社会语言学期末复习资料

合集下载

语言学纲要期末复习资料

语言学纲要重点第一章语言的功能一、语言的社会功能（给出句子，判断属于哪一个？）P71. 语言的信息传递功能信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。

这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。

信息的传递是社会中人与人的基本交流方式。

通过星系的交流，人们才可以在社会中彼此分享各自的经验感知，更好地分工协作。

人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。

语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。

2. 语言的人际互动功能语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。

互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。

第二章语言是符号系统一、语言与符号（符号的性质与特征、征候）P221.语言是符号系统，这是语言本身的性质和特点。

2.符号：就是用甲事物简单地来代表乙事物。

符号都由形式和意义两个方面组成，如：形式：红灯红绿灯（符号）意义：禁止通行3.征候：征候是事物本身的特征，它传递的某种信息，可以通过它自身的物质属性来判断。

如：在山里赶路，看到远处炊烟袅袅升起，就可以知道那里有可以邪教或者投宿的人家。

二、语言符号的层级系统（哪几层，哪几级？）P28语言的符号不是互不相干的一盘散沙，而是有组织、有条理的系统。

语言的系统是什么样的？这个问题很复杂，语言学家在不断地探索。

多数学者的看法可以概括成：语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。

这里先讲语言的分层情况。

语言的底层是一套音位，一种语言的音位的数目虽然只有几十个，却能构成数目众多的组合。

这些组合为语言符号准备了形式的部分。

语言的上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又分为若干级。

音系层：音位（几十个）→音节→音步→…语调段语法层：语素（几千个）→词→词组/短语→小句→句子三、组合关系和聚合关系（理解）P30语言链条上由符号组成的每一个环节都可以卸下来，换上另一个环节，组成新的链条。

语言学复习资料

语言学复习资料下定义1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics.2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers.11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head positionin another is known as head movement.12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word.13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.14.(P70)Relational opposites（关系反义词）: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.15.(P74)Argument（论元）: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.16.(P77)Pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.17.(P81)Constatives（表述句）: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.填空题第一章1. (P3) If a linguistic aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive（描写性的）. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive（规定性的）.2.(P4) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时的）study; the description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic（历时的）study.3.(P4) Langue(语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语)refers to the realization of language in actual use4. (P5) Chomsky defines competence(语言能力）as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance （语言表现）the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章5.（P17)As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(发音符号/辨音符）6. (P23) A phoneme(音素）is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value, it is an abstract value.7. (P24) It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音素对照),e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].8. (P24)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occur the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to from a minimal pair(最小配对).e.g pill and bill, pill and till are a minimal pair.9.(P25) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, the rules are called sequential rules(序列规则).10.(P27) The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feature(超音段特征).第三章11.(P33)Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme(自由词素). Whereas a morpheme that must beattached to another one is called bound morpheme(粘着词素).12.(P33) The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs(词素变体).第四章13. (P44) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语), the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.14. (P45)Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head(中心语), specifier(标志语）and complement(补语).15. (P48)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andtermed subcategorization（次范畴化）.16. (P52) Transformation(转换）is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.第五章17. (P67-68)Synonymy:近义关系的分类:1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)-- synonyms used in different regional dialects.(来自不同地域的人使用同一种语言产生的不同）2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词) -- synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative(评价) meaning4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义)5) Semantically different synonyms（不考）18.(P69) When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音不同形不同义). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形不同音不同义). When twowords are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(同形同音不同义).19. (P70) Antonymy:反义关系的分类1) Gradable antonyms(可分等级的反义词)2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)20.(P72) Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.第六章21. (P81)Three Speech Acts:三种言语行为According to Austin new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act(言内行为), illocutionary act(言外行为), and perlocutionary act(言后行为).22.(P90)Pragmatic failure(语用失误) occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary(言外之意) force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of c ommunication.第八章23.(P111) Speech variety(言语变体), or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.24. (P117) Halliday further distinguishes three social variables(语域三变量)that determine the register: field of discourse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式).25. (P122) The term diglossia(双言制度) refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.上一页下一页。

