第九章习题答案final

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泛函分析习题答案第九章习题答案

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第9章习题参考答案

第九章静态时间序列模型课后习题参考答案1.遍历性、平稳性对时间序列回归有何意义？答：静态时间序列模型研究的是不同随机变量的时间序列之间体现出的静态（同期）结构关系，也称为结构型时间序列模型。

由第七章“时间序列回归的基本问题”可知，对于时间序列回归，如果假定TS.1-假定TS.6均成立，OLSE具有无偏性、有效性和正态性，不必考虑时间序列是否具有遍历性与平稳性问题。

然而，如果这些假定不完全满足，例如解释变量x仅为同期外生，为了保证OLSE具有良好的大样本性质（一致性），我们要求时间序列产生自遍历、平稳过程，即假定TS.4’。

常用统计推断方法的适用性对该假定是否成立非常敏感，当高度持久时间序列或非平稳序列用于回归时，我们无法借助于大数定律和中心极限定理进行统计推断，所以遍历性、平稳性对时间序列回归至关重要。

大多数情况下，时间序列建模之前，都须对时间序列的遍历、平稳性质进行研判，否则很可能造成回归方法的误用，产生伪回归问题，进而得出误导性的结论。

所以，应该重点关注非平稳遍历时间序列条件下建模特殊性问题。

本章讨论的静态时间序列建模过程中，就可能存在解释变量只是同期外生，这时时间序列的特殊性将x y都是产生自平稳、遍历过程，在大样本下OLSE仍然是一致的、给回归分析带来一些问题。

但如果,jt t渐进有效和渐进正态的，因此也可以按照经典回归分析的方法进行参数估计和统计推断。

对于非平稳、遍历时间序列，进行OLS回归之前需要通过去势（消除确定性趋势）和差分（消除随机趋势）等方法进行平稳化（遍历化）处理。

2.DF、ADF和PP检验分布适用于什么情况下的单位根检验？如何确定检验模型？答：由于真实DGP是未知的，我们可以通过一个时间序列（相当于一个样本）的特征，对DGP是否存在单位根进行推测，这个方法称为单位根检验（Unit Root）。

本章介绍三种常用的方法。

(1)Dickey-Fuller 检验（DF检验）Dickey和Fuller通过数值模拟，计算了对应不同DGP和序列长度T的DF分布百分位数，并编制了DF临界值表。

高等数学(同济第七版)第九章课后答案

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高等数学课后习题答案--第九章

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大学计算机基础第九章课后答案.doc

1.2. 后序遍历结果是DEBFCA5.结点数最多有32个习题九答案图9.13(b)所对应的二叉树前序、中序及后序遍历序列。

前序遍历序列ABDHIEJCFG中序遍历序列HDIBJEAFCG后序遍历序列HIDJEBFGCA3.该二叉树中有14个叶子结点。

4.该二叉树中有19个叶子结点6.线性表的顺序存储结构和链式结构的优缺点。

答：线性表的顺序存储是指在内存中用地址连续的一块存储空间顺序存放线性表的各个元素，用这种存储形式存储的线性表称其为顺序表。

也就是说只要知道顺序表首地址和每个数据元素所占地址单元的个数就可求出第i个数据元素的地址来。

顺序表能实现按数据元素的序号存取的特点。

顺序表的插入元素则需要先将第i个元素后的每个元素向后移动，为新元素让出位置。

最后修改表的长度。

而链式结构不采用地址连续的存储空间，它是通过“链”来建立数据元素之间的逻辑关系，对线性表插入、删除不需要移动数据元素。

7.数据存储结构的类型答：数据存储结构常用的有两种：顺序存储、链式存储，另外还有索引存储和散列存储。

8.栈和队列的主要特征。

答：栈是插入和删除的操作被限制在某一端进行线性表。

允许插入、删除的这一端称为栈顶，另一端称为栈底。

往栈中插入元素称为进栈，删除元素称为出栈。

栈的特点是后进先出。

队列是限定插入元素操作在表一端进行，而删除操作在表的另一端进行的特殊数据结构。

把允许插入元素的一端叫队尾，允许删除元素的一端叫队首。

队列的特点是先进先出。

9.流程图(1)⑸解法1:结束（7）程序流程图程序N-S图for(n=100;n<1000;n++) 换行开始。

泛函分析习题答案第九章习题答案

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高等代数(北大版)第9章习题参考答案

第九章欧氏空间1.设a ij是一个n阶正定矩阵,而(x1,x2,,x n),(y1,y2,,y n),在nR中定义内积(,),1)证明在这个定义之下,nR成一欧氏空间；2)求单位向量1(1,0,,0),(0,1,,0)2,⋯,(0,0,,1)n，的度量矩阵；3)具体写出这个空间中的柯西—布湿柯夫斯基不等式。

解1)易见(,)是nR上的一个二元实函数，且(1)(,)()(,)，(2)(k,)(k)k()k(,)，(3)(,)()(,)(,)，(4) (,)aij xy，iji,j由于A是正定矩阵，因此i,j a ij xyij是正定而次型，从而(,)0，且仅当0时有(。

,)02)设单位向量11,00),(0,1,,0)(,,2,⋯,(0,0,,1)n，的度量矩阵为()Bb，则ija 11 a12a1nbij (,)(0,,ij1,(i)0)a22a22a2n 1 ( j)=a ij，(i,j1,2,,n)，an1an2ann 0因此有BA。

4)由定义，知(,) a ij xy(,)a ij x i x jij (,)a ij y i y ji,j，i,ji,j，，故柯西—布湿柯夫斯基不等式为axyaxxayyijijijijijiji,ji,ji,j2.在4R中,求,之间,(内积按通常定义)，设:1)(2,1,3,2),(1,2,2,1)，2)(1,2,2,3),(3,1,5,1)，3)(1,1,1,2),(3,2,1,0)。

解1)由定义,得(,)21123(1)210，所以,2。

2)因为(，,)1321253118(,)11222233 18，(，,)3311223336cos,1818 36 2 2，所以,。

4 3)同理可得(,(,)17,(,)3, ,)33 cos,，7731,cos所以77。

3.d(,)通常为,的距离，证明；d。

(,)d(,)d(,)证由距离的定义及三角不等式可得d(,)()()d(,)d(,)。

运筹学教程答案第九章

A B C D E
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5 8 3 6 10
A,C A C B,C
F G H I J
4 8 2 4 5
B,C C F,G E,H F,G
School of Management
运筹学教程
第九章习题解答
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School of Management
运筹学教程
第九章习题解答
表9-12 工时（）工作工时（d）紧前工作工时（）工作工时（d）紧前工作
A B C D E F G H
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18 6 5 21 27 15 24 13
A A B B D,E
I J K L M N P Q
6 15 6 3 12 5 3 6
运筹学教程
第九章习题解答
9.1 有A，B，C，D，E，F 6项工作，关系分别项工作，，，，，，项工作如图9-38(a)，(b)，试画出网络图。如图，，试画出网络图。
page 1 22 May 2012
School of Management
运筹学教程
第九章习题解答
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School of Management
运筹学教程
第九章习题解答
9.4 绘制表绘制表9-11，表9-12所示的网络图，并用表所示的网络图，，所示的网络图上计算法计算工作的各项时间参数、确定关键路线。上计算法计算工作的各项时间参数、确定关键路线。
表9-11 工时（）工作工时（d）紧前工作工时（）工作工时（d）紧前工作

计算机操作系统课后答案第9章习题解答

第9章习题解答一、填空1．MS-DOS操作系统由BOOT、IO.SYS、MSDOS.SYS以及所组成。

2．MS-DOS的一个进程，由程序（包括代码、数据和堆栈）、程序段前缀以及环境块三部分组成。

3．MS-DOS向用户提供了两种控制作业运行的方式，一种是批处理方式，一种是命令处理方式。

4．MS-DOS存储管理规定，从地址0开始每16个字节为一个“节”，它是进行存储分配的单位。

5．MS-DOS在每个内存分区的前面都开辟一个16个字节的区域，在它里面存放该分区的尺寸和使用信息。

这个区域被称为是一个内存分区所对应的内存控制块。

6．MS-DOS有4个存储区域，它们是：常规内存区、上位内存区、高端内存区和扩充内存区。

7．“簇”是MS-DOS进行磁盘存储空间分配的单位，它所含扇区数必须是2的整数次方。

8．当一个目录表里仅包含“.”和“..”时，意味该目录表为空。

9．在MS-DOS里，用文件名打开文件，随后就通过句柄来访问该文件了。

10．在MS-DOS里，把字符设备视为设备文件。

二、选择1．下面对DOS的说法中，B 是正确的。

A．内、外部命令都常驻内存B．内部命令常驻内存，外部命令非常驻内存C．内、外部命令都非常驻内存D．内部命令非常驻内存，外部命令常驻内存2．DOS进程的程序，在内存里 D 存放在一起。

A．总是和程序段前缀以及环境块B．和谁都不C．总是和进程的环境块D．总是和程序段前缀3．MS-DOS启动时能够自动执行的批处理文件名是： C 。

A．CONFIG.SYS B．MSDOS.SYSC．AUTOEXEC.BAT D．4．下面所列的内存分配算法， D 不是MS-DOS采用的。

A．最佳适应法B．最先适应法C．最后适应法D．最坏适应法5．在MS-DOS里，从1024K到1088K的存储区域被称为 D 区。

A．上位内存B．扩展内存C．扩充内存D．高端内存6．MS-DOS的存储管理是对A的管理。

A．常规内存B．常规内存和上位内存C．常规内存和扩展内存D．常规内存和扩充内存7．在下面给出的MS-DOS常用扩展名中，B 不表示一个可执行文件。

C++第九章习题解答

第九章流类库和输入/输出习题一.本概念与基础知识测试题9.1填空题9.1.1 在C++中“流”是表示（1）。

从流中取得数据称为（2），用符号（3）表示；向流中添加数据称为（4），用符号（5）表示。

答案：（1）数据从一个对象到另一个对象的传送（2）提取操作（3）>>（4）插入操作（5）<<9.1.2 抽象类模板（1）是所有基本流类的基类，它有一个保护访问限制的指针指向类（2），其作用是管理一个流的（3）。

