中英文翻译与文献
中英文中英文文献翻译-干燥技术
英文原文Drying TechnologyThere are three main types of gas-suspension dryers:∙Spray dryers, to convert a liquid solution or suspension to a dry, free-flowing powder∙Fluid-bed dryers, used to dry wet filter cake, or for pastes and sludges with dry product recirculation∙Flash dryers, for a relatively dry, crumbly, non-sticky feedThe type of dryer chosen for any given application depends on both the feed properties and product requirements. Important feed properties are the moisture content, solids, viscosity, and density, as well as any volatile, flammable, or toxic components. Dried product specifications may include average particle size and particle size distribution, density, moisture content, and residual volatiles or solvents. Powder characteristics can be controlled and powder properties maintained constant through continuous operation.Spray DryingSpray drying is a three-step drying process involving both particle formation and drying. (1) The process begins with the atomization of a liquid feed into a spray of fine droplets. (2) Then a heated gas stream suspends the droplets, evaporating the liquid and leaving the solids in essentially their original size and shape. (3) Finally, the dried powder is separated from the gas stream and collected. Spent drying gas is either treated and exhausted to the atmosphere or recirculated to the system. These three steps are accomplished by three components: the atomizer, the disperser, and the drying chamber.The selection and operation of the atomizer is of extreme importance in achieving an optimum operation and production of top-quality powders. There are four main types of atomization:∙Centrifugal atomization, the most common, uses a rotating wheel or disc to break the liquid stream into droplets. The rotational speed determines the mean particle size, while the particle size distribution about the mean remains fairly constant in a system. Centrifugal atomizers are available in a large variety of sizes, from laboratory scale to very large commercial units.∙Hydraulic pressure-nozzle atomization forces pressurized fluid through an orifice. Multiple nozzles are used to increase capacity. The particle size depends on the pressure drop across the orifice, so that the orifice size determines the capacity of the system. This type of atomization is simpler than centrifugal, but cannot be controlled as well. It is not suitable for abrasive materials, or materials that tend to plug the orifices.∙Two-fluid pneumatic atomization uses nozzles, as well, but introduces a second fluid, usually compressed air, into the liquid stream to atomize it. This type of atomization has the advantage of relatively low pressures and velocities and a shorter required drying path. It is most often used in small-scale equipment, laboratory or pilot size.∙Sonic atomization, not yet widely used, passes a liquid over a surface vibrated at ultrasonic frequencies. It can produce very fine droplets at low flow rates. Current limitations are capacity and the range of different product that can be atomized.After atomization, a disperser brings the heated gas into contact with the droplets. The disperser must accomplish three things: mix the gas with the droplets, begin the drying process, and determine the flow paths through the drying chamber. The drying gas may be heated directly by combustion of natural gas, propane, or fuel oil, or indirectly using shell-and-tube or finned heat exchangers. Electric heaters may be used in small dryers. Industrial radial fans move the heated gas through the system.The drying chamber must be sized to allow adequate contact time for evaporation of all of the liquid to produce a dry powder product. Factors that impact the drying time include the temperature difference between the droplets and the drying gas, and their flow rates. The exact shape of the chamber depends on the drying characteristics and product specifications, but most are cylindrical with a cone-shaped lower section to facilitate collection of the product.Finally, proper configuration of the atomizer, disperser, and drying chamber is essential for complete drying and to avoid the deposit of wet material on the interior surfaces of the dryer. Designs may use co-current, counter-current, or mixed flow patterns.The powder is separated from the drying gas at the bottom of the chamber. Most often, the gas exits through an outlet duct in the center of the cone. Heavier or coarser particles will be separated at this point, dropping into the cone to be collected through an air lock. Then either cyclones or fabric filters (or both) remove the remaining powder from the exit gas. In systems producing a very fine powder, most of the collection takes place at this point.Fluid-Bed DryingFluid-bed drying is a process in which a gas is forced upward through a bed of moist particles to achieve a fluidized state. The particles are suspended in the gas stream and dry as they flow along with the gas. Fluid beds can be either cylindrical or rectangular. There are two basic types offluid-bed designs:∙Plug flow fluid beds are used for feeds that are directly fluidizable. Baffles in the bed limit mixing in the horizontal direction to maintain plug flow. This type of bed is ideal for removal of bound volatiles or for heating and cooling. The volatile content and temperature vary uniformly as the solids pass through the bed. Baffle design depends on the shape and size of the bed, with spiral or radial baffles used in circular beds and straight baffles in rectangular.∙Back-mixed fluid beds are used for feeds that cannot be fluidized in their original state, but become fluidizable after a short time in the dryer. The feed is distributed over the bed surface, designed to allow total solids mixing. Product temperature and moisture are uniform across the fluidized layer. Heating surfaces may be immersed in the fluidized layer to improve thermal efficiency and performance.A combination system uses a back-mixed fluid bed to reduce the moisture level of the wet feed, followed by a plug-flow section to achieve final specifications. This type of arrangement is quite common.The advantages of fluidized-bed drying are: relatively long residence times allow highheat-transfer coefficients between the particles and the gas; the ability to closely control product temperature makes fluidized beds ideal for processing temperature-sensitive solids; and they have the highest thermal efficiency of any gas-suspension drying system.Disadvantages are: they can process only a limited range of materials; product particles are relatively large; and there may be difficulty processing needle- or platelet-shaped particles.Flash DryingFlash drying forces drying gas through a heater and upward through a duct or flash tube. The high-velocity gas stream instantly suspends the feed, which enters just after the heater, and carries it to the collection equipment, usually cyclones or bag collectors.Flash dryers are the simplest gas-suspension dryers, and require the least space. Residence time within the dryer is very short, usually less than 3 seconds. Particles must be quite small, and the best feed is reasonably dry, crumbly, and not sticky. There are several ways to obtain the required feed qualities:∙ A cage mill may be used to break up the feed into the required small particles.∙If the feed is too wet or pasty, dry solids may be backmixed to create the proper consistency.∙An agitated design, using a high-speed disintegrating rotor, will keep all particles moving. This design is shorter and larger in diameter than a flash tube, creating a very compact system. Hybrid DryersThere are a number of hydrid systems used in applications where a single system cannot handle the requirements of both the feed and product. The most common are:∙Fluidized spray dryers (FSD™) combine spray with fluid bed drying to produce agglomerated products. The top of the system is a spray dryer, atomizing the liquid and contacting it with heated gas. Additional heated gas is introduced at the bottom to create a fluidized bed portion of the drying chamber. This type of dryer will produce a dustless, free-flowing agglomerated product. It is ideal for products that must dissolve easily, e.g. food colors, dyestuffs, pigments, and some agricultural chemicals.∙ A flash dryer may be used to remove surface moisture, followed by a fluid bed for removal of bound moisture.Niro DryersThe MOBILE MINOR™ is a laboratory-scale spray dryer known for its flexibility and different levels of control systems. It is used to dry small quantities of solutions, suspensions, and emulsions into representative powder samples. Test results provide important information for selecting the design and technical specification of a given drying project.The PRODUCTION MINOR™ is a larger spray dryer that can be used for pilot testing or small-scale production. It has a choice of atomizers, heating systems, and powder discharge. The Fluidized Spray Dryer (FSD™) was invented and patented by Niro in the early 1980s. It combines fluidization and spray-drying technologies to dry a wide variety of products, including many that cannot be dried using conventional equipment. Advantages include easy control of the size and structure of the particles, making it ideal for agglomerated products, and low powder temperatures for thermally sensitive materials. It is also very energy efficient.中文译文干燥技术主要有三种气体悬浮烘干:喷雾干燥器,把液体溶液或悬浮于干燥,自由流动的粉末流化床干燥机,用干,湿滤饼,或浆和污泥干产品再循环闪蒸干燥机,在相当干燥,松软,非饲料粘粘该型干燥器选择任何特定应用取决于双方的饲料性能和产品的要求. 重要饲料性能是水分含量,固形物,粘度,密度,以及任何挥发性,易燃或有毒成分. 木片产品规格可能包括平均粒度分布,密度,含水率,残留挥发或溶剂. 粉末特性可控制粉末特性保持不变,通过连续运行.喷雾干燥.喷雾干燥是一个三步走的干燥过程中,涉及两种粒子形成和干燥. ( 1 )进程始于雾化的液体饲料成喷雾雾滴. ( 2 ) ,然后加热气流暂时飞沫96.3%的液体和离开固体基本上是原来的大小和形状. ( 3)最后,干粉分离气流和收集. 用干燥气体要么是治疗和精疲力竭的气氛或循环使用该系统. 这三个步骤是由三部分组成:雾化,分散,而干燥室.选择和操作的喷雾器,是极端重要性,实现最佳的操作和生产顶级质量粉末. 主要有4种雾化:离心雾化,最常见的,用一个旋转轮或盘打破液体流成液滴. 转速确定的平均粒径, 而粒度分布大约平均维持在相当稳定的系统. 离心式雾化器可有多种尺寸,从实验室规模比较大的商业单位. 液压喷嘴雾化势力加压流体通过一个小孔. 多喷头用来增加容量. 颗粒大小取决于压降过孔板, 使孔大小决定了系统的容量. 这种雾化简单得多离心,但无法控制等. 它是不适合研磨材料,或材料,往往堵塞孔口. 双流体气动雾化喷嘴的用途,以及如何引进,但第二液,通常压缩空气成液体流雾化. 这种雾化的优点在于较低的压力和速度,缩短干燥所需的路径. 这是最常用的小型设备,实验室或中试规模. 声波雾化,尚未广泛使用,在经过了超过液体表面振捣,在超声波的频率. 它可以产生非常细微的动作,在低流率. 电流限制能力,以及各种不同的产品,可雾化.雾化后,使分散的炽热气体接触到液滴. 分散必须完成三件事:混合气体与雾滴,从干燥过程中, 并确定流路径通过干燥室. 干燥气体,可直接加热燃烧天然气,丙烷或燃油或间接使用壳管式或翅片式换热器. 电加热器,可用于小型烘干机. 工业径向球迷提出了激烈的天然气通过该系统. 烘干室必须大小以便有充裕的时间接触蒸发所有的液体产生一个干粉产品. 因素的影响,干燥时间,包括温差的雾滴和干燥气体. 而其流率. 确切庭取决于干燥特性及产品规格, 但大多数是圆柱与锥形下段,以方便收集的产品. 最后,妥善配置的喷雾器,播种机, 和干燥室必须彻底干燥,以避免存款湿材料的内表面在吹干. 设计可利用顺流,逆流或混合流模式. 粉末分离的干燥气室底部. 在多数情况下,出口气体通过一个插座导管中心的锥. 较重或粗颗粒将会分开,在这一点上, 坠入锥可通过收集空锁. 然后要么旋风或织物过滤器(或两者)来清除残留的粉末从出口气. 在系统产生非常微细粉末,大部分的收集发生在这一点.流化床干燥流化床干燥过程中的气体被迫通过向上一床湿颗粒实现沸腾状态. 这些微粒悬浮在气流和干燥,因为他们流随气. 流化床可分为圆柱形或长方形. 有两个基本类型的流化床设计:堵塞流病床被用作饲料,是直接发霉. 挡板床搅拌限制在水平方向上保持堵塞水流. 这种床是理想的搬迁势必挥发或加热和冷却. 挥发量与温度变化一致的固体通过床底下. 挡板的设计取决于形状和尺寸的床, 螺旋或径向隔板采用圆形床和直挡板的长方形. 返混流化床用作饲料,不能流于原始状态, 但成为发霉后,在很短的时间干燥. 饲料派发超过床面,旨在让总固体混合. 产品的温度和湿度都是一刀切流化床层. 受热面,可沉浸在流态化层,以提高热效率和业绩.组合系统采用返混流化床,以减少水分含量的湿饲料其次是一个插件流断面,以达到最终规格. 这种安排是司空见惯. 优点流化床干燥如下: 较长的停留时间,让高传热系数与粒子间的气体; 能密切控制产品温度使得流化床理想的加工温度敏感固体; 他们有最高的热效率气体悬浮干燥系统. 缺点是:它们能过程只是一个范围有限的材料; 产品颗粒较大; 并有可能难以处理针头或血小板形颗粒.速干速干势力干燥气体通过一个加热器,向上通过导管或闪光灯管. 高速气流瞬间停止饲料,其中大部分进入刚刚加热器缥缈,它的采集设备,通常旋风或袋收藏. 闪蒸干燥机是最简单的气体悬浮烘干机,并要求最少的空间. 居留时间内干燥,是非常短,通常小于3秒. 粒子必须相当小,而最好的饲料是合理的干燥,松软,不发粘. 有几种方法,以取得所需的饲料品质: 笼子轧机可用于击破饲料成所需的小颗粒. 如果饲料过于潮湿或糊状,干物质可backmixed 创造适当的一致性. 激动的设计,采用高速粉碎转子,会让所有粒子. 这个设计是较短时间和较大的直径比闪光灯管,创造一个非常紧凑的系统.混合式干燥机有一些氢化系统在应用中,一个单一的系统,不能处理的要求,既饲料和产品. 最常见的有:流化床喷雾干燥器(消防™)结合喷雾流化床干燥制粒生产的产品. 顶级的系统是一个喷雾干燥机,雾化液接触,并与炽热气体. 新增天然气加热介绍,在底部形成流化床部分的干燥室. 这种烘干机将产生一个无尘,自由流动的压块产品. 它是理想的产品,必须解散容易,例如:食用色素,染料,颜料,以及一些农业化学品. 一个旋转闪蒸干燥机,可用于去除表面水分,然后由流化床去除一定水分.Niro干燥移动轻微™是一个实验室规模喷雾干燥机已知的灵活性和不同层次的控制系统. 它是用来干少量溶液,悬浮,乳液为代表的粉末样本. 测试结果提供了重要信息,为选择设计和技术规格,某一干燥工程. 生产小型™是一个较大型喷雾干燥机,可用于试验或小规模生产. 它可以选择雾化器,暖气系统,粉尘排放. 04-0357喷雾干燥机(消防™) ,发明和专利niro在八十年代初期. 它集流和喷雾干燥技术,干燥的多种产品, 其中有许多是不能晒干使用常规设备. 优点包括易于控制的规模和结构的粒子,使之适合压块产品低气温粉热敏感材料. 这也是很有效的能源.。
智能交通系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
智能交通系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Traffic Assignment Forecast Model Research in ITS IntroductionThe intelligent transportation system (ITS) develops rapidly along with the city sustainable development, the digital city construction and the development of transportation. One of the main functions of the ITS is to improve transportation environment and alleviate the transportation jam, the most effective method to gain the aim is to forecast the traffic volume of the local network and the important nodes exactly with GIS function of path analysis and correlation mathematic methods, and this will lead a better planning of the traffic network. Traffic assignment forecast is an important phase of traffic volume forecast. It will assign the forecasted traffic to every way in the traffic sector. If the traffic volume of certain road is too big, which would bring on traffic jam, planners must consider the adoption of new roads or improving existing roads to alleviate the traffic congestion situation. This study attempts to present an improved traffic assignment forecast model, MPCC, based on analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of classic traffic assignment forecast models, and test the validity of the improved model in practice.1 Analysis of classic models1.1 Shortcut traffic assignmentShortcut traffic assignment is a static traffic assignment method. In this method, the traffic load impact in the vehicles’ travel is not considered, and the traffic impedance (travel time) is a constant. The traffic volume of every origination-destination couple will be assigned to the shortcut between the origination and destination, while the traffic volume of other roads in this sector is null. This assignment method has the advantage of simple calculation; however, uneven distribution of the traffic volume is its obvious shortcoming. Using this assignment method, the assignment traffic volume will be concentrated on the shortcut, which isobviously not realistic. However, shortcut traffic assignment is the basis of all theother traffic assignment methods.1.2 Multi-ways probability assignmentIn reality, travelers always want to choose the shortcut to the destination, whichis called the shortcut factor; however, as the complexity of the traffic network, thepath chosen may not necessarily be the shortcut, which is called the random factor.Although every traveler hopes to follow the shortcut, there are some whose choice isnot the shortcut in fact. The shorter the path is, the greater the probability of beingchosen is; the longer the path is, the smaller the probability of being chosen is.Therefore, the multi-ways probability assignment model is guided by the LOGIT model:∑---=n j ii i F F p 1)exp()exp(θθ (1)Where i p is the probability of the path section i; i F is the travel time of thepath section i; θ is the transport decision parameter, which is calculated by the followprinciple: firstly, calculate the i p with different θ (from 0 to 1), then find the θwhich makes i p the most proximate to the actual i p .The shortcut factor and the random factor is considered in multi-ways probabilityassignment, therefore, the assignment result is more reasonable, but the relationshipbetween traffic impedance and traffic load and road capacity is not considered in thismethod, which leads to the assignment result is imprecise in more crowded trafficnetwork. We attempt to improve the accuracy through integrating the several elements above in one model-MPCC.2 Multi-ways probability and capacity constraint model2.1 Rational path aggregateIn order to make the improved model more reasonable in the application, theconcept of rational path aggregate has been proposed. The rational path aggregate,which is the foundation of MPCC model, constrains the calculation scope. Rationalpath aggregate refers to the aggregate of paths between starts and ends of the trafficsector, defined by inner nodes ascertained by the following rules: the distancebetween the next inner node and the start can not be shorter than the distance betweenthe current one and the start; at the same time, the distance between the next innernode and the end can not be longer than the distance between the current one and theend. The multi-ways probability assignment model will be only used in the rationalpath aggregate to assign the forecast traffic volume, and this will greatly enhance theapplicability of this model.2.2 Model assumption1) Traffic impedance is not a constant. It is decided by the vehicle characteristicand the current traffic situation.2) The traffic impedance which travelers estimate is random and imprecise.3) Every traveler chooses the path from respective rational path aggregate.Based on the assumptions above, we can use the MPCC model to assign thetraffic volume in the sector of origination-destination couples.2.3 Calculation of path traffic impedanceActually, travelers have different understanding to path traffic impedance, butgenerally, the travel cost, which is mainly made up of forecast travel time, travellength and forecast travel outlay, is considered the traffic impedance. Eq. (2) displaysthis relationship. a a a a F L T C γβα++= (2)Where a C is the traffic impedance of the path section a; a T is the forecast traveltime of the path section a; a L is the travel length of the path section a; a F is theforecast travel outlay of the path section a; α, β, γ are the weight value of that threeelements which impact the traffic impedance. For a certain path section, there aredifferent α, β and γ value for different vehicles. We can get the weighted average of α,β and γ of each path section from the statistic percent of each type of vehicle in thepath section.2.4 Chosen probability in MPCCActually, travelers always want to follow the best path (broad sense shortcut), butbecause of the impact of random factor, travelers just can choose the path which is ofthe smallest traffic impedance they estimate by themselves. It is the key point ofMPCC. According to the random utility theory of economics, if traffic impedance is considered as the negativeutility, the chosen probability rs p of origination-destinationpoints couple (r, s) should follow LOGIT model:∑---=n j jrs rs bC bC p 1)exp()exp( (3) where rs p is the chosen probability of the pathsection (r, s);rs C is the traffic impedance of the path sect-ion (r, s); j C is the trafficimpedance of each path section in the forecast traffic sector; b reflects the travelers’cognition to the traffic impedance of paths in the traffic sector, which has reverseratio to its deviation. If b → ∞ , the deviation of understanding extent of trafficimpedance approaches to 0. In this case, all the travelers will follow the path whichis of the smallest traffic impedance, which equals to the assignment results withShortcut Traffic Assignment. Contrarily, if b → 0, travelers ’ understanding error approaches infinity. In this case, the paths travelers choose are scattered. There is anobjection that b is of dimension in Eq.(3). Because the deviation of b should beknown before, it is difficult to determine the value of b. Therefore, Eq.(3) is improvedas follows:∑---=n j OD j OD rsrs C bC C bC p 1)exp()exp(，∑-=n j j OD C n C 11（4） Where OD C is the average of the traffic impedance of all the as-signed paths; bwhich is of no dimension, just has relationship to the rational path aggregate, ratherthan the traffic impedance. According to actual observation, the range of b which is anexperience value is generally between 3.00 to 4.00. For the more crowded cityinternal roads, b is normally between 3.00 and 3.50.2.5 Flow of MPCCMPCC model combines the idea of multi-ways probability assignment anditerative capacity constraint traffic assignment.Firstly, we can get the geometric information of the road network and OD trafficvolume from related data. Then we determine the rational path aggregate with themethod which is explained in Section 2.1.Secondly, we can calculate the traffic impedance of each path section with Eq.(2),Fig.1 Flowchart of MPCC which is expatiated in Section 2.3.Thirdly, on the foundation of the traffic impedance of each path section, we cancalculate the respective forecast traffic volume of every path section with improvedLOGIT model (Eq.(4)) in Section 2.4, which is the key point of MPCC.Fourthly, through the calculation processabove, we can get the chosen probability andforecast traffic volume of each path section, but itis not the end. We must recalculate the trafficimpedance again in the new traffic volumesituation. As is shown in Fig.1, because of theconsideration of the relationship between trafficimpedance and traffic load, the traffic impedanceand forecast assignment traffic volume of everypath will be continually amended. Using therelationship model between average speed andtraffic volume, we can calculate the travel timeand the traffic impedance of certain path sect-ionunder different traffic volume situation. For theroads with different technical levels, therelationship models between average speeds totraffic volume are as follows: 1) Highway: 1082.049.179AN V = (5) 2) Level 1 Roads: 11433.084.155AN V = (6) 3) Level 2 Roads: 66.091.057.112AN V = (7) 4) Level 3 Roads: 3.132.01.99AN V = (8) 5) Level 4 Roads: 0988.05.70A N V =(9) Where V is the average speed of the path section; A N is the traffic volume of thepath section.At the end, we can repeat assigning traffic volume of path sections with themethod in previous step, which is the idea of iterative capacity constraint assignment,until the traffic volume of every path section is stable.译文智能交通交通量分配预测模型介绍随着城市的可持续化发展、数字化城市的建设以及交通运输业的发展，智能交通系统（ITS）的发展越来越快。