社会语言学概论复习资料

社会语言学概论复习资料社会语言学概论复习资料社会语言学是研究语言与社会之间相互关系的学科。

它探究语言是如何受到社会因素的影响，以及语言如何反过来塑造社会。

本文将从语言的社会功能、语言变异和语言变化等方面进行复习。

一、语言的社会功能语言是人类社会交往的重要工具，它不仅仅是传递信息的媒介，还承载着社会认同、身份表达和社会关系构建的功能。

在社会语言学中，我们常常关注语言的社会功能。

首先，语言可以用来表达社会认同。

人们通过使用特定的语言、方言或口音来展示自己的身份认同。

例如，某些地区的居民可能会使用特定的方言或口音，以显示他们的地域归属感。

其次，语言可以用来建立社会关系。

通过使用特定的语言风格、词汇选择和语法结构，人们可以表达自己的社会地位和与他人的关系。

例如，在某些文化中，使用敬语可以显示对他人的尊重和礼貌。

最后，语言还可以用来构建社会共识。

通过使用共同的语言规范和语言习惯，人们可以建立共同的理解和共享的价值观。

这有助于社会成员之间的沟通和合作。

二、语言变异语言变异是指语言在不同社会群体中的差异。

这种差异可以体现在词汇、发音、语法和语用等方面。

语言变异的研究对于理解社会语言学具有重要意义。

首先，地理变异是一种常见的语言变异形式。

不同地区的人们可能使用不同的方言或口音。

例如，中国的南方和北方人们在词汇、发音和语法上存在明显的差异。

其次，社会变异是另一种重要的语言变异形式。

社会变异指的是不同社会群体之间的语言差异。

这种差异可能与年龄、性别、职业、教育水平等社会因素有关。

例如，不同年龄段的人可能在词汇选择和语法结构上存在差异。

最后，语用变异是指语言在不同社交场景中的差异。

人们在不同的社交环境中使用不同的语言风格和语言策略。

例如，在正式场合中使用正式语言，而在非正式场合中使用非正式语言。

三、语言变化语言是一个动态的系统，不断发展和变化。

语言变化是指语言在时间上的演变和发展。

社会语言学关注语言变化的原因和过程。

社会语言学复习资料

社会语言学复习资料社会语言学是一门研究语言在社会中使用的学科。

它旨在理解语言与社会的联系，并探讨语言如何被用来塑造社会关系、群体认同和身份。

在本篇文章中，我们将提供一些社会语言学的重要概念和术语，以及一些相关的实例和问题，帮助大家复习这门学科。

1、语言变异语言变异是指语言在不同社会群体中的变化。

这种变化可能源于社会因素，如年龄、性别、社会地位等。

例如，在一种语言中，可能会出现标准语和方言两种形式，而这两种形式在不同的社会群体中被使用。

语言变异的研究有助于我们理解语言的多样性以及语言如何在不同的社会语境中被使用。

2、语言与社会阶层语言与社会阶层有密切的联系。

不同社会阶层的人在语音、词汇、语法等方面使用的语言可能会有所不同。

例如，在英语中，标准书面语通常被认为是受过教育的中产阶级使用的语言，而口语化的表达方式则常常被认为是下层社会的特征。

研究语言与社会阶层的关系可以帮助我们理解社会阶层如何影响人们使用语言的方式。

3、语言与性别语言与性别之间也存在联系。

男性和女性在语音、语法和词汇方面使用的语言可能会有所不同。

例如，在某些语言中，女性通常使用更为礼貌和正式的语调，而男性则更倾向于使用粗鲁和直接的言语。

研究语言与性别之间的关系可以帮助我们理解性别如何影响人们使用语言的方式。

4、语言接触语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的接触和交流。

这种交流可能会导致一种语言的词汇、语法和表达方式被另一种语言吸收或改变。

例如，在多元文化的城市中，可能会存在英语和汉语的混合使用，这种混合使用在日常生活中很常见。

研究语言接触可以帮助我们理解语言的融合和变化过程。

5、语言死亡语言死亡是指一种语言在社会中不再被使用或传承。

这通常是由于社会、政治和经济因素的影响。

例如，殖民统治和全球化可能会导致一种语言的消亡。

研究语言死亡可以帮助我们理解语言的演变和社会变革之间的关系。

总之，社会语言学是一门非常有趣的学科，它涉及到语言和社会之间的多个方面。

社会语言学概论复习资料word

名词解释1.第二语言：第二语言指一个人除了第一语言之外，另外学习掌握的第二种语言，经常作为辅助语言以及通用语。

此外，第二语言亦可与第一语言并列为个人母语。

2.方法论：方法论，就是人们认识世界、改造世界的根本方法，是人们用什么样的方式、方法来观察事物和处理问题。

概括地说，世界观主要解决世界“是什么”的问题，方法论主要解决“怎么办”的问题。

方法论是一种以解决问题为目标的体系或系统，通常涉及对问题阶段、任务、工具、方法技巧的论述。

方法论会对一系列具体的方法进行分析研究、系统总结并最终提出较为一般性的原则。

3.复杂代码：那些结构比较完整和复杂、较多使用从句和连接词等复杂句法形式、很好地表现说话者的个性特点和语言修养的语言表达形式，叫复杂代码。

P474.惯用语：惯用语是一种习用的固定的词组，既有三音节为主的固定格式，又有比较灵活的结构和强烈的修辞色彩。

它通过比喻等方法而获得修辞转义。

5.宏观社会语言学：主要研究语言中的整体性、全局性的问题，包括语言与民族、一个国家的语言政策、语言规划、语言的规范化等，是把语言问题当作一个重要的社会问题来看待，例如我国推广普通话的政策和少数民族的语言政策。

P56.话语分析：话语分析也作”篇章分析"，是研究语言的一种方法。

以大于句子的语言单位为研究对象，通过对实际使用中的语言的观察，探索语言的组织特征和使用特征，并从语言的交际功能和语言的使用者的认知特征方面来解释语言中的制约因素。