C++流类库定义的cin，cout，cerr和clog是（4）。

cin通过重载（5）执行输入，而cout，cerr和clog通过（6）执行输出。

答案：（1）basic_ios（2）basic_streambuf（3）缓冲区（4）全局流对象（5）>>（stream_extraction operator）（6）<<（stream_insertion operator）9.1.3 C++在类ios中定义了输入输出格式控制符，它是一个（1）。

该类型中的每一个量对应两个字节数据的一位，每一个位代表一种控制，如要取多种控制时可用（2）运算符来合成，放在一个（3）访问限制的（4）数中。

所以这些格式控制符必须通过类ios的（5）来访问。

答案：（1）公有的无名的枚举类型（2）或“|”（3）保护（4）一个长整型数（5）公共接口（函数）9.1.4 取代麻烦的流格式控制成员函数，可采用（1），其中有参数的，必须要求包含（2）头文件。

答案：（1）流操作子（2）iomanip9.1.5 通常标准设备输入指（1）。

标准设备输出指（2）。

答案：（1）键盘（2）显示屏9.1.6 EOF为（1）标志，在iostream.h中定义EOF为（2），在int get()函数中读入表明输入流结束标志（3），函数返回（4）。

答案：（1）文件结束标志（2）-1（3）^Z(Ctrl-Z)（4）EOF9.1.7 Ｃ++根据文件内容的（1）可分为两类（2）和（3），前者存取的最小信息单位为（4），后者为（5）。