岩土工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Safety Assurance for Challenging Geotechnical Civil Engineering Constructions in Urban AreasAbstractSafety is the most important aspect during design, construction and service time of any structure, especially for challenging projects like high-rise buildings and tunnels in urban areas. A high level design considering the soil-structure interaction, based on a qualified soil investigation is required for a safe and optimised design. Dueto the complexity of geotechnical constructions the safety assurance guaranteed by the 4-eye-principle is essential. The 4-eye-principle consists of an independent peer review by publicly certified experts combined with the observational method. The paper presents the fundamental aspects of safety assurance by the 4-eye-principle. The application is explained on several examples, as deep excavations, complex foundation systems for high-rise buildings and tunnel constructions in urban areas. The experiences made in the planning, design and construction phases are explained and for new inner urban projects recommendations are given.Key words: Natural Asset; Financial Value; Neural Network1.IntroductionA safety design and construction of challenging projects in urban areas is based on the following main aspects:Qualified experts for planning, design and construction;Interaction between architects, structural engineers and geotechnical engineers;Adequate soil investigation;Design of deep foundation systems using the FiniteElement-Method (FEM) in combination with enhanced in-situ load tests for calibrating the soil parameters used in the numerical simulations;Quality assurance by an independent peer review process and the observational method (4-eye-principle).These facts will be explained by large construction projects which are located in difficult soil and groundwater conditions.2.The 4-Eye-PrincipleThe basis for safety assurance is the 4-eye-principle. This 4-eye-principle is a process of an independent peer review as shown in Figure 1. It consists of 3 parts. The investor, the experts for planning and design and the construction company belong to the first division. Planning and design are done accordingto the requirements of the investor and all relevant documents to obtain the building permission are prepared. The building authorities are the second part and are responsible for the buildingpermission which is given to the investor. The thirddivision consists of the publicly certified experts.They are appointed by the building authorities but work as independent experts. They are responsible for the technical supervision of the planning, design and the construction.In order to achieve the license as a publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering by the building authorities intensive studies of geotechnical engineering in university and large experiences in geotechnical engineering with special knowledge about the soil-structure interaction have to be proven.The independent peer review by publicly certified experts for geotechnical engineering makes sure that all information including the results of the soil investigation consisting of labor field tests and the boundary conditions defined for the geotechnical design are complete and correct.In the case of a defect or collapse the publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering can be involved as an independent expert to find out the reasons for the defect or damage and to develop a concept for stabilization and reconstruction [1].For all difficult projects an independent peer review is essential for the successful realization of the project.3.Observational MethodThe observational method is practical to projects with difficult boundary conditions for verification of the design during the construction time and, if necessary, during service time. For example in the European Standard Eurocode 7 (EC 7) the effect and the boundary conditions of the observational method are defined.The application of the observational method is recommended for the following types of construction projects [2]:very complicated/complex projects;projects with a distinctive soil-structure-interaction,e.g. mixed shallow and deep foundations, retaining walls for deep excavations, Combined Pile-Raft Foundations (CPRFs);projects with a high and variable water pressure;complex interaction situations consisting of ground,excavation and neighbouring buildings and structures;projects with pore-water pressures reducing the stability;projects on slopes.The observational method is always a combination of the common geotechnical investigations before and during the construction phase together with the theoretical modeling and a plan of contingency actions(Figure 2). Only monitoring to ensure the stability and the service ability of the structure is not sufficient and,according to the standardization, not permitted for this purpose. Overall the observational method is an institutionalized controlling instrument to verify the soil and rock mechanical modeling [3,4].The identification of all potential failure mechanismsis essential for defining the measure concept. The concept has to be designed in that way that all these mechanisms can be observed. The measurements need to beof an adequate accuracy to allow the identification ocritical tendencies. The required accuracy as well as the boundary values need to be identified within the design phase of the observational method . Contingency actions needs to be planned in the design phase of the observational method and depend on the ductility of the systems.The observational method must not be seen as a potential alternative for a comprehensive soil investigation campaign. A comprehensive soil investigation campaignis in any way of essential importance. Additionally the observational method is a tool of quality assurance and allows the verification of the parameters and calculations applied in the design phase. The observational method helps to achieve an economic and save construction [5].4.In-Situ Load TestOn project and site related soil investigations with coredrillings and laboratory tests the soil parameters are determined. Laboratory tests are important and essential for the initial definition of soil mechanical properties of the soil layer, but usually not sufficient for an entire and realistic capture of the complex conditions, caused by theinteraction of subsoil and construction [6].In order to reliably determine the ultimate bearing capacity of piles, load tests need to be carried out [7]. Forpile load tests often very high counter weights or strong anchor systems are necessary. By using the Osterberg method high loads can be reached without install inganchors or counter weights. Hydraulic jacks induce the load in the pile using the pile itself partly as abutment.The results of the field tests allow a calibration of the numerical simulations.The principle scheme of pile load tests is shown in Figure 3.5.Examples for Engineering Practice5.1. Classic Pile Foundation for a High-Rise Building in Frankfurt Clay and LimestoneIn the downtown of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, on aconstruction site of 17,400 m2 the high-rise buildingproject “PalaisQuartier” has been realized (Figure 4). The construction was finished in 2010.The complex consists of several structures with a total of 180,000 m2 floor space, there of 60,000 m2 underground (Figure 5). The project includes the historic building “Thurn-und Taxis-Palais” whose facade has been preserved (Unit A). The office building (Unit B),which is the highest building of the project with a height of 136 m has 34 floors each with a floor space of 1340 m2. The hotel building (Unit C) has a height of 99 m with 24 upper floors. The retail area (Unit D)runs along the total length of the eastern part of the site and consists of eight upper floors with a total height of 43 m.The underground parking garage with five floors spans across the complete project area. With an 8 m high first sublevel, partially with mezzanine floor, and four more sub-levels the foundation depth results to 22 m below ground level. There by excavation bottom is at 80m above sea level (msl). A total of 302 foundation piles(diameter up to 1.86 m, length up to 27 m) reach down to depths of 53.2 m to 70.1 m. above sea level depending on the structural requirements.The pile head of the 543 retaining wall piles (diameter1.5 m, length up to 38 m)were located between 94.1 m and 99.6 m above sea level, the pile base was between 59.8 m and 73.4 m above sea level depending on the structural requirements. As shown in the sectional view(Figure 6), the upper part of the piles is in the Frankfurt Clay and the base of the piles is set in the rocky Frankfurt Limestone.Regarding the large number of piles and the high pile loads a pile load test has been carried out for optimization of the classic pile foundation. Osterberg-Cells(O-Cells) have been installed in two levels in order to assess the influence of pile shaft grouting on the limit skin friction of the piles in the Frankfurt Limestone(Figure 6). The test pile with a total length of 12.9 m and a diameter of 1.68 m consist of three segments and has been installed in the Frankfurt Limestone layer 31.7 m below ground level. The upper pile segment above the upper cell level and the middle pile segment between the two cell levels can be tested independently. In the first phase of the test the upper part was loaded by using the middle and the lower part as abutment. A limit of 24 MN could be reached (Figure 7). The upper segment was lifted about 1.5 cm, the settlement of the middle and lower part was 1.0 cm. The mobilized shaft friction was about 830 kN/m2.Subsequently the upper pile segment was uncoupled by discharging the upper cell level. In the second test phase the middle pile segment was loaded by using the lower segment as abutment. The limit load of the middle segment with shaft grouting was 27.5 MN (Figure 7).The skin friction was 1040 kN/m2, this means 24% higher than without shaft grouting. Based on the results of the pile load test using O-Cells the majority of the 290 foundation piles were made by applying shaft grouting. Due to pile load test the total length of was reduced significantly.5.2. CPRF for a High-Rise Building in Clay MarlIn the scope of the project Mirax Plaza in Kiev, Ukraine,2 high-rise buildings, each of them 192 m (46 storeys)high, a shopping and entertainment mall and an underground parking are under construction (Figure 8). The area of the project is about 294,000 m2 and cuts a 30 m high natural slope.The geotechnical investigations have been executed 70m deep. The soil conditions at the construction site are as follows: fill to a depth of 2 m to 3mquaternary silty sand and sandy silt with a thickness of 5 m to 10 m tertiary silt and sand (Charkow and Poltaw formation) with a thickness of 0 m to 24 m tertiary clayey silt and clay marl of the Kiev and But schak formation with a thickness of about 20 m tertiary fine sand of the But schak formation up to the investigation depthThe ground water level is in a depth of about 2 m below the ground surface. The soil conditions and a cross section of the project are shown in Figure 9.For verification of the shaft and base resistance of the deep foundation elements and for calibration of the numerical simulations pile load tests have been carried out on the construction yard. The piles had a diameter of 0.82 m and a length of about 10 m to 44 m. Using the results of the load tests the back analysis for verification of the FEM simulations was done. The soil properties in accordance with the results of the back analysis were partly 3 times higher than indicated in the geotechnical report. Figure 10 shows the results of the load test No. 2 and the numerical back analysis. Measurement and calculation show a good accordance.The obtained results of the pile load tests and of the executed back analysis were applied in 3-dimensionalFEM-simulations of the foundation for Tower A, taking advantage of the symmetry of the footprint of the building. The overall load of the Tower A is about 2200 MN and the area of the foundation about 2000 m2 (Figure11).The foundation design considers a CPRF with 64 barrettes with 33 m length and a cross section of 2.8 m × 0.8m. The raft of 3 m thickness is located in Kiev Clay Marl at about 10 m depth below the ground surface. The barrettes are penetrating the layer of Kiev Clay Marl reaching the Butschak Sands.The calculated loads on the barrettes were in the range of 22.1 MN to 44.5 MN. The load on the outer barrettes was about 41.2 MN to 44.5 MN which significantly exceeds the loads on the inner barrettes with the maximum value of 30.7 MN. This behavior is typical for a CPRF.The outer deep foundation elements take more loads because of their higher stiffness due to the higher volume of the activated soil. The CPRF coefficient is 0.88 =CPRF . Maximum settlements of about 12 cm werecalculated due to the settlement-relevant load of 85% of the total design load. The pressure under the foundation raft is calculated in the most areas not exceeding 200 kN/m2, at the raft edge the pressure reaches 400 kN/m2.The calculated base pressure of the outer barrettes has anaverage of 5100 kN/m2 and for inner barrettes an average of 4130 kN/m2. The mobilized shaft resistance increases with the depth reaching 180 kN/m2 for outer barrettes and 150 kN/m2 for inner barrettes.During the construction of Mirax Plaza the observational method according to EC 7 is applied. Especially the distribution of the loads between the barrettes and the raft is monitored. For this reason 3 earth pressure devices were installed under the raft and 2 barrettes (most loaded outer barrette and average loaded inner barrette) were instrumented over the length.In the scope of the project Mirax Plaza the new allowable shaft resistance and base resistance were defined for typical soil layers in Kiev. This unique experience will be used for the skyscrapers of new generation in Ukraine.The CPRF of the high-rise building project MiraxPlaza represents the first authorized CPRF in the Ukraine. Using the advanced optimization approaches and taking advantage of the positive effect of CPRF the number of barrettes could be reduced from 120 barrettes with 40 mlength to 64 barrettes with 33 m length. The foundation optimization leads to considerable decrease of the utilized resources (cement, aggregates, water, energy etc.)and cost savings of about 3.3 Million US$.译文:安全保证岩土公民发起挑战工程建设在城市地区摘要安全是最重要的方面在设计、施工和服务时间的任何结构,特别是对具有挑战性的项目,如高层建筑和隧道在城市地区。
内部审计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Internal auditing's role in ERMAs organizations lay their enterprise risk groundwork, many auditors are taking on management's oversight responsibilities, new research finds.Internal audit departments have played a variety of roles in their organization's enterprise risk management (ERM) activities since The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Tread way Commission (COSO) released its Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework in September 2004. An IIA position paper issued in the wake of COSO ERM, "The Role of Internal Auditing in Enterprise-wide Risk Management," indicates the roles that the internal audit function should and should not play throughout the ERM process, ranging from full involvement to no involvement. According to the paper, internal auditors should have a core role in five ERM-related assurance activities: giving assurance on risk management processes, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly, evaluating risk managementprocesses, evaluating the reporting of key risks, and reviewing the management of key risks.A recent IIA Research Foundation study examined the extent to which internal audit functions adhere to the ERM roles recommended in the IIA paper. During October 2005, researchers disseminated an online survey to 7,200 IIA members through The Institute's Global Auditing Information Network. The survey generated 361 responses from a mix of large, mid-sized, and small organizations in a variety of industries, including businesses, government agencies, and not for profit organizations. Nearly 60 percent of respondents identified themselves as a chief audit executive or audit director, 23 percent were audit managers, and 7.8 percent were staff or senior auditors. Approximately 90 percent were from the United States and Canada.Respondents' organizations are at different stages of implementing ERM, as defined by COSO. More than 11 percent say their organization's ERM infrastructure is mature or relatively mature, and 37 percent have recently adopted or are in the process of implementing ERM. Among all organizations surveyed, the internal audit function is primarily responsible for ERM-related activities in 36 percent of respondents' organizations, while 27 percent say the primary responsibility belongs to a chief risk officer (CRO) who is not part of the audit function. Nearly one-third of respondents say another executive or function oversees ERM..The hours and dollars internal audit functions spend on ERM-related activities are minimal for many respondents. Nearly half say their audit department spent 10 percent or less of its hourly and financial budgets on ERM-related activities during fiscal year 2004. More than one-third of audit departments spent II percent to 50 percent of their time on ERM, and 28 percent spent n percent to 50 percent of their financial budgets, while less than 10 percent of departments Spent more than 50 percent of their time and money.The IIA position paper categorizes 18 ERM-related activities according to the appropriate level of responsibility for the internal audit function. Survey respondents reported their current and ideal level of responsibility for these activities: no responsibility, limited responsibility, moderate responsibility, substantialresponsibility, and total responsibility.CORE ACTIVITIESDifferences between respondents' current and ideal responsibilities are greatest for the five core ERM assurance activities identified In the IIA paper. Respondents Indicated that their current responsibility for each of the core ERM related activities is moderate, but they say they should have a substantial level of responsibility. These views agree with the IIA guidance. Additionally, roughly half of internal audit functions surveyed currently have substantial or full responsibility for at least one core activity, and more than two-thirds say they should have till or substantial responsibility for at least one core activity.Within the core category, the audit function's two highest levels of current responsibility involve reviewing management of key risks and evaluating the risk management process. Evaluating the risk management process and giving assurance on risk management processes are the highest-rated ideal responsibilities. Conversely, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly is the lowest-rated current and ideal responsibility.The following respondent comments offer some insight into why audit departments are not currently involved in core ERM-related activities at the level they deem appropriate;"We have just recently begun implementing ERM activities in our company. We do not yet have complete understanding of the process and buy-in from management.""The audit committee and management are not aware of what ERM is.""The internal audit function has just initiated an awareness campaign among the audit committee members."These comments suggest that educating management and the audit committee on ERM issues can be critical to ensuring that the audit function takes on an appropriate level of responsibility for ERM.LEGITIMATE ACTIVITIESThe IIA paper prescribes seven legitimate ERM-related activities for which internal committee audit functions may be responsible as long as safeguards are inplace: facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks, coaching management in responding to risks, coordinating ERM-related activities, consolidating the reporting on risks, maintaining and developing the ERM framework, championing establishment of ERM, and developing risk management strategy for board approval. These activities are described as "consulting" activities. Although respondents' current responsibility for each of these legitimate activities ranges from limited to moderate, they say their ideal level should be moderate, which is consistent with the guidance.Within the legitimate category, the highest level of current internal audit responsibility involves facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks —the top-rated ERM-related activity, including core activities. This activity is also the highest-rated ideal activity among legitimate activities, suggesting that auditors consider it a core responsibility. This finding is not surprising. because risk detection and evaluation are traditional considerations in developing annual audit plans. The lowest-rated current and ideal activity is developing a risk management strategy for board approval, which is an activity that might best be handled by management.The IIA guidance cautions that when internal auditors undertake these legitimate consulting activities, safeguards should be in place to ensure that they do not take on management responsibility for actually managing risks. One possible preventive measure would include documenting the auditors' ERM responsibilities in an audit committee-approved audit charter. Further, if auditors take on any ERM-related activities that fall within this consulting role, they should treat these engagements as consulting engagements and apply the relevant IIA standards to help ensure their independence and objectivity.INAPPROPRIATE ACTIVITIESAccording to the IIA position paper. It is inappropriate for internal auditors to be responsible for six ERM-related activities: setting the risk appetite, imposing risk management processes, providing management assurance on risks, making decisions on risk responses, implementing risk responses on management's behalf, and having accountability for risk management. Overall, audit functions in the survey have greater responsibility for these activities than the IIA paper recommends. However,auditors say they should have some limited responsibility for the inappropriate activities.Within the inappropriate category, internal auditors' highest level of current and ideal responsibility is providing management assurance on risks, while their lowest level of responsibility is for setting the risk appetite. Respondents' comments suggest that auditors currently have greater responsibilities in these areas because the audit function is playing a leading role during the early stages of ERM development.ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICSThe perceived current and ideal FRM roles for the internal audit function may vary across organizations, depending on the organization's industry, size, and audit department size, as well as the firm's need to comply with the U.S. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.INDUSTRY Respondents work in a variety of sectors, including financial services, manufacturing, transportation, communications, utilities, health care, retail and wholesale, government, and education. Researchers compared responses from the two largest industry groups: financial services and manufacturing. On average, financial service industry audit departments have greater current responsibility for core activities than those from manufacturing. With respect to inappropriate activities, manufacturing audit departments tend to say their ideal involvement should be higher than their current responsibility, while financial service industry audit departments rate their current and ideal responsibilities at the same level.ORGANIZATION SIZE Approximately half of respondents work in organizations that had 2004 revenues between US $500 million and US $5 billion. Nearly 25 percent of respondents work in organizations that had revenues under US $500 million in 2004, while a similar number of respondents work in organizations that had more than US $5 billion in revenue that year. Researchers compared responses from organizations with revenues of less than US $1 billion with organizations with revenues greater than US $1 billion. On average, auditors from both types of organizations have relatively equal levels of responsibility for current core activities. However, smaller organizations rated their ideal involvement for thesecore activities higher than large organizations. Smaller organizations have a slightly higher current level of responsibility for inappropriate activities than larger organizations and say their ideal involvement in these areas should be higher.AUDIT STAFF SIZE More than half of respondents work in audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors, slightly more than one-quarter work in departments with between 11 and 50 auditors, and approximately one-tenth of respondents work in departments with more than 50 auditors. Internal audit functions with more than 10 auditors currently have somewhat more responsibility for core activities than audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors. Both large and small audit functions have roughly equal levels of responsibility for all other ERM-related activities. However, unlike large audit organizations, respondents from small audit departments want to have more responsibility for activities in the inappropriate category.SARBANES-OXLEY Most respondents' organizations are required to comply with Sarbanes-Oxley Section 404. Researchers found few differences between those organizations and respondents from organizations that do not have to comply with the act. The primary difference related to core activities, where compliers report a higher level of current responsibility than non-compliers.Although the IIA guidance is equally applicable to all organizations, the research indicates that smaller internal audit departments and those from smaller organizations tend to take on ERM responsibilities that would be more appropriate for management. In these cases, internal auditing should work to develop an ERM implementation and maintenance plan that includes a stratcgy and timeline for migrating responsibilities for these activities to managementTHE AUDITOR'S ROLEAlthough the survey results suggest that the current levels of responsibility audit departments have may differ somewhat from that levels recommended by The IIA'S position paper, the respondents' comments offer some evidence that auditors understand the underlying concepts of the guidance:"There needs to be a shift in the 'doing' of the ERM to being an internal audit function that relies on and evaluates the ERM process. ERM should be in sync withthe audit universe and plan,""In the past i8 months, the corporation has appointed a CRO to provide oversight and guidance to evolving ERM processes. During this period, much of internal auditing's previous ERM roles have migrated to this officer." More importantly, respondents identified significant barriers in their organizations to following the guidance:"These ERM responsibilities and processes are not well defined in many organizations and should be more clearly articulated by senior management."'There is not enough emphasis from the top that risk management is important and must be done effectively. Management is still trying to hide things from internal auditing. It's not them against us, we're all in it together.""Most auditors and enterprise managers lack clarity on the distinction between responsibility for risk assurance implementation versus responsibility for risk assurance compliance and monitoring."These comments stress that a key element to establishing a successful ERM program is education on the importance of ERM and the appropriate roles management and internal auditing have in the process. Internal auditors can play a key role in providing this education. The audit department, management, hoard of directors, and audit committee need to be clear about which ERM related activities internal auditors should perform and which activities should always be performed by management. Relevant training should highlight that internal auditing could serve in a monitoring or consulting role throughout much of the ERM process, but the formal decision-making authority must reside with management if the audit department is to maintain its independence and objectivity.Auditors should take steps to ensure that the board and audit committee are aware of the COSO ERM framework and are actively engaged in overseeing the ERM process. Additionally, auditors should consider training senior management, the board, and others throughout their organization on COSO ERM and related guidance.Responses to the survey provide useful insights into additional steps that the internal audit profession should take. Auditors whose organizations are in the earlystages of adopting ERM or will be implementing ERM in the future have many opportunities to ensure that the process is effective and efficient. For example, audit departments that currendy perform ERM-related activities that should be management's responsibility can take proactive steps to open up the lines of communication between internal auditing and management, the board and audit committee, and external auditors about the risks of this situation. Such communication should encourage management to take on appropriate ERM responsibilities. One approach audit departments could take is to develop a business plan describing how management can assume responsibility for ERM related activities for which they should be accountable. However, internal auditors should recognize that completing this plan and convincing management to accept these ERM responsibilities might not occur quickly.With appropriate planning, communication, and education, internal auditors, management, the board, and external auditors should be ready to work together to achieve the many benefits of ERM. Ideally, this coordination will result in performing ERM-related activities at appropriate places within the organization, management accepting its responsibility for ERM, and that audit function playing a role that is consistent with appropriate professional guidance.译文：内部审计在企业风险管理中的作用新的研究发现：随着企业以组织风险为基础，许多审计人员对管理层采取职责监督措施。
企业盈利质量分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
企业盈利质量分析中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Measuring the quality of earnings1. IntroductionGenerally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) offer some flexibility in preparing the financial statements and give the financial managers some freedom to select among accounting policies and alternatives. Earning management uses the flexibility in financial reporting to alter the financial results of the firm (Ortega and Grant, 2003).In other words, earnings management is manipulating the earning to achieve apredetermined target set by the management. It is a purposeful intervention in the external reporting process with the intent of obtaining some private gain (Schipper, 1989).Levit (1998) defines earning management as a gray area where the accounting is being perverted; where managers are cutting corners; and, where earnings reports reflect the desires of management rather than the underlying financial performance of the company.The popular press lists several instances of companies engaging in earnings management. Sensormatic Electronics, which stamped shipping dates and times on sold merchandise, stopped its clocks on the last day of a quarter until customer shipments reached its sales goal. Certain business units of Cendant Corporation inflated revenues nearly $500 million just prior to a merger; subsequently, Cendant restated revenues and agreed with the SEC to change revenue recognition practices. AOL restated earnings for $385 million in improperly deferred marketing expenses. In 1994, the Wall Street Journal detailed the many ways in which General Electric smoothed earnings, including the careful timing of capital gains and the use of restructuring charges and reserves, in response to the article, General Electric reportedly received calls from other corporations questioning why such common practices were “front-page” news.Earning management occurs when managers use judgment in financial reporting and in structuring transactions to alter financial reports to either mislead some stakeholders about the underlying economic performance of the company or to influence contractual outcomes that depend on reported accounting numbers (Healy and Whalen, 1999).Magrath and Weld (2002) indicate that abusive earnings management and fraudulent practices begins by engaging in earnings management schemes designed primarily to “smooth” earnings to meet internally or externally imposed earnings forecasts and analysts’ expectations.Even if earnings management does not explicitly violate accounting rules, it is an ethically questionable practice. An organization that manages its earnings sends amessage to its employees that bending the truth is an acceptable practice. Executives who partake of this practice risk creating an ethical climate in which other questionable activities may occur. A manager who asks the sales staff to help sales one day forfeits the moral authority to criticize questionable sales tactics another day.Earnings management can also become a very slippery slope, which relatively minor accounting gimmicks becoming more and more aggressive until they create material misstatements in the financial statements (Clikeman, 2003)The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued three staff accounting bulletins (SAB) to provide guidance on some accounting issues in order to prevent the inappropriate earnings management activities by public companies: SAB No. 99 “Materiality”, SAB No. 100 “Restructuring and Impairment Charges” and SAB No. 101 “Revenue Recognition”.Earnings management behavior may affect the quality of accounting earnings, which is defined by Schipper and Vincent (2003) as the extent to which the reported earnings faithfully represent Hichsian economic income, which is the amount that can be consumed (i.e. paid out as dividends) during a period, while leaving the firm equally well off at the beginning and the end of the period.Assessment of earning quality requires sometimes the separations of earnings into cash from operation and accruals, the more the earnings is closed to cash from operation, the higher earnings quality. As Penman (2001) states that the purpose of accounting quality analysis is to distinguish between the “hard” numbers resulting from cash flows and the “soft” numbers resulting from accrual accounting.The quality of earnings can be assessed by focusing on the earning persistence; high quality earnings are more persistent and useful in the process of decision making.Beneish and Vargus (2002) investigate whether insider trading is informative about earnings quality using earning persistence as a measure for the quality of earnings, they find that income-increasing accruals are significantly more persistent for firms with abnormal insider buying and significantly less persistent for firms with abnormal insider selling, relative to firms which there is no abnormal insider trading.Balsam et al. (2003) uses the level of discretionary accruals as a direct measurefor earning quality. The discretionary accruals model is based on a regression relationship between the change in total accruals as dependent variable and change in sales and change in the level of property, plant and equipment, change in cash flow from operations and change in firm size (total assets) as independent variables. If the regression coefficients in this model are significant that means that there is earning management in that firm and the earnings quality is low.This research presents an empirical study on using three different approaches of measuring the quality of earnings on different industry. The notion is; if there is a complete consistency among the three measures, a general assessment for the quality of earnings (high or low) can be reached and, if not, the quality of earnings is questionable and needs different other approaches for measurement and more investigations and analysis.The rest of the paper is divided into following sections: Earnings management incentives, Earnings management techniques, Model development, Sample and statistical results, and Conclusion.2. Earnings management incentives2.1 Meeting analysts’ expectationsIn general, analysts’ expectations and company predictions tend to address two high-profile components of financial performance: revenue and earnings from operations.The pressure to meet revenue expectations is particularly intense and may be the primary catalyst in leading managers to engage in earning management practices that result in questionable or fraudulent revenue recognition practices. Magrath and Weld (2002) indicate that improper revenue recognition practices were the cause of one-third of all voluntary or forced restatements of income filed with the SEC from 1977 to 2000.Ironically, it is often the companies themselves that create this pressure to meet the market’s earnings expec tations. It is common practice for companies to provide earnings estimates to analysts and investors. Management is often faced with the task of ensuring their targeted estimates are met.Several companies, including Coca-Cola Co., Intel Corp., and Gillette Co., have taken a contrary stance and no longer provide quarterly and annual earnings estimates to analysts. In doing so, these companies claim they have shifted their focus from meeting short-term earnings estimates to achieving their long-term strategies (Mckay and Brown, 2002).2.2 To avoid debt-covenant violations and minimize political costsSome firms have the incentive to avoid violating earnings-based debt covenants. If violated, the lender may be able to raise the interest rate on the debt or demand immediate repayment. Consequently, some firms may use earnings-management techniques to increase earnings to avoid such covenant violations. On the other hand, some other firms have the incentive to lower earnings in order to minimize political costs associated with being seen as too profitable. For example, if gasoline prices have been increasing significantly and oil companies are achieving record profit level, then there may be incentive for the government to intervene and enact an excess-profit tax or attempt to introduce price controls.2.3 To smooth earnings toward a long-term sustainable trendFor many years it has been believed that a firm should attempt to reduce the volatility in its earnings stream in order to maximize share price. Because a highly violate earning pattern indicates risk, therefore the stock will lose value compared to others with more stable earnings patterns. Consequently, firms have incentives to manage earnings to help achieve a smooth and growing earnings stream (Ortega and Grant, 2003).2.4 Meeting the bonus plan requirementsHealy (1985) provides the evidence that earnings are managed in the direction that is consistent with maximizing executives’ earnings-based bonus. When earnings will be below the minimum level required to earn a bonus, then earning are managed upward so that the minimum is achieved and a bonus is earned. Conversely, when earning will be above the maximum level at which no additional bonus is paid, then earnings are managed downward. The extra earnings that will not generate extra bonus this current period are saved to be used to earn a bonus in a future period.When earnings are between the minimum and the maximum levels, then earnings are managed upward in order to increase the bonus earned in the current period.2.5 Changing managementEarnings management usually occurs around the time of changing management, the CEO of a company with poor performance indicators will try to increase the reported earnings in order to prevent or postpone being fired. On the other hand, the new CEO will try shift part of the income to future years around the time when his/her performance will be evaluated and measured, and blame the low earning at the beginning of his contract on the acts of the previous CEO.3. Earnings management techniquesOne of the most common earnings management tools is reporting revenue before the seller has performed under the terms of a sales contract (SEC,SAB No. 101,1999).Another area of concern is where a company fails to comply with GAAP and inappropriately records restructuring charges and general reserves for future losses, reversing or relieving reserves in inappropriate periods, and recognizing or not recognizing an asset impairment charge in the appropriate period (SEC, SAB No. 100, 1999).Managers can influence reported expenses through assumptions and estimates such as the assumed rate of return on pension plan asset and the estimated useful lives of fixed assets, also they can influence reported earnings by controlling the timing of purchasing, deliveries, discretionary expenditures, and sale of assets.3.1 Big bath“Big Bath” charges are one-time restructuring charge. Current earnings will be decreased by overstating these one-time charges. By reversing the excessive reserve, future earnings will increase.Big bath charges are not always related to restructuring. In April 2001, Cisco Systems Inc. announced charges against earnings of almost $4 billion. The bulk of the charge, $2.5 billion, consisted of an inventory write down. Writing off more than a billion dollars from inventory now means more than a billion dollars of less cost in the future period. This an example of what ultra-conservative accounting in oneperiod makes possible in future periods.3.2 Abuse of materialityAnother area that might be used by accountants to manipulate the earning is the application of materiality principle in preparing the financial statements, this principle is very wide, flexible and has no specific range to determine where the item is material or not. SEC uses the interpretation ruled by the supreme court in identifying what is material; the supreme court has held that a fact is material if there is a substantial likelihood that the fact would have been viewed by reasonable investor as having significan tly altered the “total mix” of information made available (SEC, SAB No. 99, 1999).The SEC has also introduced some considerations for a quantitatively small misstatement of a financial statement item to be material:. whether the misstatement arises from an item capable of precise measurement or whether it arises from an estimate and, if so, the degree of imprecision inherent in the estimate;. whether the misstatement masks a change in earnings or other trends;.whether the misstatement hides a failure to meet analysts’ consensus expectations for the enterprise;. whether the misstatement changes a loss into income or vice versa;. whether the misstatement concerns a segment or other portion of the registrant’s business that has been identified as playing a significant role in the registrant’s operations or profitability; and. whether the misstatement involves concealment of an unlawful transaction.3.3 Cookie jar“Cookie jar” reserve –sometimes labeled rainy day reserve or contingency reserves, in periods of strong financial performance, cookie jar reserve enable to reduce earnings by overstating reserves, overstating expenses, and using one-time write-offs. In periods of weak financial performance, cookie jar reserves can be used to increase earnings by reversing accruals and reserves to reduce current period expenses (Kokoszka, 2003).The most famous example of use of cookie jar reserves is WorldCom Inc. In August 2002, an internal review revealed that the company had $2.5 billion reserves related to litigation, uncollectible and taxes. The company used most of them in a series of so-called reserve reversals in order to have higher earnings.Source: Khaled ElMoatasem Abdelghany,2005. “Measuring the quality of earnings”, Managerial Auditing Journal, vol.20, no.9, pp.1001 – 1015.译文：衡量盈利质量1、引言一般公认会计原则（GAAP）提供准备一定的灵活性的财务报表，给财务经理一定的自由空间进行选择会计政策和方案。
建筑防火中英文对照外文翻译文献
- 1 -中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文文献外文文献: :Designing Against Fire Of BulidingABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electricalsystems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are consideredin the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far more than simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build-ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations regulations––since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 Introduction Wind and earthquakes can be considered to b Wind and earthquakes can be considered to be “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena over which designers ver which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving the design of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possibleto influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. Inoc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect ofthe use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival.2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion willbe accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floorsystem may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity –– insufficient fuel, and/or(b) the fire is of insufficient severity(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an orderof magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirdsof fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin.If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing the likelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transm itted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capableof limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundariesto restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire engineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2or kg/m 2of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail,hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.V arious methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ς likely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models,as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations including the Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a lossof structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approvalapproval––although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. Allcovered––the provision of emergency exits, aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are coveredspacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to anotherto deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking into account the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state thata designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simplya set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic” approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of thebuilding.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against such an act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSificantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes in significantlyFire differs signrespect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However,。