7.混合语：混合语是指由两种或两种以上的语言由于接触而混合成的语言。

混合语既不是甲语言，也不是乙语言，而是第三种语言。

P968.借词：借词就是借用其他民族语言中词语的形式而产生的次，又称外来词汇。

P1299.禁忌：禁忌语也是语言魔力的一种表现形式。

P153禁忌语指人们在说话时，由于某种原因，不能、不敢或不愿说出某些具有不愉快的联想色彩的词语。

而以之代替的词语。

10.局限代码：英国社会学家伯恩斯坦把那些结构简单、大量使用人称代词和附加问句、句法选择比较易于“预测”（较为普通，缺少个性）的语言表达方式，叫局限代码。

社会语言学概论知识点总结

社会语言学概论知识点总结社会语言学是语言学的一个重要分支领域，它研究语言在社会和文化环境中的运用和演变。

通过社会语言学的研究，我们可以了解语言与社会之间的相互关系，深化对语言的理解，促进语言教育和跨文化交流。

下面，我们将对社会语言学的一些重要知识点进行总结和分析。

一、语言和社会1. 语言的社会功能语言不仅是人类交流的工具，更是社会交往的重要媒介。

社会语言学研究语言在社会中的作用和功能，包括信息传递、社交互动、文化传承等方面。

通过研究语言的社会功能，可以更好地理解语言的本质和价值，对语言运用和教育有深远影响。

2. 语言和身份认同语言是个体和群体身份认同的重要标志。

社会语言学研究了语言与社会身份、地域、文化等因素的关系，揭示了语言对身份认同的影响和作用。

不同的社会群体使用不同的语言和变体，反映了他们的特定社会身份和归属感。

3. 语言政治与权力语言是权力和政治的工具，在不同社会和文化中存在着语言的政治化现象。

社会语言学研究了语言政治对语言使用和语言变体的影响，以及不同语言在权力和政治领域中的地位和作用。

研究语言政治有助于深化对权力和文化关系的认识，促进语言权利的保护与促进。

二、语言变体与语言变化1. 语言变体社会语言学研究了语言的地域变体、社会变体、个人变体等不同层面上的语言变体现象。

地域变体指不同地区的语言差异，社会变体指不同社会群体的语言使用差异，个人变体指个体语言使用的差异。

了解语言变体可以帮助我们理解语言的多样性和动态性，促进跨文化交流和交际。

2. 语言变化语言是不断变化的，社会语言学研究了语言变化的原因和规律。

语言变化可以是由外部因素（如社会变迁、接触语言等）或内部因素（如语音、词汇、语法等方面的演变）所导致。

了解语言变化有助于我们把握语言发展的趋势和规律，促进语言教育和翻译工作。

三、语言接触与语言习得1. 语言接触语言接触指不同语言和语言变体之间的交际和交流。

社会语言学研究了语言接触的影响和结果，包括语言借词、语言转换、典型联系等现象。

社会语言学-中南大学网络教育2014年6月课程考试复习资料

中南大学网络教育课程考试《社会语言学》期末考试复习资料试题：就某地的语言兼用（双语）现象进行实地调查，并撰写出调查报告。

（100分）要求：1.调查数据准确无误，真实可信；2.调查采用问卷与访谈相结合的方法进行；3.调查报告必须附上调查问卷样本和典型的访谈材料；4.语言表达准确、流畅，行文规范。