第9章课后习题答案

REVIEW QUESTIONS1.What do we mean by the situational self-image? Give an example of thisphenomenon.A reason to take environmental circumstances seriously is that the role aperson plays at any one time is partly determined by his situationalself-image—he basically asks: “Who am I right now?” As an example, we may engage in different consumption behaviors when we are trying to impress adate or co-worker than when we are with friends.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)2.Describe the difference between density and crowding. Why is thisdifference relevant in purchase environments?Density refers to the actual number of people occupying a space, althoughthe psychological state of crowding exists only if a negative affective stateoccurs because of this density. In some cases, high density might lead toexcitement, a positive result of the arousal. In other cases, crowding mightmake a shopper feel like buying different or unique things to rebel againstbeing confined.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)3.What is time poverty, and how can it influence our purchase decisions?Many consumers believe they are more pressed for time than ever before. It may increase usage of convenience goods and decision-making shortcuts. (5 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)4.What are the two dimensions that determine whether we will reactpositively or negatively to a purchase environment?Pleasure—–a person can enjoy or not enjoy a situation and arousal—he canfeel stimulated or not.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)5.List three separate motivations for shopping, giving an example of each.Social experiences: The shopping center or department store has replaced the traditional town square or county fair as a community gathering place.Sharing of common interests: Stores frequently offer specialized goods thatallow people with shared interests to communicate. Interpersonal attraction: Shopping centers are a natural place to congregate. The shopping mall hasbecome a central “hangout” for teenagers.Instant status: As every salesperson knows, some people savor the experience of being waited on, even though they may not necessarily buy anything.The thrill of the hunt: Some people pride themselves on being able to find the best bargains.(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)6.What are some important pros and cons of e-commerce?Numerous benefits and limitations of e-commerce are listed in Table 9.2 forboth the consumer and the marketer.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)7.List three factors that help to determine store image.Color, scents, and sounds.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)8.What is the difference between unplanned buying and impulse buying?Unplanned buying may occur when a person is unfamiliar with a store’slayout or perhaps when under some time pressure; or, a person may bereminded to buy something by seeing it on a store shelf. In contrast, impulsebuying occurs when the person experiences a sudden urge he cannot resist.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)9.How do a consumer’s prior expectations about product quality influence hissatisfaction with the product after he buys it?Consumers form beliefs about product performance based on priorexperience with the product and/or communications about the product thatimply a certain level of quality. When something performs the way wethought it would, we may not think much about it. If it fails to live up toexpectations, negative feelings may result. On the other hand, if performance happens to exceed our expectations, we are satisfied and pleased.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)10.List three actions a consumer can take if he is dissatisfied with a purchase.Voice response: The consumer can appeal directly to the retailer for redress(e.g., a refund).Private response: Express dissatisfaction about the store or product to friends and/or boycott the store.Third-party response: The consumer can take legal action against themerchant, register a complaint with the Better Business Bureau, or perhapswrite a letter to the newspaper.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)11.What is the underground economy and why is it important to marketers?In the underground economy, consumers bypass formal retailers and swapmerchandise. Factors such as concern about the environment, demands for quality, and cost and fashion consciousness are conspiring to make these“secondary” used-goods markets more prevalent and, thus, more importantto marketers(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGEDiscussion Questions1.Is the customer always right? Why or why not?Use this question in conjunction with the section on Post-Purchase Satisfaction to direct students to concepts that would govern whether or not the customer should always be treated as though they are right.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)2.Are pop-up stores just a fad or a retailing concept that is here to stay?Given that there are so many strategies that have circulated throughretailing, it is likely that nothing is “here to stay.” Stude nts should be engaged in a discussion as to how long they thing that this trend will last and possiblereasons that it might end (no longer providing the benefits of promoting thenew idea; stores so profitable that they remain open, etc.).(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)3.Discuss some of the shopping motivations for shopping as described in thechapter. How might a retailer adjust his or her strategy to accommodatethese motivations?Shopping motives listed in the chapter are:∙Functional and tangible needs∙Pleasurable and intangible reasons∙Social experiences∙Sharing of common interests∙Interpersonal attraction∙Instant status∙“The thrill of the chase”Shopping is a way of acquiring needed products as well as satisfying someimportant social need. Retailers might adjust their strategies toaccommodate these motives by creating a theme environment, like that ofthe Banana Republic. They might offer additional complementaryservices—for example, a tanning salon might include manicures, massages,and makeovers. Encourage your students to think of specific examplesappropriate for their favorite stores.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)4.What are some positive and negative aspects of a policy that requiresemployees who interact with customers to wear some kind of uniform?Employee uniforms will affect the overall image and atmospherics of someretail outlets. The positive aspects of requiring employees who interact with customers to wear some kind of uniform or to mandate a dress code in theoffice include: 1) portraying a professional image; 2) helping employees tofeel “equal” in terms of dress; and 3) making it easier for customers toidentify employees of the business. The negative aspects include: 1) someemployees might feel uncomfortable in some uniforms; 2) others may feeltheir “freedom” of apparel (to look good) is being limited; and 3) employees may also feel their individuality is being restricted. Students should quiteeasily identify examples of some jobs or professions that require uniforms(e.g., police, firefighters, nurses, priests, or McDonald’s staff.)(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)5.Think about exceptionally good and bad salespeople you have encounteredas a shopper. What qualities seem to differentiate them from others?The instructor might ask students to recall the last time they went shopping.In the context of that shopping trip, students should describe thecharacteristics of the salespeople who assisted them. The instructor, or amember of the class, should generate a list of the most common traitsmentioned and use the class discussion to profile both good and badsalespeople. The students also should be encouraged to consider the textdiscussion of source credibility, including such characteristics as similarity,attractiveness, expertise, trustworthiness, and likeability.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)6.Discuss the concept of “timestyle.” Based on your own experiences, howmight consumers we segment consumers in terms of their timestyles?The concept of “timestyle” reflects how individuals allocate their ti me tovarious activities. You might want to discuss your own timestyle with theclass and encourage students to do the same. A discussion of how consumersmight be segmented based on their timestyles should be included. Productsthat benefit from different timestyles also could be discussed. For example:How much time do you spend teaching, grading papers, researching, anddoing college and community service? How much time do you spend withyour family, doing household chores, eating, sleeping, exercising, and havingfun?(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)7.Several men’s clothing retailers nationwide now provide free booze to theirmale clientele to encourage them to hang out in their stores. Is it ethical toencourage customers to become intoxicated before they shop?This is an extension of what salons have been doing for some time for women.Student opinions will vary with students pointing out that it is up to thecustomers to choose how much to consume. Make the connection forstudents that offering such refreshments are a part of store image andatmospherics.(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities, Course Learning Outcome 10)pare and contrast differ ent cultures’ conceptions of time. What aresome implications for marketing strategy within each of these frameworks?Conceptions of time are not universal; cultural differences with regard to time exist. Examples of such that are mentioned in the text include: 1) linearseparable time—events proceed in an orderly sequence and different timesare well defined; 2) procedural time—people ignore the clock completely; and3) circular or cyclic time—people are governed by natural cycles (Latinocultures).Marketing implications that correspond to these concepts are: 1) under linear separable time—people sell clocks, watches, timers, have lunch hour specials, happy hours, and after-dinner drinks. 2) Under procedural time—people dothings when the “time is right” so marketers need to show causalrelationships to let the consumer know that “the time is now;” and 3) undercircular or cyclic time—the future doesn’t make sense, so we live for now.These consumers will not wait for a better product; they will buy whatever isavailable now. Do not bother trying to sell them insurance.(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity Understanding, Course Learning Outcome 10)9.The movement away from a “disposable consumer society” toward one thatemphasizes creative recycling creates many opportunities for marketers. Can you identify some?Products can be disposed of by storage, temporary disposal, and permanentdisposal. Recycling is an important disposal option as well. Students are likely to generate many and diverse examples of marketing opportunities in light of this new consumer emphasis. For example: A company may pick up yardwaste for a fee and then turn that into compost to sell back to thehomeowner! A company could pick up used oil that could be re-refined. Onefarmer lets companies dump old tires on his farm for a fee, and he grindsthem up and resells them as a road surfacing material.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)10.Some retailers work hard to cultivate a certain look or image, and they mayeven choose employees who fit this look. Abercrombie & Fitch, for example, seems to link itself to a clean-cut, all-American image. At one point, a lawsuit claimed that Abercrombie & Fitch syste matically “refuses to hire qualifiedminority applicants as brand representatives to work on the sales floor anddiscourages applications from minority applicants.” (Abercrombie repliedthat it has “zero tolerance for discrimination.”) We know the Hootersrestaurant chain is known for its attractive female waitresses. Should aretailer have the right to recruit employees who are consistent with its image even if this means excluding certain types of people (e.g. non-Caucasians,men) from the sales floor?Traditionally, the law has allowed for hiring people with a certain look orbody type if it can be proven that this is a necessary component of theproduct or service. For example, airlines can refuse to hire flight personnelthat exceed a weight and size limitation (or terminate them if they exceed the limitations after being hired) because there is limited space to work on theairplanes. Ethnic restaurants can choose to only hire people of that ethnicity.Modeling agencies and movie/TV production companies make hiringdecisions based almost exclusively on the way people look. However, formany chains such as Abercrombie & Fitch, it is difficult to justify this link. Inaddition, in a case such as its, they would be unwise to attempt such a link forreasons of public perception. Since this lawsuit, Abercrombie & Fitch hasimplemented personnel policies to ensure that this problem will beeliminated.