立体仓库中英文对照外文翻译文献
立体仓库中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)由一个单一的存储/检索机服务的多巷道自动化立体仓库存在的拣选分拣问题摘要随着现代化科技的发展，仓库式存储系统在设计与运行方面出现了巨大的改革。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS）嵌入计算机驱动正变得越来越普遍。
由于AS / RS 使用的增加对计算机控制的需要与支持也在提高。
这项研究解决了在多巷道立体仓库的拣选问题，在这种存储/检索（S / R）操作中，每种货物可以在多个存储位置被寻址到。
提出运算方法的目标是，通过S/R系统拣选货物来最大限度的减少行程时间。
我们开发的遗传式和启发式算法，以及通过比较从大量的问题中得到一个最佳的解决方案。
关键词：自动化立体仓库，AS / RS系统，拣选，遗传算法。
1.言在现今的生产环境中，库存等级保持低于过去。
那是因为这种较小的存储系统不仅降低库存量还增加了拣选货物的速度。
自动化立体仓库（AS / RS），一方面通过提供快速响应，来达到高操作效率；另一方面它还有助于运作方面的系统响应时间，减少的拣选完成的总行程时间。
因此，它常被用于制造业、储存仓库和分配设备等行业中。
拣选是仓库检索功能的基本组成部分。
它的主要目的是，在预先指定的地点中选择适当数量的货物以满足客户拣选要求。
虽然拣选操作仅仅是物体在仓储中装卸操作之一，但它却是“最耗时间和花费最大的仓储功能。
许多情形下，仓储盈利的高低就在于是否能将拣选操作运行处理好”。
（Bozer和White）Ratliff和Rosenthal，他们关于自动化立体仓库系统（AS/RS）的拣选问题进行的研究，发明了基图算法，在阶梯式布局中选取最短的访问路径。
Roodbergen 和de Koster 拓展了Ratliff 和Rosenthal算法。
他们认为，在平行巷道拣选问题上，应该穿越巷道末端和中间端进行拣选，就此他们发明了一种动态的规划算法解决这问题。
就此Van den Berg 和Gademann发明了一种运输模型(TP)，它是对于指定的存储和卸载进行测算的仪器。
中英文文献以及翻译(化工类)
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.化学工业1.化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。
会计学毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
会计学中英文资料外文翻译外文原文Title:Future of SME finance（Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks arevery active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance forthe SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial marketauthorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission andthe new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level:termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments inSMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
家具设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
家具设计中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Researches and Development of InteractiveEducational Toys for ChildrenAbstract: For Oriented by the teaching philosophy "game based learning", this paper carried out an in-depth research on the interactive mode of children's educational toys. In the research process, it attempted to build a new immersed educational-game scenario for children by using the new interactive technology so as to inspire the children's interest in learning and exploration. The research object in this paper was an interactive educational toy-"funny tap" English learning machine for children. After integrating the design concept of this product from an industrial designperspective, we selected specific interactive technology and completed the engineering. Moreover, we have conducted tests of work principles and effect of usage based on the sample machine. The final result indicated that there is a promising and huge market potential to apply the new interactive technology to development of educational toys.Keywords: Interactive Educational Toys, Interactive Design, interactive mode1.INTRODUCTIONSince 1980s, human beings including the children have entered a digital age. Under the influence of the advanced information, early stage education machines, electronic building blocks, electronic wall charts, and other new toys have become children's new favorites. With the influence of the west teaching philosophy-"game based learning", parents are strongly agreed with such toys for children. These modern educational toys will become the mainstream of toy development due to their promotion of children's learning, practical ability, creativity and imagination.Interaction exists in all things contacted by humans, and interactive design emerged to design a kind of communication and dialogue between human and objects to minimize the "cognitive conflict". As a new design theory, interactive design has a wide range of applications in designing educational toys.2. THE PLAN AND BENEFITS OF THE INTERACTIVE MODE OFCHILDREN 'S TOYSThe rise of various digital technologies, such as voice recognition, 3D video, and virtual reality technology etc., gives new experience to people's perception. The author aimed to apply these new digital technologies to the researches of interactive educational toys design.The plan of the interactive mode of children's educational toys:2.1. Voice InteractionVoice interaction voice includes touch voice interaction, voice command interaction and intelligent voice interaction. Touch voice interaction and voice command interaction have been very common, such as electronic wall charts, televox;intelligent voice interaction is the author's aim to create a genuine dialogue between children and simulation toys through digital technology, to foster children's language ability, particularly in a family with only one child, the children need a "partner" to accompany them to learn and play with.2.2. Video InteractionVideo interaction can be divided into 2D image interaction and 3D video interaction. The former has been broadly used in toys, such as in multimedia courseware, image or video of horse will appear when referring to "horse"; 3D video interaction is the author's aim to apply 3D projection technology in the "play" process, for instance, when referring to a green grassland, a grassland projection will appear so that children feel like being on the grassland, which enhances children's learning experience; meanwhile, this enhanced emotional experience will prolong the memory retention time or even extend to a ultra- long-term memory.2.3. Narrative InteractionNarrative interaction is to conceive a story for the toy and offer a task role for children to make them participate in the story. The steps are shown in Figure 1:Fig. 1. The steps of narrative interactionBased on children's curiosity and imitation psychology as well as the investigation of the games, the author found the correct application of story interaction in educational toys can greatly mobilize children's learning enthusiasm, for example, we conceive an English learning process as treasure hunt activity. In this activity, the words are hidden in the treasure box, and children themselves are explorers, if they put one or a few words together, they will get a treasure box, and they can also make a competition with peers to get the treasure boxes. Through establishment of game theme, selection of roles, and plot development in the activities, children not only increase their knowledge of English, also learn how to get along with peers and develop good self-awareness.2.4. Web Virtual Reality InteractionWeb virtual reality interaction is virtual imaging through network connections, making you feel like your partners sitting, playing and learning with you, to deliberatethe loneliness in the contemporary families, and promote children's learning initiative in the competitive context.Psychological research shows that with respect to the learners, the learning behavior resulting in emotional pleasure experience will produce a positive emotional resonance, thereby enhancing the learners' learning initiative and enthusiasm. The realistic educational-game scenario created by interactive educational toys for children not only brings emotional pleasure experience to children so that learning is no longer boring for them with a purpose of mobilizing the enthusiasm of study and developing creative thinking, but also enhances children's social communication ability to help children establish good social character favorable for their life.3. DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE EDUCATIONAL TOY—"FUNNYTAP"Parents are head-ached on children's learning English, so we focus on developing an interactive English learning toy to help the children remembering words in game scenario and stimulate their interests in learning English, and training children's hand operation and brain coordination.The development practice procedure of interactive toy for children-"funny tap" is shown in Figure 2 as following:Fig. 2. The development practice procedure of "funny tap"3.1. The development process of interactive concept of interactive educational toy-"funny tap"It is the development process of "funny tap" interactive concept. After investigating the object group of children and parents about their needs of English learning machine, we summarized six key indicators such as security, fun and incentive. Here we mainly describe three models of interactions shaded in Figure 3.To meet the requirement of fun, the author designed a narrative interactive process, as is shown in Figure 3:Fig. 3. The narrative interactive process of "funny tap"The word learning process is conceived as a game of whack-a-mole, imagining there are N mole holes, and there are M letters in a word (i.e. M moles with a letter). If you tap down M jumping moles in accordance with the order, you will get the cheers, if the tap is not correct, it will continue to call "come on"; meanwhile, the action of "tap" is not only funny, but also effective to train children's hands and brain coordination.Voice interaction was prepared by the microcontroller program to control the voice modules. There are two features regarding the "funny pat": one is word pronunciation; the other is the design of the applause and cheering voices for reward and punishment, which help to reach the goal of incentive.In the first stage, video interaction was prepared by displaying the letters on buttons through LED dot matrix character display modules mainly controlled by microcontroller; in the second stage, we provided toy with 3D projector for projecting the whole process in the air to construct a 3D emotional scenario, and the action of "tap" is to tap the projections in the air.3.2. Principle diagram of interactive educational toy for children-"funny tap" The operation principle of "funny tap" is shown in Figure 4:Fig. 4. The operation principle of "funny tap"The system consists of six components, such as voice module, LED indicator, action back module, MCU, power module and LED dot matrix character display module. Among these, the three formers are connected with MCU through 8-bit data bus; LED dot matrix character display module is connected with the microcontroller through the 12C bus. Voice module stores English word pronunciation documents needed in the game, and MCU pronounces the word by controlling the voice module via the bus. LED dot matrix character display module consists of driver chips and the 8*8 LED matrix. MCU bus control LED dot matrix character display module via I2C to show the corresponding English letters. Action back module tests and captures the player's actions during the game for the MCU to judge whether the player conducts normal actions to control the game process.3.3. Appearance design process of interactive educational toy-"funny tap"The following Figure 5 is a design process from sketch, modelling, model-making to the final product and the drawing of the product structure explosion.Fig. 5. Appearance design process of "funny tap"3.4. Interaction testSample of N (N is an odd number) preschool children was randomly selected to test the product's availability, usability and user's willingness of using it. Mainly onsite testing observation and questionnaire survey, and then we improve the product according to the test results.Testing times are equal to or more than I so as to find the products with highest interaction. In the product final trial, most of parents fed back that this toy combined fun and knowledge well and the whole learning process was very smooth and the children were very happy when "learning".4. SUMMARY AND PROSPECTChina is a large country of toy manufacturing, but it still remains in the stage of imitating foreign design, especially in educational toy design. The research and practice of interactive educational toys in this study is expected to give some thought and inspiration to toy designers so as to further promote the development of Chinese toy industry.REFERENCES[I] Liu Zaihua, Children's Social Intelligence, Anhui People's Publishing House, 2008.[2] KARL T. ULRICH, STEVEN D. EPPINGER, Product Design and Developmen,Higher Education Press, 2005.[3] (U.S.) Robert J. stembeg, Translated by Yang Bingjun, Chen Yan, Chow Zhiling,Cognitive Psychology, Beijing: China Light Industry Press, 2006.[4] Zhang Zhcnzhong, Li Yanjun, Classification Research of Educational Toys,Textiles and Design, December 2008 Vol. 12.[5] Li Qiaodan, Xia Hongwen, On the Function of Digitized Bran-training Toys inElementary Education, China Education Informationalization Issuing Department.[6] Song Jun, Researches on Design Principles of Children's Educational Toys,[Online]. Available: [7] Liu Mingliang, " The Principle Production and Purchasing of Electronic Toys", New Era Press, 1992.Toy development and design based on the needs of olderpersonsAbstract:In china, aging and the life-quality of older persons has become today’s important issues of social concern, and how to solve this problem thus turns to be an important challenge in the design and development of supplies for the old. Now, the ensuing ways to solve varied. For instance, the design community has put emphasis on the design and development of the supplies for the old, but a large part of these de signs were for medical care and medical products of the senior person. The designsfor the vast majority of the healthy people in their senior age are rarely involved. In this, I think, for the function of toys, the emphasis on the development of physical and mental health of older persons is the key, so to rethink the development of toys for the old persons in china is one of the ways.Keywords: Toys for the old, Needs design, humane careMentions of the toys, we always unconsciously think of the innocent children, as if toys are just child’s belongings. With the improvement of living standards, emphasis on the toys is constantly improved. To meet the needs of children, various designs are brought out, and then from luxury goods, toys have gradually become the child’s necessities. However, the authorities of the china toy association state that the toy is no longer the children’s only product: toy concept has been extended and functional and practical range of modern toy has been further expanded. Toys not only inspire children, but also become the recreation products for the seniors. The old also need toys that could meet their spiritual needs and enrich their life in later years.1．Status of the development and design of toys for the seniorsIn china, toy for the old is still an industry to be developed. Senior people, as customers, they have needs and also purchasing power, but no targeted toys for them. There are as much as 130 million seniors in china who would be a huge consumer group, but the research and development of toys for old consumers has lagged behind developed country for more than 30 years.In America, the toys designed for the senior amount to 40% of the toy market. The toy market for old persons is more mature. They have many toy stores for the seniors throughout the urban and rural areas. Also our neighbor Japan does well in the development of toys for the old persons, and most toy companies have produced toys for seniors, and continued to introduce new products.2．The meaning of the development of toys for the seniorsRetiring from work, the senior people get more time than before. Besides watching TV at home, they have no many alternative entertainments. Some old people have been for a long period in loneliness. Over time, they are prone todepression, anxiety disorder and Alzheimer’s, seriously affecting their physical and mental health and become burden to children and society.Li guangqing in department of rehabilitation of Beijing Xuanwu Hospital once said: “with age increasing, the function of the body of the seniors gradually degraded, and their reaction will be clumsier. At the same time, retirement from work, the opportunity for the old to use their brain reduces, which further brings the decline of attention and cognitive ability. Except to maintain good habits and moderate exercise, to slow down brain aging, putting hands and brain in work at the same time is the most effective way, which is exactly the function of toys. for people with Alzheimer’s, playing with toys, to some extent, would alleviate the condition.Therefore, toys can develop people’s thinking ability, and improve our intelligence. If the seniors play with toys constantly, the aging of the brain and the Alzheimer’s would be effectively prevented. Medical experts found that to maintain old people’s intelligence, we must first fully protect the brain. In addition to proper nutrition and adequate sleep, the seniors should make most of the brain. Just as Chinese saying tells that”water does not rot, and the door hinge is never worm-eaten “, the more one use his brain, the more sensitive it becomes. Playing with toys is exactly a good way to use the brain. With toys, the old people not only receive more information, at the same time become more optimistic than before, thereby enhancing their immune system function.3．The needs-analysis of toys for the oldWhat is a needs analysis? This approach is to focus on the users’ needs. Users’needs are sources of many new products.What is the demand-design? it is the most front-end process for new product in its life cycle, and decides the success or failure of the new products. Needs-design starts from the businesses and designers’judgment of the market or the needs of users, and ends at planning proposals or technical specifications on description of the product development. Understand the market or user demand is a high-level investment for the success of the product.The development and design of toys for old persons should start from the needs ofthe seniors. Only a real understanding of the old consumers and their psychological and physiological needs can bring toys that give practical cares for the seniors physically and spiritually.Toys for the old should bring human care. Toy design process should be integrated into this concept. The aim of the toy design for the old is enhanced, with seniors-centered design principles, and with the help of analysis on the seniors’physiological psychological characteristics, cultural level and lifestyle. The toy design principle that shows humane care for the seniors is reflected at the same time.(1)Safety firstTo varying degrees, the judgment, cognitive ability and ability to respond of the old people weaken, thus in the process of using the product, they inevitably make mistakes. In case a threat to physical and mental health occurs, they usually are unable to escape the danger. Therefore, toys for the seniors should be fault-tolerant. So that, the old people even make a mistake, there will be no danger. Here the reduction of operation process and the set of message for safe operation is an effective way to ensure the safety of the seniors with toys.(2)Moderate difficultThe design of toys for the old should be of moderate difficulty, and the purpose is to arouse their interest in playing. If too simple, it would not enhance the interest of the seniors and thus would not achieve the aim of exercising the brain; if too difficult, it would be strenuous for them to learn, and consequently cause a sense of failure which is not conducive to their mental health.(3)Easy to identifyThe toy should have a familiar form and an understandable functional theory for the old. It should also be equipped with an interface in keeping with the experience and habits of the seniors. Besides, the toys that need interface design, should take into account the graphic symbols, size, color, clarity of sound, light intensity.(4)Facilitate communicationPeople’s feelings need to vent and exchange, especially for the seniors. For them, emotional communication is indispensable to maintain their vitality, andimprove the quality of life. Playing with toys, there are many ways for the old to choose, such as: taking turns to participate, working together and racing in the game. The development of multiple-persons playing toys is to create a harmonious environment in which they can talk when play. So the core of toy-development is to involve the participants as much as possible. For the participating ways, common collaborative participatory approach is the best, which is more conducive to conversation, and get to know some new friends. In this way the seniors can expand their social circle with emotional exchange.(5)The effect for keeping fitness and developing intelligenceIncreasing with age, people’s organ recession becomes an objective physiological phenomenon. In order to maintain good physical function and mental state, and improve the quality of life, fitness puzzle is a very important content in the lives of older persons. Body-building that can achieve with playing toys is the most basic needs of older persons. Old people by playing intellectual toys can effectively prevent Alzheimer’s disease, so to maintain the flexibility of the seniors’mind is the main direction of the toy development.(6)Cultural connotationsLife experiences bring the old people with more comprehensive concept of life, thus toys with a certain ideological and cultural depth usually put them in recollecting and thinking of issues. Toys for the seniors are different from those for children: a child plays a toy intuitively, while the old emphasize the toy’s inherent fun, and show great interest in the toys with cultural connotations. Of course, this culture must be familiar with the elderly, has gone deep into the ideological deep.Summing up, toys for the seniors have a promising market, for each one of us would inevitably become old. The design industry should make more efforts to improve the living standard of the seniors. One way is to develop toys for the old and help them improve their life quality with theses design. We all know, care for the old is to care for all mankind, and designing from the needs of the old has become an urgent task of today’s society.References：[1]Yang Guanghui. China’s Population Aging and the Industrial Structure [m].Liaoning Science and Technology Press, 2008.7.[2] Wang Lianhai. Chinese Toys, Art History [m], Hunan Fine Arts Publishing House, 2006.8.[3] Wang court. Toys And Innovative Design [m], Chemical Industry Press, 2005.12.儿童家具的人性化设计摘要：本文以儿童家具设计问题为出发点,提出人性化的概念在新的时代环境下的新解释,并指出新的人性化设计原则在儿童家具的设计方法中的实现,分析儿童家具的现状,并提出一些建议。