凤凰县七良桥乡语言使用情况调查报告湖南省凤凰县是一个多民族聚居地，主要有苗、壮、侗、土家、汉五个民族居住，其中汉族较少。

每个民族都使用自己本民族的语言，有的少数民族会使用其他民族的语言。

汉语是汉族的主要语言工具，但是也会使用其他民族的语言。

七良桥乡七良桥村是一个土家族村子，其中也居住着少数汉族。

本文在对七良桥乡进行调查的基础上，通过整理资料，对土家族语言使用情况，语言态度做出了分析，以此反映该地区的语言和谐状况。

一、调查情况概述1. 调查情况概述2010年7月20日，中央民族大学调研团共10人，赴贵州省黔东南苗族侗族自治州翠里乡进行了为期一周的调查。

其中包括七良桥乡的语言使用情况、语言态度的调查。

此次调查采用问卷调查法、实地观察法、访谈法等，结合田野调查所获取的资料进行分析研究。

本文主要为七良桥乡的详细调查报告。

2. 七良桥村情况概述七良桥村全村共98户，390人，两个自然村。

七良桥村村委会所在地约81户。

其中有一个自然村叫安吉。

在村中，男女老少均讲土家语，儿童入学前大多不通汉语，六七十岁的老年人有一部分也不会讲汉语。

周边村寨有宰垮、宰转、乌雅。

跟瑶族交流主要用客话（汉语方言），跟侗族交流主要使用侗语，跟苗族交流可以使用苗语，但苗族会讲土家语的比较少。

土家族（潘姓）自称从贵州黎平迁到湖南凤凰。

平时本村交流均用土家语，在集市上，认识的人用土家语，不认识的人用客话。

每年节日有春节、元宵、村社（时间不定，根据通书来确定）、清明（不过三月三）、四月八、端午、六月初二、七月十四、八月中秋，九月以后没有节日。

族际通婚的情况比较普遍，主要通婚对象为苗族和侗族，少数为汉族和瑶族。

社会语言学期末重点总结

社会语言学期末重点总结社会语言学是语言学的一个重要分支领域，主要研究语言与社会之间的相互关系。

它涵盖了语言的结构、习得、变异以及语用等方面，旨在理解语言使用的社会背景和语言变化的社会条件。

本文将总结社会语言学的几个重要概念和理论，以及一些研究方法和应用领域。

一、社会语言学的基本概念和理论1. 社会角色和语言使用：社会语言学认为，人们的社会角色和身份会影响他们的语言使用。

例如，年龄、性别、社会地位等因素都会对人们的语言选择和风格产生影响。

2. 语言变异和语言变化：语言变异是指语言系统内部的差异，而语言变化则指的是语言随着时间推移发生的变化。

社会语言学研究这些变异和变化的原因和机制，例如社会因素、地理因素、历史因素等。

3. 社会网络和语言：社会网络是指由个体之间的联系构成的复杂关系网络。

社会语言学通过研究社会网络中的语言交互和信息传递，揭示语言使用的社会特点和规律。

4. 社会变量和语言变异：社会变量是指与个体的社会身份、背景和关系相关的因素。

社会语言学通过研究社会变量与语言变异的关系，了解不同社会群体之间的语言差异和变异现象。

二、社会语言学的研究方法1. 问卷调查：问卷调查是社会语言学中常用的研究方法之一，通过向受访者提供一系列问题，了解他们的语言使用和态度等。

2. 语料库研究：语料库研究通过收集和分析大量真实语言数据，揭示语言使用的统计规律和趋势。

这种方法可以帮助我们了解语言变异和变化的社会因素。

3. 访谈和观察：访谈和观察是社会语言学中直接获取语言数据的方法。

研究者可以通过与受访者交谈和观察他们的语言使用来了解社会语言现象。

4. 社群参与：社群参与是指研究者深入社会群体中，与其共处一段时间，并参与其中的语言活动。

这种方法可以更好地理解社会语言现象和背后的社会背景。

三、社会语言学的应用领域1. 语言教育：社会语言学在语言教育中具有重要应用价值。

研究者可以通过了解学习者的社会身份和背景，设计更适合他们的教学方法和材料。

社会语言学考试资料

. Sociolinguistics：is a branch of linguistics which studies all aspects of the relationship between language and society.What are the main factors leading to the growth of sociolinguistics?A. The general recognition of the importance of the fact that language is a very variable phenomenon and that this variability may have as much to do with society as with language.B. The demand made by the development of modern sciences and society and the financial support given by some capitalist governments such as the U.S. government.C. The healthy climate for its growth created by the development of disciplines like sociology, anthropology and psychology as it takes concepts and findings from them.Sociolinguistics and related disciplinesSociolinguistics is related to other disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, education and planning as it has drawn a lot (e.g. taking concepts and findings) from the work done by anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, educators and planners who also use much work of sociolinguistics to help their studies.The present situation of sociolinguistics？a. It has been a very important new branch of linguistics.b. It has been a recognized part of most courses at university level on linguistics or language.c. It is one of the main growth points in the study of language, from the point of both teaching and research.Features of the present sociolinguistics:Many numerous theories, vast amounts of data, and important consequences of new discoveries for areas such as education and language planning, but there is no central doctrine that must be adhered to。

社会语言学复习资料讲义

绪论1、社会语言学社会语言学是研究语言与社会的关系的一门学科。

它从不同的社会科学去考察语言，进而研究在不同的社会条件下产生的语言变异。

变素不同的社会条件和语言变异因此社会语言学是研究社会与语言的共变的一门学科。

2、语言语言是一个特定的社会的成员所说的话。

这一定义简明扼要；缺点是：不好界定。

因为：1）语言具有不同的形式；2）人们可能使用不同的语言。

3、语言和社会之间可能存在的关系1）社会结构影响或决定语言结构（行为）；2）语言结构（行为）影响或决定社会结构；3）语言和社会相互影响；4）语言结构和社会结构没有关系1）分支说: ①人物：英国郝德森。

②观点：社会语言学就是“社会＋语言学”。

2）“两属”说: ①人物：前苏联德舍里耶夫。

②观点：“社会语言学不仅仅属于语言科学的范围，它诞生于其他学科之间，是一门学科际的学科”。

3）“语用”说: ①人物：美国佐伊基。

②观点：社会语言学主要研究who says what to whom on which occasion（什么人在什么场合对什么人说什么）。

4）“应用”说: ①人物：陈建民、陈章太。

②观点：社会语言学是研究语言与社会共变、语言与文化共存的一门应用学科。

5）“边缘”说: ①人物：陈原②观点：“社会语言学是一门多学科性交叉学科；从它发展的趋向看来，它不只是社会科学若干学科的交叉，而且是社会科学和自然科学的接合部之一。

……边缘学科是富有生命力的，社会语言学也不例外”。

4、社会语言学和语言社会学●有学者将“社会语言学”分为“宏观社会语言学”和“微观社会语言学”，“宏观社会语言学”相当于“语言社会学”。

●一方面这种区分是必要的，前者侧重于联系社会研究语言，后者侧重于联系语言联系社会。

但两方面的研究需要互补，不可画地为牢，这样才构成完整的“社会—语言”学。

●微观社会语言学——研究小群体的言语特征及其与社会环境的相互关系的●宏观社会语言学——研究国家或地区的语言状况及其与社会变迁的相互关系的三、研究对象●社会语言学要研究语言和客观的社会诸因素（如社会结构的各种不同成分）之间的关系，而且还要研究主观的社会诸因素（如社会态度、社会价值等）在语言活动中的反映。