(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 2 and 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)11.The mall of the future will most likely be less about purchasing products thanabout exploring them in a physical setting. This means that retailenvironments will have to become places to build brand images, rather than just places to sell products. What are some strategies stores can use toenhance the emotional/sensory experiences they give to shoppers?Students will likely focus on strategies being used by large retailers, including the swank environments in new malls (leather furniture, premium floorcoverings, HD big-screen monitors, fountains and landscaping, high-end play areas, and family bathrooms). However, remind them of the many themedrestaurants that have opened (including those that feature live high-divers).(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)12.The store environment is heating up as more and more companies put theirpromotional dollars into point-of-purchase efforts. Some stores confrontshoppers with videos at the checkout counter, computer monitors attachedto their shopping carts, and ads stenciled on the floors. We are alsoincreasingly exposed to ads in non-shopping environments. A health club inNew York was forced to remove TV monitors that showed advertising on the Health Club Media Networks, after exercisers claimed that the programming interfered with their workouts. Do you feel that these innovations are overly intrusive? At what point might shoppers rebel and demand some peace andquiet while they shop? Do you see any market potential in the future forstores that “countermarket” by promising a “hands-off” shoppingenvironment?Student opinion will vary based on their knowledge/experience andfeelings/beliefs about place-based media. You might ask your students if they ever encounter this type of promotion and explore their reaction at the timeof exposure. Students might also be asked to consider a more objectiveopinion, in light of what they have learned from this course. They should bechallenged to view the advantages and disadvantages of these practices from the perspectives of both consumers and retailers.(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)13.Courts often prohibit special-interest groups from distributing literature inshopping malls. Mall managements claim that these centers are privateproperty. However, these groups argue that the mall is the modern-dayversion of the town square and as such is a public forum. Find some recentcourt cases involving this free-speech issue and examine the arguments proand con. What is the status of the mall as a public forum? Do you agree with this concept?This exercise will challenge the student to conduct primary and secondaryresearch. Encourage exploration of this issue with other students, facultymembers, and consumer advocacy groups. A search should be conducted ofpublished sources such as court cases and the Law Review. They might callthe management office of a local mall for additional information.(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)Application Questions1.Conduct naturalistic observation at a local mall. Sit in a central location andobserve the activities of mall employees and patrons. Keep a log of thenon-retailing activity you observe (e.g., special performances, exhibits,socializing, etc.). Does this activity enhance or detract from business the mall conducts? As malls become more like high-tech game rooms, how valid is the criticism raised that shopping areas are only encouraging more loitering byteenage boys who don’t spend a lot in stores and simply scare away othercustomers?Students tend to like this exercise. Now that they have been exposed to avariety of consumer behavior constructs, they are likely to see things in theretail context that they did not notice before. They will probably notice a wide variety of non-retailing activities in the mall. Encourage your students tothink about the advantages and disadvantages of these other activities fromboth the consumers’ and retailers’ points of view. Encourage students todevelop a specific plan for dealing with teenage loitering that would work, be legal, and would not interfere with normal store and mall traffic. Studentsmight interview mall officials or security officers to get their viewpoint about loitering. (Possible Field Project Idea)(90 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Analytic Skills, Course Learning Outcome 10)2.Select three competing clothing stores in your area and conduct a storeimage study for them. Ask a group of consumers to rate each store on a setof attributes and plot these ratings on the same graph. Based on yourfindings, are there any areas of competitive advantage or disadvantage youcould bring to the attention of store management?Students should review the section on store image (including Atmospherics)before beginning this exercise. You might encourage the students to selectstores that are very different from each other rather than “directcompetitors.” Consider using this as an opportun ity to discuss the strengthsand weaknesses of this type of market research. (Possible Field Project Idea) (30 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Analytic Skills, Course Learning Outcome 10)ing Table 9.1 as a model, construct a person/situation segmentationmatrix for a brand of perfume.You might want to ask different groups of students to construct a matrix forother very different types of products, such as convenience versus specialtygoods. Tell students to look up these terms in the glossary and index forfurther information. Allow students to experiment with variables to construct their matrix. (Possible Field Project or In-Class Group Project Idea)(25 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)4.What applications of queuing theory can you find employed that localservices use? Interview consumers who are waiting on lines to determinehow (if at all) this experience affects their satisfaction with the service.The students should consider the explanation of queuing theory—themathematical study of waiting in lines—as part of the psychological timeconstruct. As suggested, a consumer’s experience of waiting can radicallyinfluence his or her perception of service quality. Although we assume thatsomething must be good if we have to wait for it, the negative feelingsaroused by long waits can quickly discourage consumers. Lines at movietheaters, restaurants, ticket booths, and university class registration allprovide contexts in which students might investigate the psychology of time.(Possible Field Project Idea)(60 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Analytic Skills, Course Learning Outcome 10)5.Many retailers believe that when they pile a lot of stuff around their store,this cluttered look encourages shoppers to hunt for items and eventually buy more. Dollar General recently raised the height of its shelves to more than six feet; J. C. Penney transformed empty walls into jewelry and accessorydisplays; Old Navy added lanes lined with items like water bottles, candy, and lunchboxes. Best Buy is even testing the impact of filling aisles with bulkyitems like Segways and bicycles to compensate for the smaller space thatthin TVs and smaller speakers take up. Walmart recently did an abruptabout-face: The company only recently remodeled its stores by eliminatingthe pallets of items it used to stack in the centers of aisles, and it reducedoverall inventory by about 9%. Customers loved the leaner, cleaner look.Only one problem: They bought less stuff. As a senior Walmart executivecommented, “They loved the experience. They just bought less. And thatgenerally is not a good long-term strategy.” Now, Walmart is addinginventory back in and is once again piling stacks of merchandise in aisles.What is your take on these store-stocking strategies? Visit several “big-box”stores in your area, such as Walmart, Target, Best Buy, Costco, and so on.If possible, interview shoppers about their experiences. Do they have trouble navigating around the store? Do they enjoy the clutter? Does it feel like a“treasure hunt” when they have to pick their way around piles and pallets? If you were designing a store, how would you craft a stocking strategy thatwould make it easy to shop there?A variety of responses will emerge from this activity because students mayhave different motivations for shopping and may have different experienceswithin the store depending on the shopper density when they shop.Students should recognize the trade-off between the convenience of makingthings neat, orderly and easy to find and the messy, cluttered store withthings stacked high, which customers associate with lower prices.(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)6.Interview people who are selling items at a flea market or garage sale. Askthem to identify some items to which they had a strong attachment. Then,see if you can prompt them to describe one or more divestment rituals theywent through as they prepared to offer these items for sale.Student results will depend entirely on the outcomes that they receive fromrespondents. Students should recognize the different types of divestmentrituals.(60 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)7.Identify three people who own an electric coffeemaker. Then, “go to thegemba” by observing them as they actually prepare coffee in the appliance at home. Based on these experiences, what recommendations might you make to the designer of a new coffeemaker model that would improve customers’ experience with the product?Given the modern infatuation with coffee, responses to this will likely havesomething to do with upscale blends and flavors, ability to makecappuccino/espresso products, etc. Buying coffee retail is much more aboutthe experience than the actual coffee. Home use may start to mirror this. (30 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10)CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTESChapter 9 Case Study: Giving and Receiving on Summary of CaseStarted as the brainchild of a city employee in Tucson, Arizona, as a means of relieving strain on public landfills, has grown to immense proportions. is a virtual garage sale where the main rule is that all things given and taken must be done on a completely free basis. No money or product exchanges are to be made. Participants can register for their own geographic area, then post things that they want to dispose of or take things that they need. Now, the population of has grown to millions of members in over 75 countries. In addition, this growth was achieved through word-of-mouth and free publicity. The initial goal of landfill relief has also been accomplished as an estimated 300 tons of garbage avoid such a fate every day.Suggestions for PresentationThe most direct link for presenting and discussing this case is in the section, “Product Disposal” with the concepts of lateral cycling and disposal options. Freecycli ng is briefly highlighted in the chapter section, “Disposal Options,” and the accompanying Marketing Opportunity special feature box.Suggested Answers for Discussion Questions1.Why do you think has achieved such high levels of growth insuch a short period?The most obvious answer to this question is that the market was ready, even craving some kind of product disposal option such as this. People often have things to get rid of that do not have much resale value. Often, items wouldcost more to have someone haul them away than they are worth. Manypeople also feel a bit of guilt in throwing away something that is perfectlyusable. Therefore, if they find someone who can use the item, there is greatsatisfaction in that. On the taking end, who does not want free stuff? Thereare all too many people waiting to snag up the free stuff. As long as thissupply-demand dynamic continues, freecycling is around forever.(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Course Learning Outcome 10) has created an alternative disposal option that is rapidlygrowing. Discuss ways that freecycling might affect the purchase habits ofconsumers.There are at least two main ways that freecycling affects the purchase habits of people. People who have become involved in freecycling are much morelikely to think about whether or not they really need items that they arebuying new. The second way is that people might forego buying somethingnew or even used if they can find it free on .(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Analytic Skills, Course Learning Outcome 10)3.Should for-profit businesses like eBay get into the freecycling business?Should companies motivate more consumers to give things away that they。