机械设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
机械设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译unavailable。
The first step in the design process is to define the problem and XXX are defined。
the designer can begin toXXX evaluated。
and the best one is XXX。
XXX.Mechanical DesignA XXX machines include engines。
turbines。
vehicles。
hoists。
printing presses。
washing machines。
and XXX and methods of design that apply to XXXXXX。
cams。
valves。
vessels。
and mixers.Design ProcessThe design process begins with a real need。
Existing apparatus may require XXX。
efficiency。
weight。
speed。
or cost。
while new apparatus may be XXX。
To start。
the designer must define the problem and XXX。
ideas and concepts are generated。
evaluated。
and refined until the best one is XXX。
XXX.XXX。
assembly。
XXX.During the preliminary design stage。
it is important to allow design XXX if some ideas may seem impractical。
they can be corrected early on in the design process。
道路与桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ent ire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.）Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。
桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND AESTHETICSEvolvement of bridge Engineering,brief reviewAmong the early documented reviews of construction materials and structu re types are the books of Marcus Vitruvios Pollio in the first century B.C.The basic principles of statics were developed by the Greeks , and were exemplifi ed in works and applications by Leonardo da Vinci,Cardeno,and Galileo.In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, engineers seemed to be unaware of this record , and relied solely on experience and tradition for building bridges and aqueduc ts .The state of the art changed rapidly toward the end of the seventeenth cent ury when Leibnitz, Newton, and Bernoulli introduced mathematical formulatio ns. Published works by Lahire (1695)and Belidor (1792) about the theoretical a nalysis of structures provided the basis in the field of mechanics of materials .Kuzmanovic(1977) focuses on stone and wood as the first bridge-building materials. Iron was introduced during the transitional period from wood to steel .According to recent records , concrete was used in France as early as 1840 for a bridge 39 feet (12 m) long to span the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles, but r einforced concrete was not introduced in bridge construction until the beginnin g of this century . Prestressed concrete was first used in 1927.Stone bridges of the arch type (integrated superstructure and substructure) were constructed in Rome and other European cities in the middle ages . Thes e arches were half-circular , with flat arches beginning to dominate bridge wor k during the Renaissance period. This concept was markedly improved at the e nd of the eighteenth century and found structurally adequate to accommodate f uture railroad loads . In terms of analysis and use of materials , stone bridges have not changed much ,but the theoretical treatment was improved by introd ucing the pressure-line concept in the early 1670s(Lahire, 1695) . The arch the ory was documented in model tests where typical failure modes were considered (Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851) introduced the elastic center method for fixed-e nd arches, and showed that three redundant parameters can be found by the us e of three equations of coMPatibility.Wooden trusses were used in bridges during the sixteenth century when P alladio built triangular frames for bridge spans 10 feet long . This effort also f ocused on the three basic principles og bridge design : convenience(serviceabili ty) ,appearance , and endurance(strength) . several timber truss bridges were co nstructed in western Europe beginning in the 1750s with spans up to 200 feet (61m) supported on stone substructures .Significant progress was possible in t he United States and Russia during the nineteenth century ,prompted by the ne ed to cross major rivers and by an abundance of suitable timber . Favorable e conomic considerations included initial low cost and fast construction .The transition from wooden bridges to steel types probably did not begin until about 1840 ,although the first documented use of iron in bridges was the chain bridge built in 1734 across the Oder River in Prussia . The first truss completely made of iron was in 1840 in the United States , followed by Eng land in 1845 , Germany in 1853 , and Russia in 1857 . In 1840 , the first ir on arch truss bridge was built across the Erie Canal at Utica .The Impetus of AnalysisThe theory of structures ,developed mainly in the ninetheenth century,foc used on truss analysis, with the first book on bridges written in 1811. The Wa rren triangular truss was introduced in 1846 , supplemented by a method for c alculating the correcet forces .I-beams fabricated from plates became popular in England and were used in short-span bridges.In 1866, Culmann explained the principles of cantilever truss bridges, an d one year later the first cantilever bridge was built across the Main River in Hassfurt, Germany, with a center span of 425 feet (130m) . The first cantileve r bridge in the United States was built in 1875 across the Kentucky River.A most impressive railway cantilever bridge in the nineteenth century was the Fir st of Forth bridge , built between 1883 and 1893 , with span magnitudes of 1711 feet (521.5m).At about the same time , structural steel was introduced as a prime mater ial in bridge work , although its quality was often poor . Several early exampl es are the Eads bridge in St.Louis ; the Brooklyn bridge in New York ; and t he Glasgow bridge in Missouri , all completed between 1874 and 1883.Among the analytical and design progress to be mentioned are the contrib utions of Maxwell , particularly for certain statically indeterminate trusses ; the books by Cremona (1872) on graphical statics; the force method redefined by Mohr; and the works by Clapeyron who introduced the three-moment equation s.The Impetus of New MaterialsSince the beginning of the twentieth century , concrete has taken its place as one of the most useful and important structural materials . Because of the coMParative ease with which it can be molded into any desired shape , its st ructural uses are almost unlimited . Wherever Portland cement and suitable agg regates are available , it can replace other materials for certain types of structu res, such as bridge substructure and foundation elements .In addition , the introduction of reinforced concrete in multispan frames at the beginning of this century imposed new analytical requirements . Structures of a high order of redundancy could not be analyzed with the classical metho ds of the nineteenth century .The importance of joint rotation was already dem onstrated by Manderla (1880) and Bendixen (1914) , who developed relationshi ps between joint moments and angular rotations from which the unknown mom ents can be obtained ,the so called slope-deflection method .More simplification s in frame analysis were made possible by the work of Calisev (1923) , who used successive approximations to reduce the system of equations to one simpl e expression for each iteration step . This approach was further refined and int egrated by Cross (1930) in what is known as the method of moment distributi on .One of the most import important recent developments in the area of analytical procedures is the extension of design to cover the elastic-plastic range , also known as load factor or ultimate design. Plastic analysis was introduced with some practical observations by Tresca (1846) ; and was formulated by Sa int-Venant (1870) , The concept of plasticity attracted researchers and engineers after World War Ⅰ, mainly in Germany , with the center of activity shifting to England and the United States after World War Ⅱ.The probabilistic approa ch is a new design concept that is expected to replace the classical determinist ic methodology.A main step forward was the 1969 addition of the Federal Highway Adim inistration (F HWA)”Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Members “ that co vers strength and serviceability at ultimate design . This was prepared for use in conjunction with the 1969 American Association of State Highway Offficials (AASHO) Standard Specification, and was presented in a format that is readil y adaptable to the development of ultimate design specifications .According to this document , the proportioning of reinforced concrete members ( including c olumns ) may be limited by various stages of behavior : elastic , cracked , an d ultimate . Design axial loads , or design shears . Structural capacity is the r eaction phase , and all calculated modified strength values derived from theoret ical strengths are the capacity values , such as moment capacity ,axial load ca pacity ,or shear capacity .At serviceability states , investigations may also be n ecessary for deflections , maximum crack width , and fatigue .Bridge TypesA notable bridge type is the suspension bridge , with the first example bu ilt in the United States in 1796. Problems of dynamic stability were investigate d after the Tacoma bridge collapse , and this work led to significant theoretica l contributions Steinman ( 1929 ) summarizes about 250 suspension bridges bu ilt throughout the world between 1741 and 1928 .With the introduction of the interstate system and the need to provide stru ctures at grade separations , certain bridge types have taken a strong place in bridge practice. These include concrete superstructures (slab ,T-beams,concrete box girders ), steel beam and plate girders , steel box girders , composite const ruction , orthotropic plates , segmental construction , curved girders ,and cable-stayed bridges . Prefabricated members are given serious consideration , while interest in box sections remains strong .Bridge Appearance and AestheticsGrimm ( 1975 ) documents the first recorded legislative effort to control t he appearance of the built environment . This occurred in 1647 when the Cou ncil of New Amsterdam appointed three officials . In 1954 , the Supreme Cou rt of the United States held that it is within the power of the legislature to de termine that communities should be attractive as well as healthy , spacious as well as clean , and balanced as well as patrolled . The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 directs all agencies of the federal government to identify and dev elop methods and procedures to ensure that presently unquantified environmenta l amentities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical aspects .Although in many civil engineering works aesthetics has been practiced al most intuitively , particularly in the past , bridge engineers have not ignored o r neglected the aesthetic disciplines .Recent research on the subject appears to lead to a rationalized aesthetic design methodology (Grimm and Preiser , 1976 ) .Work has been done on the aesthetics of color ,light ,texture , shape , and proportions , as well as other perceptual modalities , and this direction is bot h theoretically and empirically oriented .Aesthetic control mechanisms are commonly integrated into the land-use re gulations and design standards . In addition to concern for aesthetics at the sta te level , federal concern focuses also on the effects of man-constructed enviro nment on human life , with guidelines and criteria directed toward improving quality and appearance in the design process . Good potential for the upgradin g of aesthetic quality in bridge superstructures and substructures can be seen in the evaluation structure types aimed at improving overall appearance .Lords and lording groupsThe loads to be considered in the design of substructures and bridge foun dations include loads and forces transmitted from the superstructure, and those acting directly on the substructure and foundation .AASHTO loads . Section 3 of AASHTO specifications summarizes the loa ds and forces to be considered in the design of bridges (superstructure and sub structure ) . Briefly , these are dead load ,live load , iMPact or dynamic effec t of live load , wind load , and other forces such as longitudinal forces , cent rifugal force ,thermal forces , earth pressure , buoyancy , shrinkage and long t erm creep , rib shortening , erection stresses , ice and current pressure , collisi on force , and earthquake stresses .Besides these conventional loads that are ge nerally quantified , AASHTO also recognizes indirect load effects such as fricti on at expansion bearings and stresses associated with differential settlement of bridge components .The LRFD specifications divide loads into two distinct cate gories : permanent and transient .Permanent loadsDead Load : this includes the weight DC of all bridge components , appu rtenances and utilities, wearing surface DW nd future overlays , and earth fill EV. Both AASHTO and LRFD specifications give tables summarizing the unit weights of materials commonly used in bridge work .Transient LoadsVehicular Live Load (LL) Vehicle loading for short-span bridges :considera ble effort has been made in the United States and Canada to develop a live lo ad model that can represent the highway loading more realistically than the H or the HS AASHTO models . The current AASHTO model is still the applica ble loading.桥梁工程和桥梁美学桥梁工程的发展概况早在公元前1世纪，Marcus Vitrucios Pollio 的著作中就有关于建筑材料和结构类型的记载和评述。
汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献1汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Changing Automotive Environment: High-Temperature ElectronicsR. Wayne Johnson, Fellow, IEEE, John L. Evans, Peter Jacobsen, James R. (Rick) Thompson, and Mark ChristopherAbstract —The underhood automotive environment is harsh and current trends in the automotive electronics industry will be pushing the temperatureenvelope for electronic components. The desire to place engine control unitson the engine and transmission control units either on or in the transmissionwill push the ambient temperature above 125125℃℃.However, extreme cost pressures,increasing reliability demands (10 year/241 350 km) and the cost of field failures (recalls, liability, customer loyalty) will make the shift to higher temperatures occur incrementally. The coolest spots on engine and in the transmission will be used. These large bodies do provide considerableheat sinking to reduce temperature rise due to power dissipation in the controlunit. The majority of near term applications will be at 150 ℃ or less andthese will be worst case temperatures, not nominal. The transition toX-by-wire technology, replacing mechanical and hydraulic systems with electromechanical systems will require more power electronics. Integrationof power transistors and smart power devices into the electromechanical℃ to 200℃ . Hybridactuator will require power devices to operate at 175electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles will also drive the demand for higher temperature power electronics. In the case of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, the high temperature will be due to power dissipation. Thealternates to high-temperature devices are thermal management systems which add weight and cost. Finally, the number of sensors in vehicles is increasingas more electrically controlled systems are added. Many of these sensors mustwork in high-temperature environments. The harshest applications are exhaustgas sensors and cylinder pressure or combustion sensors. High-temperature electronics use in automotive systems will continue to grow, but it will be gradual as cost and reliability issues are addressed. This paper examines themotivation for higher temperature operation,the packaging limitations evenat 125 C with newer package styles and concludes with a review of challenge at both the semiconductor device and packaging level as temperatures push beyond 125 ℃.Index Terms—Automotive, extreme-environment electronics.I. INTRODUCTIONI N 1977, the average automobile contained $110 worth of electronics [1]. By 2003 the electronics content was $1510 per vehicle and is expected to reach$2285 in 2013 [2].The turning point in automotive electronics was governmentTABLE IMAJOR AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSTABLE IIAUTOMOTIVETEMPERATUREEXTREMES(DELPHIDELCOELECTRONIC SYSTEMS) [3]regulation in the 1970s mandating emissions control and fuel economy. The complex fuel control required could not be accomplished using traditional mechanical systems. These government regulations coupled with increasing semiconductor computing power at decreasing cost have led to an ever increasing array of automotive electronics. Automotive electronics can be divided into five major categories as shown in Table I.The operating temperature of the electronics is a function of location, power dissipation by the electronics, and the thermal design. The automotive electronics industry defines high-temperature electronics as electronics operating above 125 ℃. However, the actual temperature for various electronics mounting locations varies considerably. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems recently published the typical continuous maximum temperatures as reproduced in Table II [3]. The corresponding underhood temperatures are shown in Fig. 1. The authors note that typical junction temperatures for integrated circuits are 10 ℃to15℃ higher than ambient or baseplate temperature, while power devices can reach 25 ℃ higher. At-engine temperatures of 125℃ peak can be maintained by placing the electronics on theintake manifold.Fig. 1. Engine compartment thermal profile (Delphi Delco Electronic Systems) [3].TABLE III THEAUTOMOTIVEENVIRONMENT(GENERALMOTORS ANDDELPHIDELCO ELECTRONICSYSTEMS) [4]TABLE IV REQUIREDOPERATIONTEMPERATURE FORAUTOMOTIVEELECTRONIC SYSTEMS(TOYOTAMOTORCORP. [5]TABLE VMECHA TRONICMAXIMUMTEMPERA TURERANGES(DAIMLERCHRYSLER,EA TONCORPORA TION, ANDAUBURNUNIVERSITY) [6]Fig. 2. Automotive temperatures and related systems (DaimlerChrysler) [8].automotive electronic systems [8]. Fig. 3 shows an actual measured transmission transmission temperature temperature temperature profile profile profile during during during normal normal normal and and excessive excessive driving drivingconditions [8]. Power braking is a commonly used test condition where the brakes are applied and the engine is revved with the transmission in gear.A similar real-world situation would be applying throttle with the emergencybrake applied. Note that when the temperature reached 135135℃℃,the over temperature light came on and at the peak temperature of 145145℃℃,the transmission was beginning to smell of burnt transmission fluid.TABLE VI2002I NTERNA TIONAL T ECHNOLOGY R OADMAPFOR S EMICONDUCTORS A MBI ENTOPERA TINGTEMPERA TURES FORHARSHENVIRONMENTS (AUTOMOTIVE) [9]The 2002 update to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) did not reflect the need for higher operating temperatures for complex integrated circuits, but did recognize increasing temperature requirements for power and linear devices as shown in Table VI [9]. Higher temperature power devices (diodes and transistors) will be used for the power section of power converters and motor drives for electromechanical actuators. Higher temperature linear devices will be used for analog control of power converters and for amplification and some signal processing of sensor outputs prior to transmission to the control units. It should be noted that at the maximum rated temperature for a power device, the power handling capability is derated to zero. Thus, a 200℃ rated power transistor in a 200℃ environment would have zero current carrying capability. Thus, the actual operating environments must be lower than the maximum rating.In the 2003 edition of the ITRS, the maximum junction temperatures identified forharsh-environment complex integrated circuits was raised to 150℃through 2018 [9]. Theambient operating temperature extreme for harsh-environment complex integrated circuits was defined as 40℃to 125℃ through 2009, increasing to 40℃to 150℃for 2010 and beyond. Power/linear devices were not separately listed in 2003.The ITRS is consistent with the current automotive high-temperature limitations. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems offers two production engine controllers (one on ceramic and one on thin laminate) for direct mounting on the engine. These controllers are rated for operation over the temperature range of 40℃to 125℃. The ECU must be mounted on the coolest spot on the engine. The packaging technology is consistent with 140℃ operation, but the ECU is limited by semiconductor and capacitor technologies to 125℃.The future projections in the ITRS are not consistent with the desire to place controllers on-engine or in-transmission. It will not always be possible to use the coolest location for mounting control units. Delphi Delco Electronics Systems has developed an in-transmission controller for use in an ambient temperature of 140℃[10] using ceramic substrate technology. DaimlerChrysler is also designing an in-transmission controller for usewith a maximum ambient temperature of 150℃ (Figs. 4 and 5) [11].II. MECHATRONICSMechatronics, or the integration of electrical and mechanical systems offers a number ofadvantages in automotive assembly. Integration of the engine controller with the engine allows pretest of the engine as a complete system prior to vehicle assembly. Likewise with the integration of the transmission controller and the transmission, pretesting and tuning to account for machining variations can be performed at the transmission factory prior to shipment to the automobile assembly site. In addition, most of the wires connecting to a transmission controller run to the solenoid pack inside the transmission. Integration of the controller into the transmission reduces the wiring harness requirements at the automobile assembly level.Fig. 4. Prototype DaimlerChrysler ceramic transmission controller [11]Fig. 5. DaimlerChrysler in-transmission module [11].The trend in automotive design is to distribute control with network communications. As the industry moves to more X-by-wire systems, this trend will continue. Automotivefinalassembly plants assemble subsystems and components supplied by numerous vendors to build the vehicle. Complete mechatronic subsystems simplify the design, integration, management, inventory control, and assembly of vehicles. As discussed in the previous section, higher temperature electronics will be required to meet future mechatronic designs.III. PACKAGINGCHALLENGES AT125℃Trends in electronics packaging, driven by computer and portable products are resulting in packages which will not meet underhood automotive requirements at 125℃. Most notable are leadless and area array packages such as small ball grid arrays (BGAs) and quadflatpacks no-lead (QFNs). Fig. 6 shows the thermal cycle test 40 ℃to 125℃ results for two sizes of QFN from two suppliers [12]. A typical requirement is for the product to survive 2000–2500 thermal cycles with<1% failure for underhood applications. Smaller I/O QFNs have been found to meet the requirements.Fig. 7 presents the thermal cycle results for BGAs of various body sizes [13]. The die size in the BGA remained constant (8.6 *8.6 mm). As the body size decreases so does the reliability. Only the 23-mm BGA meets the requirements. The 15-mm BGA with the 0.56-mm-thick BT substrate nearly meets the minimum requirements. However, the industry trend is to use thinner BT substrates (0.38 mm) for BGA packages.One solution to increasing the thermal cycle performance of smaller BGAs is to use underfill. Capillary underfill was dispensed and cured after reflow assembly of the BGA. Fig. 8 shows a Weibull plot of the thermal cycle data for the 15-mm BGAs with four different underfills. Underfill UF1 had no failures after 5500 cycles and is, therefore, not plotted. Underfill, therefore, provides a viable approach to meeting underhood automotive requirements with smaller BGAs, but adds process steps, time, and cost to the electronics assembly process.Since portable and computer products dominate the electronics market, the packages developed for these applications are replacing traditional packages such as QFPs for new devices. The automotive electronics industry will have to continuedeveloping assembly approaches such as underfill just to use these new packages in current underhood applications.IV. TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ABOVE125 ℃The technical challenges for high-temperature automotive applications are interrelated, but can be divided into semiconductors, passives, substrates,interconnections, and housings/connectors. Industries such as oil well logging have successfully fielded high-temperature electronics operating at 200℃ and above. However, automotive electronics are further constrained by high-volume production, low cost, and long-term reliability requirements. The typical operating life for oil well logging electronics may only be 1000 h, production volumes are in the range of 10s or 100s and, while cost is a concern, it is not a dominant issue. In the following paragraphs, the technical challenges for high-temperature automotive electronics are discussed.Semiconductors: The maximum rated ambient temperature for most silicon basedintegrated circuits is 85℃, which is sufficient for consumer, portable, and computing product applications. Devices for military and automotive applications are typically rated to 125℃. A few integrated circuits are rated to 150℃, particularly for power supply controllers and a few automotive applications. Finally, many power semiconductor devices are derated to zero power handling capability at 200℃.Nelmset al.and Johnsonet al.have shown that power insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and metal–oxide–semiconductorfield-effect transistors (MOSFETs) can be used at 200℃[14], [15]. The primary limitations of these power transistors at the higher temperatures are the packaging (the glass transition temperature of common molding compounds is in the 180℃ to 200℃range) and the electrical stress on the transistor during hard switching.A number of factors limit the use of silicon at high temperatures. First, with a bandgap of 1.12 eV, the silicon p-n junction becomes intrinsic at high temperature (225℃ to 400℃depending on doping levels). The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by (1)As the temperature increases, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases. When the intrinsic carrier concentration nears the doping concentration level, p-n junctions behave as resistors, not diodes, and transistors lose their switching characteristics. One approach used in high-temperature integrated circuit design is to increase the doping levels, which increases the temperature at which the device becomes intrinsic. However, increasing the doping levels decreases the depletion widths, resulting in higher electricfields within the device that can lead to breakdown.A second problem is the increase in leakage current through a reverse-biased p-n junction with increasing temperature. Reverse-biased p-n junctions are commonly used in IC design to provide isolation between devices. The saturation current (I,the ideal reverse-bias current of the junction) is proportional to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentrationwhere Ego=bandgap energy atT= 0KThe leakage current approximately doubles for each 10℃rise in junction temperature. Increased junction leakage currents increase power dissipation within the device and can lead to latch-up of the parasitic p-n-p-n structure in complimentary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Epitaxial-CMOS (epi-CMOS) has been developed to improve latch-up resistance as the device dimensions are decreased due to scaling and provides improved high-temperature performance compared to bulk CMOS.Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology replaces reverse-biased p-n junctions with insulators, typically SiO2 , reducing the leakage currents and extending the operating range of silicon above 200℃. At present, SOI devices are more expensive than conventional p-njunction isolated devices. This is in part due to the limited use of SOI technology. With the continued scaling of device dimensions, SOI is being used in some high-performance applications and the increasing volume may help to eventually lower the cost.Other device performance issues at higher temperatures include gate threshold voltage shifts, decreased noise margin, decreased switching speed, decreased mobility, decreased gain-bandwidth product, and increased amplifier input–offset voltage [16]. Leakage currents also increase for insulators with increasing temperature. This results in increased gate leakage currents, and increased leakage of charge stored in memory cells (data loss). For dynamic memory, the increased leakage currents require faster refresh rates. For nonvolatile memory, the leakage limits the life of the stored data, a particular issue for FLASH memory used in microcontrollers and automotive electronics modules.Beyond the electrical performance of the device, the device reliability must also be considered. Electromigration of the aluminum metallization is a major concern. Electromigration is the movement of the metal atoms due to their bombardment by electrons (current flow). Electromigration results in the formation of hillocks and voids in the conductor traces. The mean time to failure (MTTF) for electromigration is related to the current density (J)and temperature(T) as shown in (3)The exact rate of electromigration and resulting time to failure is a function of the aluminum microstructure. Addition of copper to the aluminum increases electromigration resistance. The trend in the industry to replace aluminum with copper will improve the electromigration resistance by up to three orders of magnitude [17].Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) is a second reliability concern. Time to failure due to TDDB decreases with increasing temperature. Oxide defects, including pinholes, asperities at the Si–SiO2 interface and localized changes in chemical structure that reduce the barrier height or increase the charge trapping are common sources of early failure [18]. Breakdown can also occur due to hole trapping (Fowler–Nordheim tunneling). The holes can collect at weak spots in the Si–SiO2 interface, increasing the electricfield locally and leading to breakdown [18]. The temperature dependence of time-to-breakdown(tBD) can be expressed as [18]Values reported for Etbd vary in the literature due to its dependence on the oxidefield and the oxide quality. Furthermore, the activation energy increases with breakdown time [18].With proper high-temperature design, junction isolated silicon integrated circuits can be used to junction temperatures of 150℃ to 165℃, epi-CMOS can extend the range to 225℃to 250℃ and SOI can be used to 250℃ to 280℃ [16, pp. 224]. High-temperature, nonvolatile memory remains an issue.For temperatures beyond the limits of silicon, silicon carbidebased semiconductors are being developed. The bandgap of SiC ranges from 2.75–3.1 depending on the polytype. SiC has lower leakage currents and higher electric field strength than Si. Due to its wider bandgap, SiC can be used as a semiconductor device at temperatures over 600℃. Theprimary focus of SiC device research is currently for power devices. SiC power devices may eventuallyfind application as power devices in braking systems and direct fuel injection. High-temperature sensors have also been fabricated with SiC. Berget al.have demonstrated a SiCbased sensor for cylinder pressure in combustion engines [19] at up to 350℃ and Casadyet al.[20] have shown a SiC-based temperature sensor for use to 500℃. At present, the wafer size, cost, and device yield have made SiC devices too expensive for general automotive use. Most SiC devices are discrete, as the level of integration achieved in SiC to date is low.Passives: Thick and thin-film chip resistors are typically rated to 125 ℃. Naefeet al.[21] and Salmonet al.[22] have shown that thick-film resistors can be used at temperatures above 200℃ if the allowable absolute tolerance is 5% or greater. The resistors studied were specifically formulated with a higher softening point glass. The minimum resistance as afunction of temperature was shifted from 25℃to 150℃to minimize the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) over the temperature range to 300℃. TaN and NiCr thin-film resistors have been shown to have less than 1% drift after 1000 h at 200℃ [23]. Thus, for tighter tolerance applications, thin-film chip resistors are preferred. Wire wound resistors provide a high-temperature option for higher power dissipation levels [21].High-temperature capacitors present more of a challenge. For low-value capacitors, negative-positive-zero (NPO) ceramic and MOS capacitors provide low-temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) to 200℃. NPO ceramic capacitorshave been demonstrated to 500℃ [24]. Higher dielectric constant ceramics (X7R, X8R, X9U), used to achieve the high volumetric efficiency necessary for larger capacitor values, exhibit a significant capacitance decrease above the Curie temperature, which is typically between 125℃ to 150℃. As the temperature increases, the leakage current increases, the dissipation factor increases, and the breakdown strength decreases. Increasing the dielectric tape thickness to increase breakdown strength reduces the capacitance and is a tradeoff. X7R ceramic capacitors have been shown to be stable when stored at 200℃ [23]. X9U chip capacitors are commercially available for use to 200 C, but there is a significant decrease in capacitance above 150℃.Consideration must also be given to the capacitor electrodes and terminations. Ni is now being substituted for Ag and PdAg to lower capacitor cost. The impact of this change on hightemperature reliability must be evaluated. The surface finish for ceramic capacitor terminations is typically Sn. The melting point of the Sn (232℃) and its interaction with potential solders/brazes must also be considered. Alternate surfacefinishes may be required.For higher value, low-voltage requirements, wet tantalum capacitors show reasonable behavior at 200℃ if the hermetic seal does not lose integrity [23]. Aluminum electrolytics are also available for use to 150℃. Mica paper (260℃) and Teflonfilm (200℃) capacitors can provide higher voltage capability, but are large and bulky [25]. High-temperature capacitors are relatively expensive. V capacitors are relatively expensive. Volumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, olumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, high-temperature and low-cost capacitors are still needed.Standard transformers and inductor cores with copper wire and teflon insulation are suitable for operation to 200℃. For higher temperature operation, the magnetic core, the conductor metal (Ni instead of Cu) and insulator must be selected to be compatible with the higher temperatures [16, pp. 651–652] Specially designed transformers can be used to 450℃ to 500℃, however, they are limited in operating frequency.Crystals are required for clock frequency generation for microcontrollers. Crystals with acceptable frequency shift over the temperature range from 55℃to 200℃ have been demonstrated [22]. However, the selection of packaging materials and assembly process for the crystal are key to high-temperature performance and reliability. For example, epoxies used in assembly must be compatible with 200℃ operation.Substrates: Thick-film substrates with gold metallization have been used in circuits to 500℃ [21], [23]. Palladium silver, platinum silver, and silver conductors are morecommonly used in automotive hybrids for reduced cost. Silver migration has been observed with an unpassivated PdAg thick-film conductor under bias at 300℃ [21]. The time-to-failure needs to be examined as a function of temperature and bias voltage with and without passivation. Low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) and high-temperature cofired ceramic (HTCC) are also suitable for high-temperature automotive applications. Embedded resistors are standard to thick-film hybrids, LTCC, and some HTCC technologies. As previously mentioned, thick-film resistors have been demonstrated at temperatures 200℃. Dielectric tapes for embedded capacitors have also been developed for LTCC and HTCC. However, these embedded capacitors have not been characterized for high-temperature use.High-Tg laminates are also available for fabrication of hightemperature printed wiring boards. Cyanate esters [Tg=250℃by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], polyimide (260℃by DSC), and liquid crystal polymers(Tm>280℃）provide options for use to 200℃. Cyanate ester boards have been used successfully in test vehicles at 175℃, but failed when exposed to 250℃ [26]. The higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the laminate substrates compared to the ceramics must be considered in the selection of component attachment materials. The temperature limits of the laminates with respect to assembly temperatures must also be carefully considered. Work is ongoing to develop and implement embedded resistor and capacitor technology for laminate substrates for conventional temperature ranges. This technology has not been extended to high-temperature applications.One method many manufacturers are using to address the higher temperatures whilemaintaining lower cost is the use of laminate substrates attached to metal. The typical design involves the use of higher Tg( +140℃ and above) laminate substrates attached to an aluminum plate (approximately 2.54-mm thick) using a sheet or liquid adhesive. To assist in thermal performance, the laminate substrate is often thinner (0.76 mm) than traditional automotive substrates for under-the-hood applications. While this design provides improved thermal performance, the attachment of the laminate to aluminum increases the CTE for the overall substrates. The resultant CTE is very dependent on the ability of the attachment material to decouple the CTE between the laminate substrate and the metal backing. However, regardless of the attachment material used, the combination of the laminate and metal will increase the CTE of the overall substrate above that of a stand-alone laminate substrate. This impact can be quite significant in the reliability performance for components with low CTE values (such as ceramic chip resistors). Fig. 9 illustrates the impact of two laminate-to-metal attachment options compared to standard laminate substrates [27], [28]. The reliability data presented is for 2512 ceramic chip resistors attached to a 0.79-mm-thick laminate substrate attached to aluminum using two attachment materials. Notice that while one material significantly outperforms the other, both are less reliable than the same chip resistor attached to laminate without metal backing.This decrease in reliability is also exhibited on small ball grid array (BGA) packages. Fig. 10 shows the reliability of a 15-mm BGA package attached to laminate compared to the same package attached to a laminate substrate with metal backing [27], [28]. The attachment material used for the metal-backed substrate was the best material selected from previous testing. Notice again that the metal-backed substrate deteriorates the reliability. This reliability deterioration is of particular concern since many IC packages used for automotive applications are ball grid array packages and the packaging trend is for reduced packaging size. These packaging trends make the use of metal-backed substrates difficult for next generation products.One potential solution to the above reliability concern is the use of encapsulants and underfills. Fig. 11 illustrates how conformal coating can improve component reliability for surface mount chip resistors [27], [28]. Notice that the reliability varies greatly depending on material composition. However, for components which meet a marginal level of reliability, conformal coatings may assist the design in meeting the target reliability requirements. The same scenario can be found for BGA underfills. Typical underfill materials may extend the component life by a factor of two or more. For marginal IC packages, this enhancement may provide enough reliability improvement toall the designs to meet under-the-hood requirements. Unfortunately, the improvements provided byencapsulants and underfills increase the material cost and adds one or more manufacturing processes for material dispense and cure.Interconnections: Methods of mechanical and electrical interconnection of the active and passive components to the board include chip and wire,flip-chip, and soldering of packaged parts. In chip and wire assembly, epoxy die-attach materials can beused to 165℃ [29]. Polyimide and silicone die-attach materials can be used to 200℃. For higher temperatures, SnPb ( >90Pb), AuGe, AuSi, AuSn, and AuIn have been used. However,with the exception of SnPb, these are hard brazes and with increasing die size, CTE mismatches between the die and the substrate will lead to cracking with thermal。
中英文翻译论文参考文献范例
中英文翻译论文参考文献一、中英文翻译论文期刊参考文献[1].言、意、象——翻译与言外之意.《兰州大学学报（社会科学版）》.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2015年2期.刘新慧.[2].中英文翻译中文化空缺现象及翻译策略.《华东交通大学学报》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.2009年4期.王显涛.[3].论商品包装的中英文翻译—以对等理论问指导.《当代教育实践与教学研究（电子刊）》.2015年12期.孙一博.[4].中英文翻译中的文化语境研究.《佳木斯教育学院学报》.2013年10期.陈真.[5].中英文翻译中文化空缺现象及翻译对策.《海外英语《海外英语《中国药师》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.2012年2期.李杨华.邵寅.二、中英文翻译论文参考文献学位论文类[1].论商务合同翻译之转换法.被引次数：1作者：封云.法律英语翻译与实践西南政法大学2009（学位年度）[2].CETranslationofBusinessContracts:FromtheGermanFunctionalistPe rspective.作者：杜艳.外语语言学及应用语言学西南政法大学2009（学位年度）[3].MomentinPeking及其两个汉译本对文化负载词语的处理.被引次数：1 作者：尚路平.外国语言学及应用语言学兰州大学2009（学位年度）[4].国际标准翻译研究——基于ISO9001和ISO14001的翻译.作者：刘艳华.外国语言学及应用语言学对外经济贸易大学2007（学位年度）[5].ChineseEnglishTranslationofMedicalTexts:ErrorsandStrategies. 作者：李春慧.外国语言学与应用语言学第四军医大学2009（学位年度）[6].连接成分的显化：基于语料库的中英文翻译文本对比.被引次数：2 作者：刘鼎甲.英语语言文学燕山大学2009（学位年度）[7].AComparativeStudyofChineseandEnglishFigureofSpeechandTranslat ion.作者：吴兰青.外国语言学及应用语言学西南财经大学2005（学位年度）[8].国俗词汇的可译性及其实现手段——从文化图式视角.作者：刘鹏.英语语言文学山东师范大学2005（学位年度）[9]中英文翻译机制的实验研究——概念通路和词汇通路的探讨.作者：王璐璐.基础心理学北京师范大学2005（学位年度）[10]DiscourseCohesionAComparativeStudybetweentheTwoChineseVersion sofMomentinPeking.作者：杨佳.外国语言学及应用语言学东北大学2009（学位年度）三、中英文翻译论文专著参考文献[1]基于多层过滤的统计机器翻译.周玉.宗成庆.徐波，2004第二届全国学生计算语言学研讨会[2]船舶规范、公约和决议翻译的技巧.庄韵，2012首届“苏浙闽粤桂沪”航海学会学术研讨会[3]电脑辅助中医翻译之实践.唐国顺，2008第18届世界翻译大会[4]口筆譯硏究典藏分析：以中港台及日韓大學爲例.楊承淑，2008第18届世界翻译大会[5]中国“理工大学”校名英译思考与商榷.潘月明.郭秀芝，2008第18届世界翻译大会[6]中华民族热中英文的高榷.张荫民，2004第七次汉字书同文学术研讨会[7]化合物名称中译英自动翻译系统的研究.徐挺军.陈维明，2008第九届科学数据库与信息技术学术讨论会[8]医学院校学生专业英语翻译技能的培训.林生趣.张书旭，2008第18届世界翻译大会[9]互文性视阈下的中药说明书结构词翻译研究.刘艾娟.都立澜.李晓莉.陈铸芬.翟书娟，2015世界中医药学会联合会翻译专业委员会第六届学术年会[10]传译昆曲经典，弘扬中华文化《昆曲精华》的翻译回顾.周福娟.汤定军，20062006年全国翻译高层研讨会。
现代企业财务管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
