoint ment.⏹ A minimum free form4、classification of words词的分类⏹Variable and invariable words变化词和非变化词Variable words----they have inflective changes. Verb, noun and adjectiveInvariable words----they do not have inflective endings. Conjunction and preposition⏹Grammatical words and lexical words 虚词和实词Grammatical word----they serve to link together different content parts. Determiner ,pronoun and prepositionLexical words-----they carry the main content of a language. Nouns ,verbs andadjectives⏹Closed-class words and open-class words封闭词类和开放词类Open-class words------it is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.noun, verb , adjective and adverbClosed-class words------it is one whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronoun,preposition, conjunction and article⏹Word class（=parts of speech）Main class---noun pronoun adjective verb adverb preposition conjunction interjection and article numeralParticles小品词----infinitive maker to not do upAuxiliaries助动词Pre-form代形词-----so did thereDeterminers限定词三、word formation构词法-------1、the inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relation by adding inflectional affixes, which do not change the grammatical class of stems to which they are attached to.Table—tables talk---talks talked talking boy---boy’s2、the derivational way of formationDerivation(word formation), in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed.⏹Derivation派生词It shows a relationship between roots and affixes.⏹compound合成词definition-----it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, two kinds------the endocentric compound向心复合词（偏正结构）seif-controlthe exocentric compound离心复合词（动宾结构）cutthroat⏹conversion转换法=zero derivation3、lexical change词汇变化5、Phonological change音素变化⏹Loss laboratory⏹Addition⏹Metathesis调整⏹Assimilation同化⏹Dissimilation异化6、Morpho-syntactical change语法变化⏹.Morphological change形态变化The form of inflectional affixes may also change.⏹Syntactical change句法变化There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words7、Semantic change语义变化⏹Broadening⏹Narrowing⏹Meaning shift⏹Class shift⏹Folk etymology8、Orthographic change拼写变化Chapter 4 from word to text一、syntax句法学1、definition定义It is the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures and the study of the rules governing sentence formation.2、syntactic relations句法关系●Positional relation(word order)位置关系==horizontal relations chain relationsSyntagmatic relation横组合关系It refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. F.de saussureEg. The boy kicked the ball.(the ball kicked the boy?)---------a sentence must meet syntactic condition and semantic condition●Relation of substitutability替换关系（Saussure）associative relations (Hjemslev)paradigmatic relations纵聚合关系Vertical relations垂直关系choice relations选择关系It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure.同一类型的词所具备的的句法关系E.g. The -------------(man/boy/girl) smiles●Relation of co-occurrence共现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, theoccurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a determiner or aparticular part of a sentence.Eg (preceded by) NP (followed by)A pretty girl smiles------ a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective and followedby a verbal phrase.3、grammatical construction and its constituents语法结构与成分（1）、Grammatical constructionOn the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external外部的句子短语）and internal properties（内部的主谓成份）.（2）Immediate constituents(IC analysis)直接成份分析Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets（圆括号）or shown with a tree diagram树形图法）. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)Its advantages: the clear demonstration of the internal structure of a construction and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.Eg.The sentence leave the book on the shelve may mean put it there or do not touch it.The son of pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of pharaoh’s son法老儿子的女儿是法老的孙女（3）、endocentric and exocentric constructionThe two main type of analyzing the syntactic constructionsDepends on their distribution and the relation between their constituents⏹Endocentric construction 向心结构An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionallyequivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents,which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.Noun phrases verb phrases adjective phrasesVery late(very---this constituent is subordinate to the Head—late)These two oldest stone bridgesWill be leavingtwo main types--------(depends on the relation between constituents)----coordination并列：and or (recursiveness)----subordination从属: modifier two boys swimming in the lake⏹Exocentric construction离心结构The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a constructionwhose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of itsconstituents.Basic construction the boy smiledprepositional phrase he hid behind the doorpredicate(verb+object)construction he kicked the ball.connective(be+complement)construction John seemed angry4、syntactic function语法功能it shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.⏹Subject主：it refers to one of the nouns in the nominative caseTo be the doer of the actionGrammatical subject and logical subject⏹Predicate谓It refers to a major constituent of sentence in a binary analysis inwhich all obligatory constituents other than the subject wereconsidered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and statesthat relate to the subject.⏹Object宾It refers to the receiver or goal of an anction.Direct object and indirect objectCase labels: the accusative case for direct object主格The dative case for indirect object与格⏹Predicators谓语结构⏹Modifiers修饰语⏹Complements补语5、category语法范畴it refers to the classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units.⏹number数it is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayingsuch contrasts as singular and plural.--------nouns⏹gender性it displays contrasts as masculine（男性）feminine （女性）and neuter（中性）,animate⏹case格the case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify thesyntactic relationship between words in a sentence.Nominative(主格), accusative宾格genitive所有格dative与格（介词）How to realize a combination of preposition and noun?---------inflection : teacher—teacher’s---------following a preposition: with/to a man--------word order: John kicked Peter; Peter kicked John⏹agreement一致关系subject and predicate主谓一致determiner and noun修饰词与被修饰词之间⏹government6、phrase, clause and sentence结构类型7、Recursiveness 递归性--------to extend sentences⏹Conjoining连接（并列）⏹Embedding嵌入（附和）8、beyond the sentence(=text linguistic and discourse analysis)篇章结构⏹sentential connection⏹cohesion。