新编[经济学]管理会计英文版课后习题答案高等教育出版社chapter 9

CHAPTER 9standard costing:a managerial control toolQUESTIONS FOR WRITING AND DISCUSSION1.Standard costs are essentially budgetedamounts on a per-unit basis. Unit standardsserve as inputs in building budgets.2.Unit standards are used to build flexiblebudgets. Unit standards for variable costsare the variable cost component of a flexiblebudgeting formula.3.The quantity decision is determining howmuch input should be used per unit of out-put. The pricing decision determines howmuch should be paid for the quantity of inputused.4.Historical experience is often a poor choicefor establishing standards because the his-torical amounts may include more inefficien-cy than is desired.5.Engineering studies can serve as importantinput to standard setting. Many feel that thisapproach by itself may produce standardsthat are too rigorous.6.Ideal standards are perfection standards,representing the best possible outcomes.Currently attainable standards are standardsthat are challenging but allow some waste.Currently attainable standards are oftenchosen because many feel they tend to mo-tivate rather than frustrate.7.Standard costing systems improve planningand control and facilitate product costing. 8.By identifying standards and assessing devi-ations from the standards, managers can lo-cate areas where change or corrective be-havior is needed.9.Actual costing assigns actual manufacturingcosts to products. Normal costing assignsactual prime costs and estimated overheadcosts to products. Standard costing assignsestimated manufacturing costs to products.10. A standard cost sheet presents the standardamount of and price for each input and usesthis information to calculate the unit standardcost. 11.Managers generally tend to have more con-trol over the quantity of an input used ratherthan the price paid per unit of input.12. A standard cost variance should be investi-gated if the variance is material and if thebenefit of investigating and correcting thedeviation is greater than the cost.13.Control limits indicate how large a variancemust be before it is judged to be materialand the process is out of control. Control lim-its are usually set by judgment although sta-tistical approaches are occasionally used. 14.The materials price variance is often com-puted at the point of purchase rather than is-suance because it provides control infor-mation sooner.15.Disagree. A materials usage variance canbe caused by factors beyond the control ofthe production manager, e.g., purchase of alower-quality material than normal.16.Disagree. Using higher-priced workers toperform lower-skilled tasks is an example ofan event that will create a rate variance thatis controllable.17.Some possible causes of an unfavorablelabor efficiency variance are inefficient labor,machine downtime, and poor quality materi-als.18.Part of a variable overhead spending vari-ance can be caused by inefficient use ofoverhead resources.19.Agree. This variance, assuming that variableoverhead costs increase as labor usage in-creases, is caused by the efficiency or ineffi-ciency of labor usage.20.Fixed overhead costs are either committedor discretionary. The committed costs willnot differ by their very nature. Discretionarycosts can vary, but the level the companywants to spend on these items is decided atthe beginning and usually will be met unlessthere is a conscious decision to change thepredetermined levels.21.The volume variance is caused by the actualvolume differing from the expected volumeused to compute the predetermined stand-ard fixed overhead rate. If the actual volumeis different from the expected, then the com-pany has either lost or earned a contributionmargin. The volume variance signals thisoutcome, and if the variance is large, thenthe loss or gain is large since the volumevariance understates the effect.22.The spending variance is more important.This variance is computed by comparing ac-tual expenditures with budgeted expendi-tures. The volume variance simply tellswhether the actual volume is different fromthe expected volume.EXERCISES 9–11. d2. e3. d4. c5. e6. a9–21. a. The operating personnel of each cost center should be involved in settingstandards. They are the primary source for quantity information. The mate-rials manager and purchasing manager are a source of information for ma-terial prices, and personnel are knowledgeable on wage information. The Accounting Department should be involved in overhead standards and should provide information about past prices and usage. Finally, if infor-mation about absolute efficiency is desired, industrial engineers can pro-vide important input.b. Standards should be attainable; they should include an allowance forwaste, breakdowns, etc. Market prices for materials as well as labor (un-ions) should be a consideration for setting standards. Labor prices should include fringe benefits, and material prices should include freight, taxes, etc.2. In principle, before formal responsibility is assigned, the causes of the vari-ances must be known. To be responsible, a manager must have the ability to control or influence the variance. The following assignments of responsibility are general in nature and have exceptions:MPV: Purchasing managerMUV: Production managerLRV: Production managerLEV: Production managerOH variances: Departmental managers1. SH = 0.8 ⨯ 95,000 = 76,000 hours2. SQ = 5 ⨯ 95,000 = 475,000 components9–41. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($0.03 – $0.032)6,420,000 = $12,840 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (6,420,000 – 6,400,000)$0.032 = $640 U2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($12.50 – $12.00)2,000 = $1,000 UL EV = (AH – SH)SR= (2,000 – 1,850)$12.00 = $1,800 U9–51. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOH2. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOH1. Materials: $60 ⨯ 20,000 = $1,200,000L abor: $21 ⨯ 20,000 = $420,0002. Actual Cost* Budgeted Cost VarianceMaterials $1,215,120 $1,200,000 $ 15,120 U Labor 390,000 420,000 30,000 F *$122,000 ⨯ $9.96; 31,200 ⨯ $12.503. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($9.96 – $10)122,000 = $4,880 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (122,000 – 120,000)$10 = $20,000 UAP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ SQ4. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($12.50 – $14)31,200 = $46,800 FLEV = (AH – SH)SR= (31,200 – 30,000)$14 = $16,800 UAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH1. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($8.35 – $8.25)114,000 = $11,400 UMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (112,500 – 115,200)$8.25 = $22,275 F(A three-pronged variance diagram is not shown because MPV is for mate-rials purchased and not materials used.)2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($9.80 – $9.65)37,560 = $5,634 UNote: AR = $368,088/37,560LEV = (AH – SH)SR= (37,560 – 38,400)$9.65 = $8,106 FAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH3. Materials Inventory ................................... 940,500M PV ............................................................ 11,400Accounts Payable ............................... 951,900Work in Process ....................................... 950,400MUV ...................................................... 22,275Materials Inventory .............................. 928,125Work in Process ....................................... 370,560LRV ............................................................ 5,634LEV ....................................................... 8,106Accrued Payroll ................................... 368,0881. Fixed overhead rate = $0.55/(1/2 hr. per unit) = $1.10 per DLHSH = 1,180,000 ⨯ 1/2 = 590,000Applied FOH = $1.10 ⨯ 590,000 = $649,0002. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOH(600,000 expected hours = 1/2 hour ⨯ 1,200,000 units)3. Variable OH rate = ($1,350,000 – $660,000)/600,000= $1.15 per DLH4. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOH1. Cases needing investigation:Week 2: Exceeds the 10% rule.Week 4: Exceeds the $8,000 rule and the 10% rule.Week 5: Exceeds the 10% rule.2. The purchasing agent. Corrective action would require a return to the pur-chase of the higher-quality material normally used.3. Production engineering is responsible. If the relationship is expected to per-sist, then the new labor method should be adopted, and standards for materi-als and labor need to be revised.9–101. Standard fixed overhead rate = $2,160,000/(120,000 ⨯ 6)= $3.00 per DLHStandard variable overhead rate = $1,440,000/720,000= $2.00 per DLH2. Fixed: 119,000 ⨯ 6 ⨯ $3.00 = $2,142,000Variable: 119,000 ⨯ 6 ⨯ $2.00 = $1,428,000Total FOH variance = $2,250,000 – $2,142,000= $108,000 UTotal VOH variance = $1,425,000 – $1,428,000= $3,000 F3. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHThe spending variance is the difference between planned and actual costs.Each item’s variance should be analyzed to see if these costs can be r e-duced. The volume variance is the incorrect prediction of volume, or alterna-tively, it is a signal of the loss or gain that occurred because of producing at a level different from the expected level.4. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOHThe variable overhead spending variance is the difference between the actual variable overhead costs and the budgeted costs for the actual hours used.The variable overhead efficiency variance is the savings or extra cost at-tributable to the efficiency of labor usage.9–111. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($6.60 – $6.40)1,488,000= $297,600 UMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (1,480,000 – 1,400,000)$6.40= $512,000 UNote: There is no three-pronged analysis for materials because materials purchased is different from the materials used. (MPV uses materials pur-chased and MUV uses materials used.)2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($18.10 – $18.00)580,000= $58,000 ULEV = (AH – SH)SR= (580,000 – 560,000)$18.00= $360,000 UAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH3. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHNote: Practical volume in hours = 2 ⨯ 288,000 = 576,000 hours4. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOH1. Materials Inventory ................................... 9,523,200MPV ............................................................ 297,600Accounts Payable ............................... 9,820,8002. Work in Process ....................................... 8,960,000MUV ............................................................ 512,000Materials Inventory .............................. 9,472,0003. Work in Process ....................................... 10,080,000LRV ............................................................ 58,000LEV ............................................................. 360,000Accrued Payroll ................................... 10,498,0004. Work in Process ....................................... 3,080,000Fixed Overhead Control...................... 2,240,000Variable Overhead Control ................. 840,0005. Materials and labor:Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 1,227,600MPV ...................................................... 297,600MUV ...................................................... 512,000LRV ....................................................... 58,000LEV ....................................................... 360,000 Overhead disposition:Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 160,000Fixed Overhead Control...................... 160,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 32,000Variable Overhead Control ................. 32,0001. Tom purchased the large quantity to obtain a lower price so that the pricestandard could be met. In all likelihood, given the reaction of Jackie Iverson, encouraging the use of quantity discounts was not an objective of setting price standards. Usually, material price standards are to encourage the pur-chasing agent to search for sources that will supply the quantity and quality of material desired at the lowest price.2. It sounds like the price standard may be out of date. Revising the pricestandard and implementing a policy concerning quantity purchases would likely prevent this behavior from reoccurring.3. Tom apparently acted in his own self-interest when making the purchase. Hesurely must have known that the quantity approach was not the objective.Yet, the reward structure suggests that there is considerable emphasis placed on meeting standards. His behavior, in part, was induced by the re-ward system of the company. Probably, he should be retained with some ad-ditional training concerning the goals of the company and a change in em-phasis and policy to help encourage the desired behavior.9–14Materials:AP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ SQLabor:AR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH1. Materials Inventory ................................... 47,700MPV ...................................................... 5,700Accounts Payable ............................... 42,0002. Work in Process ....................................... 45,000MUV ............................................................ 2,700Materials Inventory .............................. 47,7003. Work in Process ....................................... 105,000LRV ....................................................... 2,300LEV (700)Accrued Payroll ................................... 102,0004. Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 2,700MUV ...................................................... 