现代企业财务管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Discussion on the Modern Enterprise Financial ControlRyanDavidson ,JennyGoodwin-Stewart ,PamelaKentThis paper discusses the The modern enterprise is becoming China's economic development in the process of an important new force. However, with the modern enterprise investment on the scale of the expansion and extension of the growing investment levels, the modern enterprise financial control is becoming increasingly urgent. This is common in state-owned enterprise groups and private enterprise groups, a common predicament. At present, the modern enterprise is becoming China's enterprises to compete in the international market, the leading force. In a market economy under the conditions of modern business success or failure depends largely on the Group's financial management and financial control is a modern enterprise financial management of the link. Many of the modern enterprise bystrengthening the financial control so that the Group significant increase efficiency, and even some loss-making by strengthening the financial control of the modern enterprise to enable companies to achieve profitability. In this paper, expounding China's modern enterprises the main problems of financial control, based on the choice of financial control method was summarized and analyzed the content of the modern enterprise financial controls, the final resolution of the financial control mode selected key factors for the modern enterprise the improvement of financial control to provide a degree of meaningful views.1 IntroductionWith China's accession to WTO, China's enterprise groups must be on the world stage to compete with TNCs from developed countries. At present the development of enterprise groups in China is not satisfactory, although there are national policies and institutional reasons, but more important is its financial management in particular, caused by inadequate financial controls. For a long time, China's enterprise group cohesion is not strong, their respective subsidiaries within the Group for the array, can not play the whole advantage; redundant construction and haphazard introduction of frequent, small investments, decentralized prominent problem: financial management is chaotic, resulting in frequent loss of control, a waste of money the phenomenon of serious; ineffective financial control, financial management loopholes. In recent years, enterprise group's financial control has been our country's financial circles. In short, the problem of exploration in our country has obvious practical significance. Clearly, China's modern enterprise financial controls are the main problem is to solve the problem of financial control method based on the choice of financial control method is the key financial control of the modern enterprise content is content, while the financial control method of choice is the ultimate ownership of the main factors that point, This train of thought here on the modern enterprise's financial control method were analyzed.2. An overview of the modern enterprise financial controlInternal control over financial control is an important part, is a subsidiary of parent company control of an important part of its financial management system is the core of. The concept of modern enterprise financial controls in accordance with the traditional definition, financial control refers to the "Financial Officers (sector) through the financial regulations, financial systems, financial scale, financial planning goals of capital movement (or the daily financial activities, and cash flow) for guidance, organization, supervision and discipline, to ensure that the financial plan (goals) to achieve the management activities. financial control is an important part of financial management or basic functions, and financial projections, financial decision-making, financial analysis and evaluation together with a financial management system or all the functions.The modern enterprise's financial control is in the investor's ownership and corporate property rights based on the generated surrounding the Group's overallobjective, using a variety of financial means, the members of the enterprise's economic activities, regulation, guidance, control and supervision, so that it Management Group's development activities are consistent with the overall goal of maintaining the group as a whole. Financial control is a power to control one side of the side control, inevitably based on one or several powers. Financial control is essentially related to the interests of enterprises in the organization, the conduct of control, namely, by controlling the financial activities of the assets, personnel actions, to coordinate the objectives of the parties to ensure that business goals. The modern enterprise financial control includes two aspects: the owner funded financial control and corporate managers financial control. From the donors point of view, the essence of the modern enterprise is characterized by investor and corporate property rights of ownership and separation. Investors will invest its capital to the enterprise after their capital combined with debt capital, constitute the enterprise's capital, the formation of corporate business assets is funded by corporate property, then lost direct control over the funders in order to achieve itsCapital maintenance and appreciation of the goal, only through control of its capital manipulation of corporate assets in order to achieve the maximum capital value donors. The control of capital controls is an important property is the prerequisite and foundation for financial control. From the perspective of internal management of enterprises and its financial control target is the legal property of its operations.3 China's modern enterprises the main problems of financial controlAt present, the modern enterprise is becoming China's enterprises to compete in the international market, the leading force. In a market economy under the conditions of modern business success or failure depends largely on the Group's financial management and financial control is a modern enterprise financial management of the link. China's modern enterprise financial controls are still in the stage to be further improved, to varying degrees, there are some urgent need to address the problem:3.1 Financial control set decentralized model of polarization, low efficiencyIn the financial control of the set of decentralized model, China's modern enterprise polarization. The current group of financial control either over-centralization of power, the members of the business has no legal status as a subsidiary factory or workshop, the group is seen as a big business management, leadership financial rights absolute; or excessive decentralization, a large number of decentralized financial control to a subsidiary, any of its free development.In addition, the modern enterprise financial control system suited the needs of a market economy, financial control and flexibility of principle there is no organic unity. If the subordinate enterprises, with few financial decision-making power, then the temporary financial problems occur at every level always reported to the Group'sheadquarters, and then from the headquarters down the implementation of the decision-making at every level, so it is easy to miss market opportunities. On the contrary, when the subsidiary of financial decision-making power is too large, they easily lead to financial decision-making blind and mistakes, not only for the Group's staff to participate in market competition, failed to exercise any decision-making role, but will also become a competitor to the market to provide a tool for competitive information, hinder the the further development of enterprises.3.2 One of the lack of financial contro lFinancial control in accordance with the owner of intention, in accordance with relevant laws and regulations, systems and standards, through certain financial activities and financial relations, and financial activities to promote all aspects of the financial requirements in accordance with a code of conduct to conduct his activities. From China's current situation, the financial control of a modern enterprise mainly focused on ex post facto control, is often the lack of critical pre-budget and to control things. Many modern enterprises, after a decision is in advance, for further financial control tended to focus on the annual profit plan, to meet on the development of a full-year sales revenue, cost, target profit, and several other overarching objectives, without further specific decision-making technology to compile for control and management, according to the month, quarterly, annual financial budget. Therefore, the interim budget and thus difficult to compare operating performance is a matter to control the empty words. As for the ex post facto control, although based on the year-end assessment of the needs and to get some attention, they can still profit in the annual plan, based on the relevant accounting information barely supported by whom, but the effects are pretty effective. Since the ex ante control may not be effective, so subordinate enterprises throughout the implementation process of decision-making are largely outside the core business of financial control, divorced from the core business of financial control.Modern enterprises themselves do not establish a parent-subsidiary link up the financial control mechanisms, financial control their own ways, the parent company of the modern enterprise can not come to the unified arrangement of a strategic investment and financing activities, the group blindly expand the scale of investment, poor investment structure, external borrowing out of control, financial structure is extremely weak, once the economic downturn or product sales are sluggish, there barriers to capital flows, the Group into trouble when they become addicted. An internal financial assessment indicators are too single, not fully examine the performance of subsidiaries. A considerable number of modern enterprise's internal assessment targets only the amount of the contract amount and profit 2.3.3 regardless of the financial and accounting functions, institutional settings are not standardizedAt present, China's financial and accounting sector enterprises are usually joined together, such a body set up under the traditional planned economic system, stillcapable to meet the management needs, but the requirements of modern enterprise system, its shortcomings exposed. Manifested in: (1) financial services targeted at business owners, it is the specific operation and manipulation of objects is the enterprise's internal affairs, while the accounting of clients within the enterprise and external stakeholders, would provide open accounting information must reflect the "true and fair" principle. Will be different levels of clients and flexibility in a merger of two tasks, will inevitably lead to interference with the financial flexibility of the fairness of accounting. (2) The financial sector is committed to the financial planning, financial management, the arduous task, but flexible in its mandate, procedures and time requirements more flexible, but assume that the accounting information collection, processing, reporting and other accounting work, and flexibility in work assignments weak, procedures and time requirements more stringent and norms. If the enterprises, especially in modern enterprises to financial management and accounting work are mixed together, is likely to cause more "rigid" in accounting work runs more "flexible" financial management is difficult to get rid of long-standing emphasis on accounting, financial management light situation.3.4 irregularities in the operation of a modern enterprise fundsAt present, the modern enterprise fund operation of the following problems: First, a serious fragmentation of the modern enterprise funds. Some of the modern enterprise have not yet exceeded a certain link between the contractual relationship to conduct capital, operating, and its essence is still the executive order virtual enterprise jointly form of intra-group members are still strict division of spheres of influence, difficult to achieve centralized management of funds, unification deployment of large groups is difficult to play the role of big money. Second, the stock of capital make an inventory of modern enterprise poor results. Result of the planned economy under the "re-output, light efficiency, re-extension, light content, re-enter, light output" of inertia, making the enterprise carrying amount of funds available to make an inventory of large, but the actual make an inventory of room for small, thus affecting the to the effect of the stock of capital. Third, the modern enterprise funds accumulated a lot of precipitation.3.5 Internal audit exists in name onlyAt present, enterprises in the financial monitoring of internal audit work to become a mere formality process. The first formal audit management. Hyundai organized every year in different forms of audit, has become a fixed procedure, but because the internal audit staff and the audited entity at the same level, thus in the company's financial problems can not get to the bottom, just a form of and going through the motions. This audit not only failed to exercise any oversight role, to some extent encouraged the small number of staff violations of law. Second, nothing of audit responsibilities. Internal audit is a modern enterprise group commissioned by the audit staff members of Corporate Finance to conduct inspection and supervision process, and therefore the auditors have had an important mandate and responsibilities. But in reality, become a form of audit work, audit officers, whether seriously or not, are notrequired to bear the responsibility, thus making the audit is inadequate supervision. Third, the audit results and falsified. Audit results should be true and can be *, but in reality the different audit bodies of the same company during the same period of the audit, results are often different, and a far cry from, these are false true performance of the audit findings.4. Selected financial control model should be considered a major factor Generally speaking, the modern enterprise selects the financial control mode, the main consideration should be given these factors: equity concentration, a subsidiary of the degree of influence of the parent company financial strategy, organizational structure, development strategy, the group scale.From the group-level point of view, the parent company of the subsidiaries of the associated control to be strict control of the company, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the control to be strict control of the relatively holding subsidiaries, therefore, the parent company of the wholly owned subsidiary of and advantages of holding subsidiaries with centralized control, the quality holding subsidiaries and any shares of a subsidiary of the separation of powers system. To maintain and enhance the core competitiveness of modern enterprises of different degree of importance of a subsidiary should be taken to a different control mode. Have a significant impact on the subsidiary, the parent company must maintain a high degree of centralized control and management right, even partially, the separation of powers must be confined within the framework of centralized; right with the Group's development strategy, core competencies, core business and for the foreseeable the future development of relations in general, a subsidiary of little impact, from improving management efficiency, play to their enthusiasm and enhance the resilience of the market competition point of view, using decentralized type of management system, a better option.From the organizational structure point of view, U-type structure is a typical centralized structure, and accordingly, its financial control model should also be authoritarian style. H-is an organic organizational structure, a more loose linkages between various departments, departments have greater flexibility in the organization structure, with decentralized financial control model is more suitable, while the M-type structure belonging to phase Rong-type organizational structure, so the use of centralized financial control model can be used either decentralized model.From the operating characteristics of point of view, the different characteristics of the modern enterprise management, financial control mode selection will be different. And integration operations in a single case, all units within the group has a great business contacts, financial control naturally require higher degree of centralization.Enterprises to adopt diversification, because each subsidiary where the industry is different from the operational linkages between the various subsidiaries is relatively small, difficult to implement a modern enterprise integrated centralized control, and therefore the financial control of all subsidiaries should be given to the appropriate authority.From the development stage point of view, the modern enterprises in the different stages of development, in order to meet the needs of business development will take a different mode of financial control. Generally speaking, companies in the early stages of the development of small, relatively simple operations, using centralized financial control mode, you can better play the same decision-making and resource integration advantages in the industry has created a scale. With the continuous expansion of company size, business areas and constantly open up, Centralized financial control mode can not meet the company's financial controls and management methods on the need for diversification, and this time, we need more subsidiaries in all aspects of and more authority, so that the financial control model of a modern enterprise gradually to decentralized development.In addition, the financial control model should be subject to the enterprise's development strategy, fully reflects the company's strategic thinking. The company's development strategy can be divided into stable angina strategy, expansion-type strategy, tight-based strategies and hybrid strategies. Enterprises at different stages of the strategic choice of a particular need for financial control in accordance with * a different pattern. Stable implementation of the strategy is usually within the company can be a high degree of centralization of some; to implement expansionary strategy, companies tend to a more flexible decentralized type control mode to suit their developing needs of the market; the implementation of tight-based company's business strategy, all major financial activities must be strictly controlled, thus emphasizing centralization; hybrid strategy for the implementation of the company, it should be operated according to the characteristics of each subsidiary to take a different control mode.References:[1] Han Wei mold. Finance and Accounting Review of regulatory hot spots [M]. Beijing: Economic Science Press, 2004[2] Lin Zhong-gao. Financial governance. Beijing: Economic Management Publishing House [M], 2005[3] Yan Li Ye. Xu Xing-US; Enterprise Group Financial Control Theory and Its Implications, economics, dynamic [J], 2006[4] Lu Jie. On the internal financial control system improvements and management of popular science (research and practice) [J], 2007[5] Chen Chao-peng. Improve the corporate financial control measures, businessaccounting [J], 2007[6] Huang Xi. On the Enterprise Group Financial Control [J]. Chinese and foreign entrepreneurs, 2006, (06)[7] Jiang-feng tai. Enterprise Group Financial Control Studies [J]. Marketing Week. Theoretical study, 2006, (08)现代企业财务管理的探讨瑞安戴维森，珍妮古德温-斯图尔特，帕梅拉肯特本文探讨现代企业正在成为中国经济发展过程中的一个重要的新力量。
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文资料中英文资料外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Asphalt Mixtures-Applications。
Theory and Principles1.ApplicationsXXX is the most common of its applications。
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and the onethat will be XXX.XXX “flexible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement,which are classified as rigid pavements。
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XXX it provides they key to the design approach which must be used XXX.XXX XXX down into high and low types,the type usually XXX product is used。
The low typesof pavement are made with the cutback。
or emulsion。
XXX type may have several names。
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XXX is similar for most low-type pavements and XXX mix。
forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt XXX中英文资料XXX grade.中英文资料Fig.·1 A modern XXX.Fig.·2 Asphalt con crete at the San Francisco XXX.They are used when high wheel loads and high volumes of traffic occur and are。
电动机控制中英文对照外文翻译文献
电动机控制中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Control of Electric winchFor motor control, we know the best way is to use the style buttons to move the many simple manual console. And this console, in some applications may still be a good choice, as some complex control headache can also be used. This article describes in your design, build or purchase winch controller, you have the motor's basic electrical equipment and you will need to address the user interface command addressed.First, the manual should be a manual control console type, so if you remove your finger buttons, hoist will stop. In addition, each control station equipped with an emergency need to brake, hoist the emergency brake to cut off all power, not just the control circuit. Think about it, if the hoist at the stop, it did not stop, you do need a way to cut off the fault line protection power. Set the table in the control of a key operated switch, is also a very good idea, especially in the line leading to theworkstation can not control, you can use the switch.(in the design of the console, even the simplest manual console, but also consider setting by specialized personnel to operate the safe operation of the keys.) Constant speed motor controlFor a fixed speed winch actual control device is a three-phase starter. Turn the motor is reversed, by a simple switch controlled phase transformation sequence from ABC to CBA. These actions are completed by two three-pole contactor-style, and they are interlocked, so that they can not be simultaneously closed. NEC, required in addition to overload and short circuit protection devices. To protect the motor against overload due to mechanical effects caused by overheating in the heat to be installed inside the starter overload delay device. When the heat overload delay device overheating, it has a long double off the metal motor power. In addition In addition, you can also select a thermistor can be installed in the motor winding way, it can be used to monitor motor temperature changes. For the short-circuit protection, we generally used by motor fuses to achieve.A linear current independent contactors, the contactors are configured should be more than the current main circuit contactor, so as to achieve the purpose of redundancy. This sets the current contactor is controlled by the security circuit, such as: emergency brake and the more-way limits.We can use the limit switches to achieve the above operation. When you reach the end of the normal travel limit position, the hoist will stop, and you can only move the winch in the opposite direction (ie, the direction away from the limit position.) There is also need for a more limited way just in case, due to electrical or mechanical problems, leaving the operation of hoist limit bit more than normal. If you run into more limiter, linear contactor will open, therefore, can not be driven winch will exceed this limit position. If this happens, you need to ask a professional technician to check the lead to meet the more specific reasons limiter. Then, you can use thestarter toggle switch inside the elastic recovery process to deal with more problems, rather than tripping device or a hand-off the current contacts.A necessary condition for speedOf course, the simple fixed speed starter is replaced by variable speed drives. This makes things start to get interesting again! At a minimum, you need to add a speed control dial operation platform. Joystick is a better user interface, because it makes you move parts of a more intuitive control.Unfortunately, you can not just from your local console to send commands to control the old variable speed drives, in addition, you can not want it in the initial stages, will be able to enhance the safe and reliable and decentralized facilities. Most of the variable speed drive can not achieve these requirements, because they are not designed to do upgrading work. Drivers need to be set to release the brake before the motor can generate torque, and when parking, that is, before the revocation of torque, the brake will be the first action.For many years, DC motors and drives provide a number of common solutions, such as when they are in a variety of speeds with good torque characteristics. For most of the hoist of the large demand for DC motor is very expensive, and that the same type of AC motor than the much more expensive. Although the early AC drives are not very useful, as they have a very limited scope of application of the speed, but produced only a small low-speed torque. Now, with the DC drives the development of low cost and a large number of available AC motors has led to a communication-driven revolution.Variable speed AC drives in two series. Frequency converter has been widely known and, indeed, easy to use. These drives convert AC into DC, and then, and then convert it back to exchange, the exchange after the conversion is a different frequency. If the drive produced the exchange of 30Hz, 60Hz a normal motor will run at half speed. Theoretically, this is very good, but in practice, this will have a lot of problems. First of all, a typical linear motor 60Hz frequencies below 2Hz 3Hz area or there will be errors, and start cog (that urgent push, yank), or parking. This will limit your speed range lower than 20:1, almost not adapted to the operational phase of the fine adjustment. Second, many low-cost converter is not able to provide the rated torque at low speeds. Use of these drives, will result in the rapid move to upgrade the components or complete failure, precisely, when you try to upgrade a stable scientific instruments, you do not want to see this situation. Some new inverter is a closed-loop system (to get feedback from the motor to provide a more accurate speed control), and the motor will work quite well.Another series of AC drives is the flow vector type drive. These components require installation of the spindle motor encoder, encoder makes use of these drivescan accurately monitor the rotation of the motor armature. Processor accurately measured magnetic flux vector values that are required to make the armature at a given speed rotation. These drives allow infinite speed, so you actually can produce at zero speed to rated torque. These drives provide precise speed and position control, so these drives in high performance applications to be welcomed.