社会语言学期末复习

Key Terms1. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication. It is the study of language in relation to society. That is to say, in sociolinguistics, we study language and society in order to find out as much as we can about what kind of thing language is. Coulmas puts it that sociolinguistics investigates “how social str ucture influences the way people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such as class, sex, and age.” In sociolinguistics, we study, for example, linguistic variation, dialects, language attitude and its effect etc.2. Independent variable & dependent variableAn independent variable is an activity or characteristic believed to make a difference with respect to some behavior; a dependent variable is the change or difference in behavior that occurs as a result of the independent variable. For example, in Labov’s study of /r/, the social status of the people is an independent variable and the pronunciation of /r/ is the dependent variable as a result of the change of the social status.3. VarietyVariety refers to a set of linguistic items or human speech patterns (sounds, words, grammatical features), which can be uniquely associated with some external factor (e.g. a geographical area or a social group). For example, Black English is a variety of English related with the racial group and Beijing dialect is also a variety of Chinese Mandarin related with the geographical area.4. Language and dialectLanguage refers either to a single linguistic norm or to a group of related norms while dialect refers to one of the norms. For example, in Britain, the British speak the English language and there are dialects such as Yorkshire dialect etc.5. Style and registerStyle refers to differences in speech or writing in terms of degree of formality. It is usually associated with variations in situation, topic, addressee, and location. For example, our talk is much more formal in a public speech and less informal in daily conversation. Similarly we would talk more respectfully with an interviewer and less so with classmates or family members. Register refers to differences in speech or writing in terms of vocabulary. It is usually associated with a certain occupational or social group. For example, jargon is the vocabulary differences because of different occupations.6. Standard variety and non-standard varietyStandard variety is the variety which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers. Other varieties are regarded as non-standard varieties. For example, in China, Mandarin is the standard variety that has the highest status, and is used in media, education etc and other varieties are non-standard ones.7. StandardizationStandardization refers to the process of making some aspect of language usage conforms to a standard variety. This may take place in connection with the writing or spelling system of a particular language and is usually implemented by a government authority.8. Dialect geography and isogloss.Dialect geography refers to the study of geographic distribution of linguistic items, the results plotted on maps (dialect atlases). Lines marking the boundaries of linguistic features on such maps are isoglosses. For example, in the following map which shows the distribution of /r/, /u/ and // pronunciation, the lines, both dotted and real lines are called isogloss./r/-full &/ //r/-less & / / /r/-full & /u//r/-less &/u/9. NetworksNetworks refer to groups of people who communicate with each other regularly. The density of a social network depends on the degree to which the people who form the social network all know each other.The concept “networks” is used to view how an individual relates to oth er individuals in society. That is, it studies how and on what occasions a specific individual A interacts now with B, then with C, and then again with D, how intensive the various relationships are, (does A interact more frequently with B than with C or D?) and how extensive A’s relationship with B is in the sense of how many other individuals interact with both A and B in whatever activity brings them together. People can be involved in a dense network if the people you know and interact with also know and interact with one another. If they do not, the network is a loose one. And people are said to be involved in a multiplex network if the people within it are tied together in more than one way.10. VariationVariation refers to language differences in speech and writing between speakers of different ages, genders, social classes or identities; or differences in differences in different situation, topic, addressee, and location; including difference over time. For example, to refer to the same automotive vehicle suitable for hauling, Americans and British would use different words: truck v.s. lorry, and spell the same word meaning the middle as something as “centre” v.s. “center”.11. Speech repertoireSpeech repertoire refers to the range of linguistic varieties which the speaker has at his disposal and which he may appropriately use as a member of his speech community. It can be used to describe the communicative competence of individual speakers. Each person will then have a distinctive speech repertoire. And quite often , many individuals will have virtually identical repertoire.12. IdiolectIdiolect refers to the speech characteristics and linguistic behavior of individuals.13. Lingua francaLingua franca refers to a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them. It can be spoken in a variety of ways. For example, today English is used in very many places and for very many purposes as a lingua franca, e.g., in travel and often in trade, commerce, and international relation. And the English can serve as a lingua franca in many parts of the world, and for some speakers, it is a native language, and still others a foreign language.14. Speech communitySpeech community has been defined differently by different people. But generally it can be used to refer to a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one linguistic variety in common. Possible standards for defining a speech community are one single speech variety, shared attitudes towards linguistic behavior in the community, and in-group social cohesiveness.15. PidginPidgin refers to a linguistic variety which develops as a contact language when groups of people with different mother tongues come into contact and communicate with one another, as when foreign traders communicate with the local population or workers on plantations or in factories communicate with one another or with their bosses. It i s no one’s first language. For example, Tok Pisin is used as a unifying language among speakers of many different languages in Papua New Guinea.Characteristics of pidgin: simplifications of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar16. CreoleCreole refer s to a “pidgin” which has become the native language of a group of speakers, being used for