2,700MPV ............................................................ 5,700LRV ............................................................ 2,300LEV (700)Cost of Goods Sold ............................. 8,7001. VOH efficiency variance = (AH – SH)SVOR$8,000 = (1.2SH – SH)$2$8,000 = $0.4SHSH = 20,000AH = 1.2SH = 24,000 2. LEV = (AH – SH)SR$20,000 = (24,000 – 20,000)SR$20,000 = 4,000SRSR = $5LRV = (AR – SR)AH$6,000 = (AR – $5)24,000$0.25 = AR – $5AR = $5.253. SH = 4 ⨯ Units produced20,000 = 4 ⨯ Units produced Units produced = 5,000PROBLEMS9–171. Materials:AP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ SQThe new process saves 0.25 ⨯ 4,000 ⨯ $3 = $3,000. Thus, the net savings at-tributable to the higher-quality material are ($6,000 – $3,000) – $2,300 = $700.Keep the higher-quality material!2. Labor for new process:AR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SHThe new process gains $3,000 in materials (see Requirement 1) but loses $6,000 from the labor effect, giving a net loss of $3,000. If this pattern is ex-pected to persist, then the new process should be abandoned.3. Labor for new process, one week later:AR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SHIf this is the pattern, then the new process should be continued. It will save $260,000 per year ($5,000 ⨯52 weeks). The weekly savings of $5,000 is the materials savings of $3,000 plus labor savings of $2,000.9–181. e2. h3. k4. n5. d6. g7. o8. b9. m10. l11. j12. c13. a14. i15. f9–191. Material quantity standards:1.25 feet per cutting board⨯ 67.50 feet for five good cutting boardsUnit standard for lumber = 7.50/5 = 1.50 feetUnit standard for foot pads = 4.0Material price standards:Lumber: $3.00 per footPads: $0.05 per padLabor quantity standards:Cutting: 0.2 hrs. ⨯ 6/5 = 0.24 hours per good unitAttachment: 0.25 hours per good unitUnit labor standard 0.49 hours per good unit Labor rate standard: $8.00 per hourStandard prime cost per unit:Lumber (1.50 ft. @ $3.00) $4.50Pads (4 @ $0.05) 0.20Labor (0.49 hr. @ $8.00) 3.92Unit cost $8.629–19 Concluded2. Standards allow managers to compare planned and actual performance. Thedifference can be broken down into price and efficiency variances to identify the cause of a variance. With this feedback, managers are able to improve productivity as they attempt to produce without cost overruns.3. a. The purchasing manager identifies suppliers and their respective pricesand quality of materials.b. The industrial engineer often conducts time and motion studies to deter-mine the standard direct labor time for a unit of product. They also can de-termine how much material is needed for the product.c. The cost accountant has historical information as well as current infor-mation from the purchasing agent, industrial engineers, and operating personnel. He or she can compile this information to obtain an achievable standard.4. Lumber:MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($3.10 – $3.00)16,000 = $1,600 UMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (16,000 – 15,000)$3 = $3,000 URubber pads:MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($0.048 – $0.05)51,000 = $102 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (51,000 – 40,000)$0.05 = $550 ULabor:LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($8.05 – $8.00)5,550 = $277.50 ULEV = (AH – SH)SR= (5,550 – 4,900)$8 = $5,200 U9–201. The cumulative average time per unit is an average. It includes the2.5 hoursper unit when 40 units are produced as well as the 1.024 hours per unit when 640 units are produced. As more units are produced, the cumulative average time per unit will decrease.2. The standard should be 0.768 hour per unit as this is the average time takenper unit once efficiency is achieved:[(1.024 ⨯ 640) – (1.28 ⨯ 320)]/(640 – 320)3. Std. Price Std. Usage Std. CostDirect materials $ 4 25.000 $100.00 Direct labor 15 0.768 11.52 Variable overhead 8 0.768 6.14 Fixed overhead 12 0.768 9.22* Standard cost per unit $126.88* *Rounded4. There would be unfavorable efficiency variances for the first 320 units be-cause the standard hours are much lower than the actual hours at this level.Actual hours would be approximately 409.60 (320 ⨯ 1.28), and standard hours would be 245.76 (320 ⨯ 0.768).9–211. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($4.70 – $5.00)260,000 = $78,000 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (320,000 – 300,000)$5 = $100,000 UThe materials usage variance is viewed as the most controllable because prices for materials are often market-driven and thus not controllable. Re-sponsibility for the variance in this case likely would be assigned to purchas-ing. The lower-quality materials are probably the cause of the extra usage.2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($13 – $12)82,000 = $82,000 ULEV = (AH – SH)SR= (82,000 – 80,000)$12 = $24,000 UAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SHProduction is usually responsible for labor efficiency. In this case, efficiency may have been affected by the lower-quality materials, and purchasing, thus, may have significant responsibility for the outcome. Other possible causes are less demand than expected, poor supervision, lack of proper training, and lack of experience.3. Variable overhead variances:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOHFormula approach:VOH spending variance = Actual VOH – (SVOR ⨯ AH)= $860,000 – ($10 ⨯ 82,000)= $40,000 UVOH efficiency variance = (AH – SH)SVOR= (82,000 – 80,000)$10= $20,000 U4. Fixed overhead variances:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHThe volume variance is a measure of unused capacity. This cost is reduced as production increases. Thus, selling more goods is the key to reducing this variance (at least in the short run).5. Four variances are potentially affected by material quality:MPV $ 78,000 FMUV 100,000 ULEV 24,000 UVOH efficiency 20,000 U$ 66,000 UIf the variance outcomes are largely attributable to the lower-quality materi-als, then the company should discontinue using this material.6. (Appendix required)Materials Inventory ................................... 1,300,000MPV ...................................................... 78,000Accounts Payable ............................... 1,222,000Work in Process ....................................... 1,500,000MUV ............................................................ 100,000Materials Inventory .............................. 1,600,0009–21 ConcludedWork in Process ....................................... 960,000LRV ............................................................ 82,000LEV ............................................................. 24,000Accrued Payroll ................................... 1,066,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 206,000MUV ...................................................... 100,000LRV ....................................................... 82,000LEV ....................................................... 24,000MPV ............................................................ 78,000Cost of Goods Sold ............................. 78,000VOH Control .............................................. 860,000Various Credits .................................... 860,000FOH Control .............................................. 556,000Various Credits .................................... 556,000Work in Process ....................................... 800,000VOH Control ......................................... 800,000Work in Process ....................................... 480,000FOH Control ......................................... 480,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 60,000VOH Control ......................................... 60,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 76,000FOH Control ......................................... 76,0009–221. Fixed overhead rate = $2,400,000/600,000 hours*= $4 per hour*Standard hours allowed = 2 ⨯ 300,000 units2. Little Rock plant:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHAthens plant:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHThe spending varian ce is almost certainly caused by supervisor’s salaries (for example, an unexpected midyear increase due to union pressures). It is unlikely that the lease payments or depreciation would be greater than budg-eted. Changing the terms on a 10-year lease in the first year would be unusual (unless there is some sort of special clause permitting increased payments for something like unexpected inflation). Also, the depreciation should be on target (unless more equipment was purchased or the depreciation budget was set before the price of the equipment was known with certainty).The volume variance is easy to explain. The Little Rock plant produced less than expected, and so there was an unused capacity cost: $4 ⨯ 120,000 hours = $480,000. The Athens plant had no unused capacity.9–22 Concluded3. It appears that the 120,000 hours of unused capacity (60,000 subassemblies)is permanent for the Little Rock plant. This plant has 10 supervisors, each making $50,000. Supervision is a step-cost driven by the number of produc-tion lines. Unused capacity of 120,000 hours means that two lines can be shut down, saving the salaries of two supervisors ($100,000 at the original salary level). The equipment for the two lines is owned. If it could be sold, then the money could be reinvested, and the depreciation charge would be reduced by20 percent (two lines shut down out of 10). There is no way to directly reducethe lease payments for the building. Perhaps the company could use the space to establish production lines for a different product. Or perhaps the space could be subleased. Another possibility is to keep the supervisors and equipment and try to fill the unused capacity with special orders orders for the subassembly below the regular selling price from a market not normally served. If the selling price is sufficient to cover the variable costs and cover at least the salaries and depreciation for the two lines, then the special order option may be a possibility. This option, however, is fraught with risks, e.g., the risk of finding enough orders to justify keeping the supervisors and equipment, the risk of alienating regular customers who pay full price, and the risk of violating price discrimination laws. Note:You may wish to point out the value of the resource usage model in answering this question (see Chapter 3).4. For each plant, the standard fixed overhead rate is $4 per direct labor hour.Since each subassembly should use two hours, the fixed overhead cost per unit is $8, regardless of where they are produced. Should they differ? Some may argue that the rate for the Little Rock plant needs to be recalculated. For example, one possibility is to use expected actual capacity, instead of practi-cal capacity. In this case, the Little Rock plant would have a fixed overhead rate of $2,400,000/480,000 hours = $5 per hour and a cost per subassembly of $10. The question is: Should the subassemblies be charged for the cost of the unused capacity? ABC suggests a negative response. Products should be charged for the resources they use, and the cost of unused capacity should be reported as a separate item—to draw management’s attention to the need to manage this unused capacity.9–231. Normal Patient Day:Standard Standard StandardPrice Usage Cost Direct materials $10.00 8.00 lb. $ 80.00 Direct labor 16.00 2 hr. 32.00 Variable overhead 30.00 2 hr. 60.00 Fixed overhead 40.00 2 hr. 80.00 Unit cost $252.00 Cesarean Patient Day:Standard Standard StandardPrice Usage Cost Direct materials $10.00 20.00 lb. $200.00 Direct labor 16.00 4 hr. 64.00 Variable overhead 30.00 4 hr. 120.00 Fixed overhead 40.00 4 hr. 160.00 Unit cost $544.00 2. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($9.50 – $10.00)172,000 = $86,000 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SPMUV (Normal) = [30,000 – (8 ⨯ 3,500)]$10 = $20,000 UMUV (Cesarean) = [142,000 – (20 ⨯ 7,000)]$10 = $20,000 UMaterials .................................................... 1,720,000MPV ...................................................... 86,000Accounts Payable ............................... 1,634,000Work in Process ....................................... 1,680,000M UV ........................................................... 40,000Materials .............................................. 1,720,000MPV ............................................................ 86,000MUV ............................................................ 40,000Cost of Services Sold ......................... 126,0003. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($15.90 – $16.00)36,500 = $3,650 FLEV = (AH – SH)SRLEV (Normal) = [7,200 – (2 ⨯ 3,500)]$16 = $3,200 ULEV (Cesarean) = [29,300 – (4 ⨯ 7,000)]$16 = $20,800 UWork in Process ....................................... 560,000*LEV ............................................................. 24,000LRV ....................................................... 3,650Accrued Payroll ................................... 580,350 *[(2 ⨯ 3,500) + (4 ⨯ 7,000)] ⨯ $16 = $560,000Cost of Services Sold ............................... 20,350LRV ............................................................ 3,650LEV ....................................................... 24,0004. Variable overhead variances:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOHFixed overhead variances:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHNote: SH = (2 ⨯ 3,500) + (4 ⨯ 7,000) = 35,000。