(Based on PLC controllers provide system status and control options. This screen shows the operator full access to the nine-story elevator enhance the control panel.) PLC-based systemsIs the full name of a PLC programmable logic controller. First of all, PLC controller developed to replace the fifties and sixties-based industrial control system relay, they work in harsh industrial indoor environments. These are modular systems that have a large variety of I / O modules. The modular system can easily achieve the semi-custom hardware configuration assembled, and the resulting configuration is also very reasonable price. These modules include: position control module, the counter, A / D and D / A converter, and a variety of physical state or physical contact with closed output module. Large number of different types of I / O components and PLC module property makes it an effective way to assemble custom and semi custom control system.The biggest shortcoming of PLC systems is the lack of the real number of display to tell you what is being done and the PLC on the PLC program to help you.T he first is professional entertainment for the large-scale PLC system is one of the original in Las Vegas, MGM (now Bailey Company) of the riding and carriage system. Many manufacturers offer a standard PLC-based semi-automated acoustic systems and a host of signs, set the location of the command line interpreter, and the upgrading of the control system is also available. Using standard modules to set user-defined system configuration capability is based on the PLC controller of the greatest advantage.High-end controllerFor complex transmission, the controller became complex, more than speed, time and location control. They include complex instructions to write and record the movement contour, and the processing can immediately run the ability to multi-point instructions.Many large opera house is toward the direction of point lift system, where each one is equipped with a rope to enhance independent winches, rope equivalent to those of each dimmer circuit. When more than one hoist is used to enhance the individual part, the hoist must be fully synchronous, or the load to shift, so will lead to a separate winch becomes the risk of overload. Control system must be able to be selected to keep pace winch, or a hoist winch is not able to maintain synchronization with the other, can provide the same high-speed parking capacity. For a typical speed of 240 ft / min and a winch to maintain the rate of error of between 1 / 8 points of equipment, you only have less than three microseconds of time to identify problems and try to correct the error The hoist speed, make sure you fail, you start all the winch stop the group. This will require a large amount of computation, fast I / O interface, and easy to use to write software.For large rope control system has two very different solutions. The first is to use a separate console, the problem in general terms, this console should be installed in the appropriate location of the operator perspective. However, this not only from one angle to another angle, but still can not get an instruction to another instruction from the control. These difficulties have been partially resolved. Installed in different locations through the use of video cameras, and these cameras connected to the three-dimensional display graphics, these graphics enables the operator to observe from the perspective of any of the three coordinates in the expected direction of rope movement. These operators can make from a console for him at the actual angle, or closed circuit camera practical perspective, to observe the movement of the rope on the screen. For the complex interrelated moving parts, makes the implementation of the above observation Failure to control and find out easier.Another solution to the problem is a distributed system that uses multiple light console. This will allow the different operators in the same way the different aspects of control gear, we have improved the manual control device. A vivid example is the flower in a vegetable market in central London, the Royal Opera House, the program uses the above, where the control console 240 with ten motors. Each console has five playback device, and has been open, so that each motor has been assigned to a single console. An operator and a console can control all the devices, however, often may be running a console platform screen upgrade, another console is a console on the transmission device, and the third console is used to the necessary backgroundin the background image down.(edge-type portable console allows the operator many advantages from the start to control the movement of the machine, and provide three-dimensional image display.)ConclusionA huge change in the rope control system, a workstation has been developed from a push-button to complex multi-user computerized control system. When the control system to buy rope, you can always find to meet your needs. Control system performance is the most important security and reliability. These are the true value of the property, and you can expect the price to buy a suitable way of security. With a certain product manufacturers to work, he will make you know how to install it. And he will make contact with you and the users, those users have with similar requests.译文：电动卷扬机的控制对于电动机的控制，我们所知道的最好的方式就是使用由许多点动式按钮组成的简单的手工操作台。
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Monolithic integrated circuit historyThe monolithic integrated circuit was born in the late-1970s, has experienced SCM, MCU, the SOC three big stages.SCM namely monolithic microcomputer (Single Chip Microcomputer) the stage, mainly seeks the best monolithic shape embedded system's best architecture. “the innovation pattern” obtains successfully, has established SCM and the general-purpose calculator completely different development path. In founds on the embedded system independent development path, Intel Corporation has lasting achievements.MCU namely micro controller (Micro Controller Unit) the stage, the main technological development direction is: Expands unceasingly when satisfies the embedded application, the object system request's each kind of peripheral circuit and the interface circuit, underline its object intellectualization control. It involves the domain is related with the object system, therefore, develops the MCU heavy responsibility to fall inevitably on electrical, the electronic technology factory. Looking from this angle, Intel fades out the MCU development also to have its objective factor gradually. Is developing the MCU aspect, the most famous factory family belongings count Philips Corporation. Philips Corporation by it in embedded application aspect huge superiority, MCS-51 from monolithic microcomputer rapidly expand to micro controller. Therefore, when we review the embedded system development path, do not forget Intel and the Philips historical merit. Monolithic integrated circuit is the embedded system's road of independent development, to the MCU stage development's important attribute, seeks application system's on chip maximized solution;Therefore, the special-purpose monolithic integrated circuit's development has formed the SOC tendency naturally. Along with the microelectronic technology, the IC design, the EDA tool's development, can have the big development based on the SOC monolithic integrated circuit application system design. Therefore, to the monolithic integrated circuit the understanding may from the monolithic microcomputer, the monolithic micro controller extend to the monolithic application system.At present the monolithic integrated circuit seeps each domain which lives to us, which domain was nearly very difficult to find not to have monolithic integrated circuit's trail. Missile's navigation equipment, on the airplane each kind of measuring appliance's control, computer's network communication and the data transmission, the industrial automation process's real-time control and the data processing, the widespread use's each kind of intelligent IC card, the civil luxury car's safety system, the videocorder, the camera, the completely automatic washer's control, as well as program control toy, electronic pet and so on, these cannot leave the monolithic integrated circuit. Say nothing of automatic control domain robot, intelligent measuring appliance, medical instrument. Therefore, monolithic integrated circuit's study, the development and the application will accomplish one batch of computer application and the intellectualized control scientist, engineer. The monolithic integrated circuit widely applies in the instruments and meters, the domestic electric appliances, the medical equipment, domains and so on aerospace, special purpose equipment's intellectualized management and process control, approximately separable following several categories.Monolithic integrated circuit has the volume on smart instrument measuring appliance's application the to be small, the power loss is low, the control function is strong, the expansion is flexible, meritsand so on microminiaturization and easy to operate, widely apply in the instruments and meters, the union different type's sensor, may realize such as physical quantity and so on voltage, power, frequency, humidity, temperature, current capacity, speed, thickness, angle, length, degree of hardness, element, pressure surveys. Uses the monolithic integrated circuit control to cause the instruments and meters digitization, the intellectualization, the microminiaturization, and the function compares uses the electron or the digital circuit is more formidable. For example precise measurement equipment (dynamometer, oscilloscope, each kind of analyzer).May constitute various control system, the data acquisition system in industrial control's application with the monolithic integrated circuit. For example factory assembly line intellectualized management, elevator intellectualization control, each kind of alarm system, with computer networking constitution two-stage control system and so on.May say like this in domestic electric appliances' application , present's domestic electric appliances basically have used the monolithic integrated circuit control, praises, the washer, the electric refrigerator, the air conditioner, the color television, other acoustic video frequency equipment from the electricity food, to arrive at the electronic weighting equipment again, all kinds of gate, omnipresent.Modern of monolithic integrated circuit has the correspondence connection generally in the computer network and correspondence domain's application the , may carry on the data communication very conveniently with the computer, for provided the extremely good physical conditions application between the computer network and communication facility's, present's communication facility has basically realized the monolithic integrated circuit intelligent control, from the handset, the telephone, the small program controlledswitch, the building automatic correspondence ringing system, the train wireless communication, arrived at the mobile phone which again in the routine work found at everywhere, the colony mobile communication, radio intercom and so on.Monolithic integrated circuit's monolithic integrated circuit's is also quite widespread in medical equipment domain application the in medical equipment use, for example medical life-support machine, each kind of analyzer, guardianship meter, ultrasound diagnosis equipment and hospital bed ringing system and so on.Certain special-purpose monolithic integrated circuit design uses in each kind of large-scale electric appliance's modulation using the realizing the specific function, thus carries on the modular application in each kind of electric circuit, but does not request to use the personnel to understand its internal structure. If music integration monolithic integrated circuit, looked that resembles the simple function, micro shrinks in the pure electronic chip (is different with magnetic tape unit's principle), needs complex being similar in computer's principle. For example: Music signal saves by the digital form in the memory (is similar to ROM), reads out by the micro controller, transforms (is similar for the simulation music electrical signal to sound card). in the large-scale electric circuit, this kind of modular application reduced the volume enormously, simplified the electric circuit, reduced the damage, the error rate, also facilitates in the replacement. in addition, the monolithic integrated circuit in the industry and commerce, the finance, the scientific research, the education, domains and so on national defense aerospace has the very widespread monolithic integrated circuit founded the modern electron system time.The monolithic integrated circuit and embedded system the embedded system stems from computer's embedded application, the early embeddedsystem for the general-purpose calculator after the re-equipping inserts to the object system's in each kind of electronic system, like ships' autopilot, turbine observation system and so on. The embedded system first is a computer system, next it is inserted to the object system, realizes in the object system object functions and so on request data acquisition, processing, condition demonstration, output control, because inserts in the object system, embedded system's computer does not have computer's absolute form and the function. The monolithic integrated circuit is completely defers to the embedded system request design, therefore the monolithic integrated circuit is the most typical embedded system. The early monolithic integrated circuit is only according to the embedded applied technology request design computer single chip integration, therefore famous monolithic integrated circuit. Afterward, the monolithic integrated circuit to satisfy embedded strengthens its control function and the periphery interface function unceasingly using the request, particularly prominent control function, therefore internationally rectified names the monolithic integrated circuit for the micro controller (MCU, Microcontroller Unit).Monolithic integrated circuit constitutes the modern electron system will become mainstream electron system the monolithic integrated circuit will be the component level computer system, it may insert to any object system, realizes the intellectualized control. Slightly to miniature machinery, like wristwatch, hearing aid. The integrated device level's low end, lowers to several Yuan, several Yuan, causes the monolithic integrated circuit to popularize sufficiently to many civil electrical appliances, the electronic toy. The monolithic integrated circuit constitutes the modern electron system penetrated into various each household, is changing our life, like in family sound, television, washer, microwave oven, telephone, burglary protectionsystem, air conditioner and so on. The monolithic integrated circuit innovated the original electronic system, after like the microwave oven uses the monolithic integrated circuit control, but carries on the clock establishment, the procedure memory, the power control conveniently; After the air conditioner uses the monolithic integrated circuit, not only the remote control parameter establishment is convenient, the running status transforms automatically, but may also realize the frequency conversion control. After at present many domestic electric appliances like VCD, DVD only then the monolithic integrated circuit appears, only then possibly realizes its function.The embedded system has led entire electronic industry the present electron primary device industry besides the microprocessor, the embedded system component, mostly is revolves the modern electron systems assembly the primary device industry, for example satisfies the pressed key which the man-machine interaction uses, LED/LCD demonstrated that the actuation, the LED/LCD display unit, the pronunciation integrated device and so on, satisfies the data acquisition channel request the digital sensor, ADC, the data acquisition module, the signal recuperation module and so on, satisfies the servo to actuate the control DAC, the solid relay, to step-by-step electrical machinery controller, the frequency conversion control unit and so on, satisfies the correspondence request each kind of main line driver, the level switch and so on. world electron primary device under the embedded system leads, along satisfies the embedded application fully the modern electron system request development. This causes the original classical electron system's world to be getting more and more small. In the electronic system's each kind of jobholders should change the modern electron system's broad road as soon as monolithic integrated circuit will accomplish the new generation electron outstanding the 50s, the radio world has accomplished severalgeneration of outstanding people, then the now monolithic integrated circuit world will accomplish the new generation electron outstanding person.The monolithic integrated circuit leads you to enter intellectualized electron domain , if treats as the classical electron system a deathly stiff electronic system, then the intellectualized modern electron system has “the life” the electronic system. The monolithic integrated circuit application system's hardware archit ecture gives the electronic system “the stature”, the monolithic integrated circuit application system's application procedure entrusts with it “the life”. For example, when design intellectualization instrument monitor's demonstration function, may when starting display system self-checking result, not when come on the line demonstrated each kind of readiness for action, the instrument moves when demonstrated the movement process, after end of job, might demonstrate the current result, the self-checking result, the primary data, each kind of processing report form and so on. When unattended, may assign each kind of automatic movement function. The electron system's intelligence changes into the without limits boundary, does not need the hardware source the addition to be able frequently to realize each kind to renovate the function. This is also one of current many domestic electric appliances function massive addition factors.The monolithic integrated circuit leads you to enter calculates the mechanic to control domain in the 21st century is the universe enters Computer Age the century, many people are not are making the computer are using the computer. In uses in computer's people, is engaged in the embedded system application the talented person enters truly to computer system's internal software and hardware system, can comprehend computer's intellectualized essence truly and grasp the intellectualized design the knowledge. Obtains from the studymonolithic integrated circuit applied technology raises one of now computer application software and hardware technology talented person's best paths.The monolithic integrated circuit leads you to enter most charming electronic world the alone charm the monolithic function to cause you to realize computer's true meaning, you may use the monolithic integrated circuit to begin to design the intelligent toy personally, may design the different application procedure to realize the different function. Both has the hardware to manufacture and has the software design, also moves the brain, to begin. The primary level potential intelligence toy, programs with the macro instruction. Intermediate level potential some intelligence controller, like computer mouse, intelligent vehicle, each kind of remote-control model. The high-level level potential robot, like the robot soccer game, the develop industry control unit, the network service and so on, and uses the assembly language or the higher order language design application procedure. Electronic industry future which form regarding the monolithic integrated circuit and the embedded system, will provide the broad world for the electronic amateur, was radio the world the same year to be broader than, to be richer, is more lasting, has the charm the electronic world. Joins in the monolithic integrated circuit world to come, will cause your life to profit.单片机历史单片机诞生于20世纪70年代末，经历了SCM、MCU、SOC三大阶段。