all or many of their daily communicative needs.Characteristics of Creole when compared with pidgins: larger vocabulary; more complex grammar; more styles.17. CodeCode is a term used instead of language, speech variety, or dialect. It is sometimes considered to be a more neutral term than the others.18. DiglossiaDiglossia refers to a situation in which two very different codes exist side by side in a speech community, each with a distinct range of social functions. The key defining characteristic of diglossia is that the two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions. The High variety (or H-variety) is usually more standardized, and is used in government, the media, education, and for religious services; the Low-variety (or L-variety) is used in family conversation and other relatively informal setting. For example, in Switzerland, there are Standard German (H) and Swiss German (L) varieties, with the former one used in most of the formal situations, and the latter for other informal settings. And in Haiti, there are Standard French (H) and Haitian Creole (L).19. BilingualismBilingualism can refer to the community where two languages are used, and the ability to use tow languages either by an individual or by a speech community. Balanced, compound, and coordinate bilingualism20. Code-switchingCode-switching refers to a change by a speaker (or writer) from one code to another. It is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries, to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations. For example, to hide meaning from a third party present at the conversation, the two speakers may switch to their hometown dialect to distance their relation.21. code-mixingCode-mixing is the mixed use of codes. Usually the two codes involved are not of equal position with one being predominant and the other subordinate. For example, “明天是peter的part,我们开一个party,好吗?”22. Implicational scaleImplicational scale is a term from variation theory particularly associated with the study of the post-creole continuum. It is introduced by the American linguist David DeCamp in 1971 as a way of showing relationships between linguistic varieties. He demonstrated that certain linguistic forms from the Jamaican social dialect continuum had both creole and standard variants. There variants can be ranked in terms of their “creoleness” and “standardness” on an implicatio nal hierarchy that is observed by (nearly all) speakers, such that usage by a speaker of creole forms from a particular point on the hierarchy implies that one can predict that he or she will also use creole forms from lower down on the hierarchy, but not necessarily from higher up. That is, some mesolectal forms are more basilectal or acrolectal than others. Similarly, use of standard forms from a particular point on the continuum also implies use of standard forms from higher up on the hierarchy, but not necessarily use of those from lower down.23. CultureCulture is the sum total of all contributions of a group of people, in a designated area, within a given time. It represents, more specifically, the aesthetic or intellectual achievement or appreciation of an individual or a society, and also the lifestyle of a society as passed on from generation to generation.24. Whorfian hypothesisWhorfian hypothesis has two versions: strong one and weak one.The strong version says that one’s thinking is c ompletely determined by his native language because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language.The categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommsurable with those of other systems.The weak version puts it that the structure does not determine the world-view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a language toward adopting a particular world-view.25. Prototype theoryA prototype is the first model that is made of something new, first or original example, e.g. an aircraft, from which others have been or will be copied or developed.Prototype theory refers to the idea that concepts are best viewed as prototypes. A prototype-based concept can be learned on the basis of a very small number of instances, perhaps a single one, and without any kind of formal definition.26. EthnographyEthnography is a non-manipulative study of the cultural characteristics of a group in real world rather than laboratory setting, utilizing ethnographic techniques and providing a socio-cultural interpretation of the research data. For example, an ethnography of a communicative event is a description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that event achieves its objective. And Lindenfeld’s ethnographical study offers an account of the language of a dozen long-standing urban marketplaces in Paris etc, the talk of vendors, vendor-customer talk, politeness routines, small talk, jokes, insults, etc. An alternative approach to devising ethnographies is to attempt to describe the different functions of language in communication. 27. EthnomethodologyEthnomethodology is the study of how individuals create and understand their daily lives. Subjects for such studies are not people in primitive tribes, but those in contemporary society. It is a branch of sociology, which ahs links with conversation analysis because of its use of recorded conversation material as data. Most ethnomethodologists study not language or speech, but talk. In particular, they are interested in what is not said. They focus on the shared common-sense knowledge speakers have of their society which they can leave unstated in conversation because it is taken fro granted by all participants.28. Communicative competenceCommunicative competence refers to the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentence, but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom. CC refers to whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible, feasible, appropriate, and in fact done. It includes linguistic competence; sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.29. Speech actsUtterances as functional units in communication30. Turn-takingTurn-taking refers to the distribution of talk across participants in conversation. There are there ways of turn-taking (degree of control). Firstly, turn-taking happens by mentioning his/her name, current speaker selects the next speaker. Secondly, by asking a question, current speaker invites another speaker to speak but leaves the choice open. Thirdly, a certain hearer self-selects as the next speaker.31. Adjacency pairsIt refers to sequences of two utterances that are adjacent, produced by different speakers, ordered as a first part and a second part, typed so that a particular first part requires a particular second part or range of second parts. For example, a question can lead to an answer, which can lead to a comment, which can lead to an acknowledgment, and so on.32. SolidarityIt refers to support and unity resulting from common interests or feelings in communication, and feelings