(完整版)第九章习题答案final

1、电子波有何特征？与可见光有何异同？答：电子波的波长较短，轴对称非均匀磁场能使电子波聚焦。

其波长取决于电子运动的速度和质量，电子波的波长要比可见光小5个数量级。

两者都是波，具有波粒二象性，波的大小、产生方式、聚焦方式等不同。

2、分析电磁透镜对波的聚焦原理，说明电磁透镜的结构对聚焦能力的影响。

答：原理：通电线圈产生一种轴对称不均匀分布的磁场，磁力线围绕导线呈环状。

磁力线上任一点的磁感应强度B可以分解成平行于透镜主轴的分量Bz和垂直于透镜主轴的分量Br。

速度为V的平行电子束进入透镜磁场时在A点处受到Br分量的作用，由右手法则，电子所受的切向力Ft的方向如下图；Ft使电子获得一个切向速度Vt，Vt与Bz分量叉乘，形成了另一个向透镜主轴靠近的径向力Fr，使电子向主轴偏转。

当电子穿过线圈到达B点位置时，Br的方向改变了180度，Ft随之反向，但是只是减小而不改变方向，因此，穿过线圈的电子任然趋向于主轴方向靠近。

结果电子作圆锥螺旋曲线近轴运动。

当一束平行与主轴的入射电子束通过投射电镜时将会聚焦在轴线上一点，这就是电磁透镜电子波的聚焦对原理。

电磁透镜的结构对电磁场有很大的影响。

上图为一种实际常用的带有铁壳以及极靴的电磁透镜示意图。

1）电磁透镜中为了增强磁感应强度，通常将线圈置于一个由软磁材料（纯铁或低碳钢）制成的具有内环形间隙的壳子里，此时线圈的磁力线都集中在壳内，磁感应强度得以加强。

狭缝的间隙越小，磁场强度越强，对电子的折射能力越大。

2）增加极靴后的磁线圈内的磁场强度可以有效地集中在狭缝周围几毫米的范围内，显著提高了其聚焦能力。

3、电磁透镜的像差是怎样产生的，如何来消除或减小像差？答：电磁透镜的像差可以分为两类：几何像差和色差。

几何像差是因为投射磁场几何形状上的缺陷造成的，色差是由于电子波的波长或能量发生一定幅度的改变而造成的。

几何像差主要指球差和像散。

球差是由于电磁透镜的中心区域和边缘区域对电子的折射能力不符合预定的规律造成的，像散是由透镜磁场的非旋转对称引起的。

微观经济学第八版课后习题答案第九章

Chapter 9The Analysis of Competitive MarketsReview Questions1. What is meant by deadweight loss? Why does a price ceiling usually result in a deadweight loss?Deadweight loss refers to the benefits lost by consumers and/or producers when markets do not operate efficiently. The term deadweight denotes that these are benefits unavailable to any party. A price ceiling set below the equilibrium price in a perfectly competitive market will result in a deadweight loss because it reduces the quantity supplied by producers. Both producers and consumers lose surplus because less of the good is produced and consumed. The reduced (ceiling) price benefits consumers but hurts producers, so there is a transfer from one group to the other. The real culprit, then, and the primary source of the deadweight loss, is the reduction in the amount of the good in the market.2. Suppose the supply curve for a good is completely inelastic. If the government imposed a priceceiling below the market-clearing level, would a deadweight loss result? Explain.When the supply curve is completely inelastic, it is vertical. In this case there is no deadweight loss because there is no reduction in the amount of the good produced. The imposition of the price ceiling transfers all lost producer surplus to consumers. Consumer surplus increases by the differencebetween the market-clearing price and the price ceiling times the market-clearing quantity.Consumers capture all decreases in total revenue, and no deadweight loss occurs.3. How can a price ceiling make consumers better off? Under what conditions might it make themworse off?If the supply curve is highly inelastic a price ceiling will usually increase consumer surplus because the quantity available will not decline much, but consumers get to purchase the product at a reduced price. If the demand curve is inelastic, on the other hand, price controls may result in a net loss of consumer surplus because consumers who value the good highly are unable to purchase as much as they would like. (See Figure 9.3 on page 321 in the text.) The loss of consumer surplus is greater than the transfer of producer surplus to consumers. So consumers are made better off when demand is relatively elastic and supply is relatively inelastic, and they are made worse off when the opposite is true.4. Suppose the government regulates the price of a good to be no lower than some minimum level.Can such a minimum price make producers as a whole worse off? Explain.With a minimum price set above the market-clearing price, some consumer surplus is transferred to producers because of the higher price, but some producer surplus is lost because consumerspurchase less. If demand is highly elastic, the reduction in purchases can offset the higher priceproducers receive, making producers worse off. In the diagram below, the market-clearing price and quantity are P0 and Q0. The minimum price is set at P', and at this price consumers demand Q'.Assuming that suppliers produce Q' (and not the larger quantity indicated by the supply curve),producer surplus increases by area A due to the higher price, but decreases by the much larger area B because the quantity demanded drops sharply. The result is a reduction in producer surplus. Note thatChapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets141 if suppliers produce more than Q , the loss in producer surplus is even greater because they will have unsold units.5. How are production limits used in practice to raise the prices of the following goods or services:(a) taxi rides, (b) drinks in a restaurant or bar, (c) wheat or corn?Municipal authorities usually regulate the number of taxis through the issuance of licenses ormedallions. When the number of taxis is less than it would be without regulation, those taxis in the market may charge a higher-than-competitive price.State authorities usually regulate the number of liquor licenses. By requiring that any bar or restaurant that serves alcohol have a liquor license and then limiting the number of licenses available, the state limits entry by new bars and restaurants. This limitation allows those establishments that have a license to charge a higher-than-competitive price for alcoholic beverages.Federal authorities usually regulate the number of acres of wheat or corn in production by creating acreage limitation programs that give farmers financial incentives to leave some of their acreage idle.This reduces supply, driving up the price of wheat or corn.6. Suppose the government wants to increase farmers’ incomes. Why do price supports oracreage-limitation programs cost society more than simply giving farmers money?Price supports and acreage limitations cost society more than the dollar cost of these programsbecause the higher price that results in either case will reduce quantity demanded and hence consumer surplus, leading to a deadweight loss because farmers are not able to capture the lost surplus. Giving farmers money does not result in any deadweight loss but is merely a redistribution of surplus from one group to the other.7. Suppose the government wants to limit imports of a certain good. Is it preferable to use animport quota or a tariff? Why?Changes in domestic consumer and producer surpluses are the same under import quotas and tariffs.There will be a loss in (domestic) total surplus in either case. However, with a tariff, the government can collect revenue equal to the tariff times the quantity of imports, and these revenues can beredistributed in the domestic economy to offset some of the domestic deadweight loss. Thus there is less of a loss to the domestic society as a whole with a tariff. With an import quota, foreign producers can capture the difference between the domestic and world price times the quantity of imports.Therefore, with an import quota, there is a loss to the domestic society as a whole. If the national government is trying to minimize domestic welfare loss, it should use a tariff.142Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics,Eighth Edition8. The burden of a tax is shared by producers and consumers. Under what conditions willconsumers pay most of the tax? Under what conditions will producers pay most of it? What determines the share of a subsidy that benefits consumers?The burden of a tax and the benefits of a subsidy depend on the elasticities of demand and supply.If the absolute value of the ratio of the elasticity of demand to the elasticity of supply is small, the burden of the tax falls mainly on consumers. If the ratio is large, the burden of the tax falls mainly on producers. Similarly, the benefit of a subsidy accrues mostly to consumers (producers) if the ratio of the elasticity of demand to the elasticity of supply is small (large) in absolute value.9. Why does a tax create a deadweight loss? What determines the size of this loss?A tax creates deadweight loss by artificially increasing price above the free market level, thusreducing the equilibrium quantity. This reduction in quantity reduces consumer as well as producer surplus. The size of the deadweight loss depends on the elasticities of supply and demand and on the size of the tax. The more elastic supply and demand are, the larger will be the deadweight loss. Also, the larger the tax, the greater the deadweight loss.Exercises1. From time to time, Congress has raised the minimum wage. Some people suggested that agovernment subsidy could help employers finance the higher wage. This exercise examines the economics of a minimum wage and wage subsidies. Suppose the supply of low-skilled labor is given by L S= 10w, where L S is the quantity of low-skilled labor (in millions of persons employed each year), and w is the wage rate (in dollars per hour). The demand for labor is given by L D=80 - 10w.a. What will be the free-market wage rate and employment level? Suppose the governmentsets a minimum wage of $5 per hour. How many people would then be employed?In a free-market equilibrium, L S=L D. Solving yields w= $4 and L S=L D= 40. If the minimumwage is $5, then L S= 50 and L D= 30. The number of people employed will be given by the labor demand, so employers will hire only 30 million workers.Chapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets143b. Suppose that instead of a minimum wage, the government pays a subsidy of $1 per hour foreach employee. What will the total level of employment be now? What will the equilibrium wage rate be?Let w s denote the wage received by the sellers (i.e., the employees), and w b the wage paid by the buyers (the firms). The new equilibrium occurs where the vertical difference between the supply and demand curves is $1 (the amount of the subsidy). This point can be found whereL D(w b) =L S(w s), andw s-w b= 1.Write the second equation as w b= w s- 1. This reflects the fact that firms pay $1 less than thewage received by workers because of the subsidy. Substitute for w b in the demand equation:L D(w b) = 80 - 10(w s- 1), soL D(w b) = 90 - 10w s.Note that this is equivalent to an upward shift in demand by the amount of the $1 subsidy. Now set the new demand equal to supply: 90 - 10w s= 10w s. Therefore, w s= $4.50, and L D= 90 -10(4.50) = 45. Employment increases to 45 (compared to 30 with the minimum wage), but wage drops to $4.50 (compared to $5.00 with the minimum wage). The net wage the firm pays falls to $3.50 due to the subsidy.2. Suppose the market for widgets can be described by the following equations:Demand: P= 10 -Q Supply: P=Q- 4where P is the price in dollars per unit and Q is the quantity in thousands of units. Then:a. What is the equilibrium price and quantity?Equate supply and demand and solve for Q: 10 -Q = Q– 4. Therefore Q = 7 thousand widgets.Substitute Q into either the demand or the supply equation to obtain P.P= 10 - 7 = $3.00,orP= 7 - 4 = $3.00.144Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics,Eighth Editionb. Suppose the government imposes a tax of $1 per unit to reduce widget consumption andraise government revenues. What will the new equilibrium quantity be? What price will the buyer pay? What amount per unit will the seller receive?With the imposition of a $1.00 tax per unit, the price buyers pay is $1 more than the pricesuppliers receive. Also, at the new equilibrium, the quantity bought must equal the quantitysupplied. We can write these two conditions asP b-P s= 1Q b=Q s.Let Q with no subscript stand for the common value of Q b and Q s. Then substitute the demandand supply equations for the two values of P:(10 -Q) - (Q- 4) = 1Therefore, Q= 6.5 thousand widgets. Plug this value into the demand equation, which is theequation for P b, to find P b= 10 - 6.5 = $3.50. Also substitute Q= 6.5 into the supply equationto get P s=6.5 - 4 = $2.50.The tax raises the price in the market from $3.00 (as found in part a) to $3.50. Sellers, however,receive only $2.50 after the tax is imposed. Therefore the tax is shared equally between buyersand sellers, each paying $0.50.c. Suppose the government has a change of heart about the importance of widgets to thehappiness of the American public. The tax is removed and a subsidy of $1 per unit granted to widget producers. What will the equilibrium quantity be? What price will the buyer pay?What amount per unit (including the subsidy) will the seller receive? What will be the total cost to the government?Now the two conditions that must be satisfied areP s-P b= 1Q b=Q s.As in part b, let Q stand for the common value of quantity. Substitute the supply and demandcurves into the first condition, which yields(Q- 4) - (10 -Q) = 1.Therefore, Q = 7.5 thousand widgets. Using this quantity in the supply and demand equations,suppliers will receive P s= 7.5 - 4 = $3.50, and buyers will pay P b= 10 - 7.5 = $2.50. The totalcost to the government is the subsidy per unit multiplied by the number of units. Thus the cost is ($1)(7.5) = $7.5 thousand, or $7500.3. Japanese rice producers have extremely high production costs, due in part to the highopportunity cost of land and to their inability to take advantage of economies of large-scale production. Analyze two policies intended to maintain Japanese rice production: (1) a per-pound subsidy to farmers for each pound of rice produced, or (2) a per-pound tariff on imported rice.Illustrate with supply-and-demand diagrams the equilibrium price and quantity, domestic rice production, government revenue or deficit, and deadweight loss from each policy. Which policy is the Japanese government likely to prefer? Which policy are Japanese farmers likely to prefer?We have to make some assumptions to answer this question. If you make different assumptions, you may get different answers. Assume that initially the Japanese rice market is open, meaning thatforeign producers and domestic (Japanese) producers both sell rice to Japanese consumers. The worldChapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets145 price of rice is P W. This price is below P0, which is the equilibrium price that would occur in the Japanese market if no imports were allowed. In the diagram below, S is the domestic supply, D is the domestic demand, and Q0 is the equilibrium quantity that would prevail if no imports were allowed. The horizontal line at P W is the world supply of rice, which is assumed to be perfectly elastic. Initially Japanese consumers purchase Q D rice at the world price. Japanese farmers supply Q S at that price, and Q D- Q S is imported from foreign producers.Now suppose the Japanese government pays a subsidy to Japanese farmers equal to the difference between P0 and P W. Then Japanese farmers would sell rice on the open market for P W plus receive the subsidy of P0-P W. Adding these together, the total amount Japanese farmers would receive is P0 per pound of rice. At this price they would supply Q0 pounds of rice. Consumers would still pay P W and buy Q D. Foreign suppliers would import Q D- Q0 pounds of rice. This policy would cost the government (P0-P W)Q0, which is the subsidy per pound times the number of pounds supplied by Japanese farmers. It is represented on the diagram as areas B+E. Producer surplus increases from area C to C+B, so ∆PS=B. Consumer