of shared experience and common group membership.33. PolitenessIt refers to recognition of other’s rights in a social situation. (positive and negative politeness by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson)34. Address termsAddress terms refer to second-person pronouns, or names, or titles, or endearments, and expressions used when speaking to someone. For example, the same person may be addressed by “you”, “Mr. James Martin”, “Professor Martin”, “dear”, or other expression.35. Language planning“Language planning is a government a uthorized, long-term, sustained and conscious effort to alter a language’s function in a society for the purpose of solving communication problems” (Weinsten, 1980). It refers to deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of language. Typically it will involve the development of goals, objectives and strategies to change the way language is used. At a governmental level, language planning takes the form of language policy. Many nations have language regulatory bodies which are specifically charged with formulating and implementinglanguage planning policies.36. Status planningIt refers to deliberate efforts to allocate the functions of languages and literacies within a speech community. It involves status choices, making a particular language or variety an “official language”, “national language”, etc. Often it will involve elevating a language or dialect into a prestige variety, which may be at the expense of competing dialects. Status planning is often part and parcel of creating a new writing system. Status planning tends to be the most controversial aspect of language planning.37. Corpus planningIt refers to prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language. This may be achieved by creating new words or expressions, modifying old ones, or selecting among alternative forms. Corpus planning aims to develop the resources of a language so that it becomes an appropriate medium of communication for modern topics and forms of discourse, equipped with the terminology needed fro use in administration, education, etc. Corpus planning is often related to the standardization of a language, involving the preparation of a normative orthography, grammar, and dictionary for the guidance of writers, and speakers in a speech community. Efforts at linguistic purism and the exclusion of foreign words also belong the courpus planning, as do spelling reform and the introduction of new writing system.38. Linguistic assimilation and linguistic pluralismLinguistic assimilation is the belief that everyone, regardless of origin, should learn the dominant language of the society. (France example) Linguistic pluralism is the recognition of more than one language. It can be territorially based or individually based or there may be some combination of the two. It can be complete or partial, so that all or only some aspects of life can be conducted in more than one language in a society. (Canada)39. Vernacularizaion and internationalismVernacularization is the restoration or elaboration of an indigenous language and its adoption as an official language, e.g., Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesia.Internationalism is the adoption of a non-indigenous language of wider communication either as an official language or for such purposes as education or trade, e.g., English in Singapore, India, the Philipines, and Papua New Guinea.1.What is the scope of sociolinguistic research?The scope of sociolinguistic includes linguistic situation; dialects; language in communication; language attitude and its effect; language contact and language change; language planning and language standardization.2.What insights can we get from sociolinguistic?①Language is not a close and abstract system, and it is a social interaction and a conduct of communication.②Linguistic competence includes knowledge of language and knowledge of language use.③Linguistic variation and language change are closely related to the social context.3.What are the major approaches in sociolinguistic?①Linguistic sociolinguistic②Ethno-sociolinguistic③The sociology of language④The social psychology of language⑤Pragmatic sociolinguistic4.What is the interactional sociolinguistic research method?Research methods in IS involve several stages:① A preliminary period of ethnography②The main process of data collection, transcription and analysis③ A final effort of confirming the findings as consonant with current knowledge. Question 5. Please compare linguistics and sociolinguisticsLinguistics can be defined as a scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics includes at least five branches, namely, phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic.Sociolinguistics is a kind of macro-linguistics, which shows an interdisciplinary nature between linguistics and sociology. The scope of sociolinguistic includes linguistic situation; dialects; language in communication; language attitude and its effect; language contact and language change; language planning and language standardization.6.Please compare dialectology and sociolinguistics.The study of language in society is called sociolinguistics. The real basis for much of sociolinguistics is that the differences in language among members of a speech community or between different regions speaking different varieties of the same language are often meaningful for society. Not everyone who speaks a given language speaks it in the same way. An individual's particular way of speaking is called an idiolect. Language variants spoken by entire groups of people are referred to as dialects. Dialectology is a branch of sociolinguistics that studies the systematic variants of a language. The term dialect was first coined in 1577 from the Latin dialectus, way of speaking. Dialectal variation is present in most language areas and often has important social implications.But dialectology and sociolinguistics have many differences as well:(1)Dialectology focuses on the pronunciation of the dialects, aiming at summarizing thephonology, but sociolinguistics does not necessarily do so, focusing on the linguistic variations, that is, the differences because of different statuses, different ages and different situations.(2)Both dialectologists and sociolinguists use the on-the-spot research method, but the formerwill regard the one-person-from-one-place as the standard, that is, the informant should be strictly selected without considering the aspects like age, gender, social class and so on. But the latter focuses on the different social strata and random sampling from more people and then proceed with the quantitative analysis to reach the linguistic rules.(3)Dialectologists indulge in the researches on the rural dialects and the dialects of old people,trying to find the rules of language slow changes; but sociolinguists more venture into the cities, because in cities there are more social classes, more linguistic phenomena.7. Explain the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis in your own words and give your comments.Explain:讲义答案：(1)One’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one cannot butperceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language.