surplus is not affected and remains as area A+B+E+F. Deadweight loss is area E, which is the cost of the subsidy minus the gain in producer surplus.Instead, suppose the government imposes a tariff rather than paying a subsidy. Let the tariff be the same size as the subsidy, P0-P W. Now foreign firms importing rice into Japan will have to sell at the world price plus the tariff: P W+ (P0-P W) =P0. But at this price, Japanese farmers will supply Q0, which is exactly the amount Japanese consumers wish to purchase. Therefore there will be no imports, and the government will not collect any revenue from the tariff. The increase in producer surplus equals area B, as it is in the case of the subsidy. Consumer surplus is area A, which is less than it is under the subsidy because consumers pay more (P0) and consume less (Q0). Consumer surplus decreases by B+E+F. Deadweight loss is E+F: the difference between the decrease in consumer surplus and the increase in producer surplus.Under the assumptions made here, it seems likely that producers would not have a strong preference for either the subsidy or the tariff, because the increase in producer surplus is the same under both policies. The government might prefer the tariff because it does not require any government expenditure. On the other hand, the tariff causes a decrease in consumer surplus, and government officials who are elected by consumers might want to avoid that. Note that if the subsidy and tariff amounts were smaller than assumed above, some tariffs would be collected, but we would still get the same basic results.146Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics,Eighth Edition4. In 1983, the Reagan Administration introduced a new agricultural program called thePayment-in-Kind Program. To see how the program worked, let’s consider the wheat market.a. Suppose the demand function is Q D= 28 - 2P and the supply function is Q S= 4 + 4P, whereP is the price of wheat in dollars per bushel, and Q is the quantity in billions of bushels.Find the free-market equilibrium price and quantity.Equating demand and supply, Q D= Q S,28 - 2P= 4 + 4P, or P= $4.00 per bushel.To determine the equilibrium quantity, substitute P= 4 into either the supply equation or thedemand equation:Q S= 4 + 4(4) = 20 billion bushelsandQ D= 28 - 2(4)= 20 billion bushels.b. Now suppose the government wants to lower the supply of wheat by 25% from the free-market equilibrium by paying farmers to withdraw land from production. However, thepayment is made in wheat rather than in dollars—hence the name of the program. Thewheat comes from vast government reserves accumulated from previous price supportprograms. The amount of wheat paid is equal to the amount that could have been harvested on the land withdrawn from production. Farmers are free to sell this wheat on the market.How much is now produced by farmers? How much is indirectly supplied to the market by the government? What is the new market price? How much do farmers gain? Do consumers gain or lose?Because the free-market supply by farmers is 20 billion bushels, the 25% reduction required by the new Payment-In-Kind (PIK) Program means that the farmers now produce 15 billion bushels.To encourage farmers to withdraw their land from cultivation, the government must give them5 billion bushels of wheat, which they sell on the market, so 5 billion bushels are indirectlysupplied by the government.Because the total quantity supplied to the market is still 20 billion bushels, the market price does not change; it remains at $4 per bushel. Farmers gain because they incur no costs for the 5 billion bushels received from the government. We can calculate these cost savings by taking the areaunder the supply curve between 15 and 20 billion bushels. These are the variable costs of producing the last 5 billion bushels that are no longer grown under the PIK Program. To find this area, first determine the prices when Q=15 and when Q = 20. These values are P= $2.75 and P= $4.00.The total cost of producing the last 5 billion bushels is therefore the area of a trapezoid with a base of 20 -15 = 5 billion and an average height of (2.75 + 4.00)/2 = 3.375. The area is 5(3.375) =$16.875 billion, which is the amount farmers gain under the program.The PIK program does not affect consumers in the wheat market because they purchase the same amount at the same price as they did in the free-market case.c. Had the government not given the wheat back to the farmers, it would have stored ordestroyed it. Do taxpayers gain from the program? What potential problems does theprogram create?Taxpayers gain because the government does not incur costs to store or destroy the wheat.Although everyone seems to gain from the PIK program, it can only last while there aregovernment wheat reserves. The program assumes that land removed from production may berestored to production when stockpiles of wheat are exhausted. If this cannot be done, consumersChapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets147 may eventually pay more for wheat-based products. Another potential problem is verifying thatthe land taken out of production is in fact capable of producing the amount of wheat paid tofarmers under the PIK program. Farmers may try to game the system by removing lessproductive land.5. About 100 million pounds of jelly beans are consumed in the United States each year, and theprice has been about 50 cents per pound. However, jelly bean producers feel that their incomes are too low and have convinced the government that price supports are in order. The government will therefore buy up as many jelly beans as necessary to keep the price at $1 per pound.However, government economists are worried about the impact of this program because they have no estimates of the elasticities of jelly bean demand or supply.a. Could this program cost the government more than $50 million per year? Under whatconditions? Could it cost less than $50 million per year? Under what conditions? Illustrate with a diagram.If the quantities demanded and supplied are very responsive to price changes, then a government program that doubles the price of jelly beans could easily cost more than $50 million. In this case, the change in price will cause a large change in quantity supplied, and a large change in quantity demanded. In Figure 9.5.a.i, the cost of the program is ($1)(Q S- Q D). If Q S-Q D is larger than 50 million, then the government will pay more than $50 million. If instead supply and demand arerelatively inelastic, then the increase in price would result in small changes in quantity suppliedand quantity demanded, and (Q S-Q D) would be less than $50 million as illustrated in Figure9.5.a.ii.Figure 9.5.a.iWe can determine the combinations of supply and demand elasticities that yield either result. The elasticity of supply is E S= (%∆Q S)/(%∆P), so the percentage change in quantity supplied is %∆Q S=E S(%∆P). Since the price increase is 100% (from $0.50 to $1.00), %∆Q S= 100E S. Likewise, thepercentage change in quantity demanded is %∆Q D= 100E D. The gap between Q D and Q S inpercentage terms is %∆Q S- %∆Q D= 100E S- 100E D= 100(E S-E D). If this gap is exactly 50% of the current 100 million pounds of jelly beans, the gap will be 50 million pounds, and the cost of the price support program will be exactly $50 million. So the program will cost $50 million if 100(E S-E D) = 50, or148Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics,Eighth Edition(E S-E D) = 0.5. If the difference between the elasticities is greater than one half, the program willcost more than $50 million, and if the difference is less than one half, the program will cost less than $50 million. So the supply and demand can each be fairly inelastic (for example, 0.3 and -0.4) and still trigger a cost greater than $50 million.Figure 9.5.a.iib. Could this program cost consumers (in terms of lost consumer surplus) more than $50million per year? Under what conditions? Could it cost consumers less than $50 million per year? Under what conditions? Again, use a diagram to illustrate.When the demand curve is perfectly inelastic, the loss in consumer surplus is $50 million, equal to ($0.50)(100 million pounds). This represents the highest possible loss in consumer surplus, so the loss cannot be more than $50 million per year. If the demand curve has any elasticity at all,the loss in consumer surplus will be less than $50 million. In Figure 9.5.b, the loss in consumersurplus is area A plus area B if the demand curve is the completely inelastic D and only area A if the demand curve is D'.Figure 9.5.bChapter 9 The Analysis of Competitive Markets 1496. In Exercise 4 in Chapter 2 (page 62), we examined a vegetable fiber traded in a competitiveworld market and imported into the United States at a world price of $9 per pound. U.S. domestic supply and demand for various price levels are shown in the following table.PriceU.S. Supply (million pounds) U.S. Demand (million pounds) 32 34 64 28 96 22 128 16 1510 10 18 12 4Answer the following questions about the U.S. market:a. Confirm that the demand curve is given by 402D Q P =-, and that the supply curve is given by 23S Q P =. To find the equation for demand, we need to find a linear function Q D = a + bP so that the line it represents passes through two of the points in the table such as (15, 10) and (12, 16). First, the slope, b , is equal to the “rise” divided by the “run,”10162.1512Q b P ∆-==-=∆- Second, substitute for b and one point, e.g., (15, 10), into the linear function to solve for theconstant, a :102(15),or 40.a a =-=Therefore, Q D = 40 - 2P .Similarly, solve for the supply equation Q S = c + dP passing through two points such as (6, 4) and (3, 2). The slope, d , is422.633Q P ∆-==∆- Solving for c :24(6),or 0.3c c ⎛⎫=+= ⎪⎝⎭Therefore, 2.3S Q P ⎛⎫= ⎪⎝⎭b. Confirm that if there were no restrictions on trade, the United States would import16 million pounds.If there were no trade restrictions, the world price of $9.00 would prevail in the United States. From the table, we see that at $9.00 domestic supply would be 6 million pounds. Similarly,domestic demand would be 22 million pounds. Imports provide the difference between domestic demand and domestic supply, so imports would be 22 - 6 = 16 million pounds.c. If the United States imposes a tariff of $3 per pound, what will be the U.S. price and level ofimports? How much revenue will the government earn from the tariff? How large is thedeadweight loss?With a $3.00 tariff, the U.S. price will be $12 (the world price plus the tariff). At this price,demand is 16 million pounds and U.S. supply is 8 million pounds, so imports are 8 millionpounds (16 - 8). The government will collect $3(8) = $24 million, which is area C in thediagram below. To find deadweight loss, we must determine the changes in consumer andproducer surpluses. Consumers lose area A + B + C + D because they pay the higher price of $12 and purchase fewer pounds of the fiber. U.S. producers gain area A because of the higher priceand the greater quantity they sell. So the deadweight loss is the loss in consumer surplus minus the gain in producer surplus and the tariff revenue. Therefore, DWL = B + D = 0.5(12 - 9)(8 - 6) +0.5(12 - 9)(22 - 16) = $12 million.d. If the United States has no tariff but imposes an import quota of 8 million pounds, what willbe the U.S. domestic price? What is the cost of this quota for U.S. consumers of the fiber?What is the gain for U.S. producers?With an import quota of 8 million pounds, the domestic price will be $12. At $12, the differencebetween domestic demand and domestic supply is 8 million pounds, i.e., 16 million poundsminus 8 million pounds. Note you can also find the equilibrium price by setting demand equal to supply plus the quota so that24028.3P P -=+ The cost of the quota to consumers is equal to area A + B + C + D in the figure above, which isthe reduction in consumer surplus. This equals(12 - 9)(16) + (0.5)(12 - 9)(22 - 16) = $57 million.The gain to domestic producers (increase in producer surplus) is equal to area A , which is(12 - 9)(6) + (0.5)(8 - 6)(12 - 9) = $21 million.7. The United States currently imports all of its coffee. The annual demand for coffee by U.S.consumers is given by the demand curve Q = 250 – 10P , where Q is quantity (in millions ofpounds) and P is the market price per pound of coffee. World producers can harvest and ship coffee to U.S. distributors at a constant marginal (= average) cost of $8 per pound. U.S.distributors can in turn distribute coffee for a constant $2 per pound. The U.S. coffee market is competitive. Congress is considering a tariff on coffee imports of $2 per pound.a. If there is no tariff, how much do consumers pay for a pound of coffee? What is thequantity demanded?If there is no tariff then consumers will pay $10 per pound of coffee, which is found by addingthe $8 that it costs to import the coffee plus the $2 that it costs to distribute the coffee in theUnited States. In a competitive market, price is equal to marginal cost. At a price of $10, thequantity demanded is 150 million pounds.b. If the tariff is imposed, how much will consumers pay for a pound of coffee? What is thequantity demanded?Now add $2 per pound tariff to marginal cost, so price will be $12 per pound, and quantitydemanded is Q = 250 - 10(12) = 130 million pounds.c. Calculate the lost consumer surplus.Lost consumer surplus is (12 - 10)(130) + 0.5(12 - 10)(150 - 130) = $280 million.d. Calculate the tax revenue collected by the government.The tax revenue is equal to the tariff of $2 per pound times the 130 million pounds imported.Tax revenue is therefore $260 million.e. Does the tariff result in a net gain or a net loss to society as a whole?There is a net loss to society because the gain ($260 million) is less than the loss ($280 million).8. A particular metal is traded in a highly competitive world market at a world price of $9 perounce. Unlimited quantities are available for import into the United States at this price. The supply of this metal from domestic U.S. mines and mills can be represented by the equation Q S = 2/3P , where Q S is U.S. output in million ounces and P is the domestic price. The demand for the metal in the United States is Q D = 40 - 2P , where Q D is the domestic demand in million ounces.In recent years the U.S. industry has been protected by a tariff of $9 per ounce. Under pressurefrom other foreign governments, the United States plans to reduce this tariff to zero. Threatened by this change, the U.S. industry is seeking a voluntary restraint agreement that would limit imports into the United States to 8 million ounces per year.a. Under the $9 tariff, what was the U.S. domestic price of the metal?With a $9 tariff, the price of the imported metal in the U.S. market would be $18; the $9 tariffplus the world price of $9. The $18 price, however, is above the domestic equilibrium price. To determine the domestic equilibrium price, equate domestic supply and domestic demand:2402,or $15.3P P P =-=。

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