(2)The categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system andincommensurable with those of other systems.strong version：The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis makes the claim that the structure of the language one habitually uses influences the manner in which one thinks and behaves.weak version：The structure does not determine the world-view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a language toward adopting a particular world-view. Comment:The strong version goes to extremes but the weak version is acceptable. Different languages may refer to certain characteristics of the real world in terms of different sub-set of characteristics. However, speakers of both languages may still be aware of all the characteristics. The way a given language encodes experience semantically makes aspects of that experience not exclusively accessible, but just more salient for the users of that language. It’s absurd to say speakers of one language cannot have access to modern scientific thought because their language doesn’t allow them to.8. Do taboo and e uphemism serve any socially useful purpose? Or are they just ‘relics of the Dark Ages’ ?Taboo and euphemism do serve some socially useful purpose.Taboo is the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behavior believed to be harmful to its members in that it would cause them anxiety, embarrassment, or shame.Standards and norms change, linguistic taboos are also violated on occasion to draw attention to oneself, or to show contempt, or to be aggressive or provocative, or to mock authority, such as “damn it”, “shit” “you bastard”, “you son of bitch”, etc.Euphemism defined as “a good interpretation of a bad word” can mainly serve five functions: avoidance of taboo, avoidance of vulgarity, politeness, deception and satire.1．Avoidance of taboo: People’s fear of death generates many euphemisms for death, such as “go Heaven/ Paradise”, “be at peace”, “return to dust/ earth”.2．Avoidance of vulgarity: we use “go to the bathroom”, “wash hands”, “go to the powder room”for “go the toilet”.3．Politeness: we use “senior citizens”, “seasoned”, “well-preserved” for “old”.4. Deception:Governments often use substandard housing (次标准房) for slum（贫民区）;revenue enhancement (税收加强) for tax increase (增税)5. Satire: “live on nothing”, original ly from Vanity Fair by William Thackeray, is used as aneuphemism to satirize those stingy misers.9. What difficulty do you encounter in discussing address terms with English speaking people? Do you ever experience difficulty because your terms and theirs fail to match? And what kind of terms do you use?Chinese address system is more complex than English address system. Therefore when discussing address terms with English speaking people, Chinese people may find many terms difficult to explain.1). Usage of kinship terms. Chinese kinship system includes a variety of address terms, which have no direct equivalents in English. For example, “aunt” means “舅母”, “姑姑”, “姨娘”, “婶婶”, etc. in Chinese.2). Some Chinese terms have different meanings in different occ asions. For example, “大爷”. If you ask a rather old man for the way to some place, it is just a appellation. It can also be used to address your father’s elder brother. In the old society, it is used to address those rich males or officers, landlords.3). Chinese people favor the use of post and rank titles, but there are not enough titles matching Chinese titles in English, for example, “科长”, “4). Some unique address terms of Chinese characteristics, such as “同志”, “小”, “老”. Take “叶老” as an example. “叶老” is a respectful address term to “叶圣陶”, but we can hardly find a counterpart of “老” in English.举例说明不能匹配的称谓语，如“司令”，“排长”—直接用Mr. 表示头衔“孩子他妈"—my wife “二姑奶”—my grandpa’s second sister. In order to explain those kinship terms, we have use more words to describe the relationship.10. Define the distinction of tu and vous at work in conversation?From the pronominal choice between tu and vous forms in languages, we can see that certain linguistic choices a speaker makes indicate the social relationship that the speaker perceives to exist between him or her and the listener or listeners. Many languages have a distinction corresponding to the tu-vous (T/V) distinction in French, where grammatically there is a ‘singular you’ tu (T) and a ‘plural you’ vous (V) but the usage requires that you use vous with individuals on certain occasions. The T form is sometimes described as the ‘familiar’ form and the V form as the ‘polite’ one.The asymmetrical T/V usage such as the upper class addressed the lower classes with T but received V symbolizes a power relationship. Symmetrical V usage is ‘polite’ usage. Symmetrical T usage is to show intimacy and its use for that purpose also spread to situations in which two people agreed they had strong common interests, i.e., a feeling of solidarity, this mutual T for solidarity gradually came to replace the mutual V of politeness, since solidarity is often more important than politeness in personal relationships. Moreover, the use of asymmetrical T/V to express power decreased and mutual V was often used in its place, as between officer and soldier. Today, we can still find asymmetrical T/V uses, but solidarity has tended to replace power, so that now mutual T is found quite often in relationships which previously had asymmetrical usage, e.g., father and son, employer and employee. Tu should be used between spouses, between brothers and sisters regardless of age, between parents and children, between close relatives, between young people living or working closely together, and between adults who have a friendship of long-standing. Vous should be used between strangers, between those who have no ties of any kind, and between inferior and superior. Nowadays power is no longer as important as it once was in determining T/V usage; there has been a dramatic shift in recent years to solidarity.Different societies devise different ways of handling the T/V distinction e.g., T/V forms being differently employed in Germany, France, and Italy. English has no active T/V distinction. T/V usage is constantly involving. The evolution is not always toward solidarity and away from power. Power is still very much part of modern social structure.。

社会语言学期末复习资料全

社会语言学期末复习资料全第二章理论与方法学一、什么是语言变项?社会语言学是怎么调查语言变项和社会变项之间的共变关系的？请举例说明1、语言变项和社会变项：人们使用各种语言变体地域方言和社会方言说话人使用某些语言变项与其社会背景有关研究者必须判定哪个社会变项与某个语言变项相关：地位，性别，年龄（语言变项，社会语言学常用术语之一，英文为Linguistic variable，指语言变异的项目。

语音、句法、词汇都可能成为语言变项。

社会语言学奠基人拉波夫所做的纽约语言调查，其中的（r）就是语言变项。

一个语言变项一般包含几个“变式”，比如（r）变项包括两个变式，一个是（r）变式，第二个是零变式。

又如话中零声母(w)，是一个变项，它有两个变式，一个是（w）,第二个是（v）。

）2、拉波夫（William Labov）的著名例子car, card, fourth语言变项：在元音前的辅音/r/发音或者不发音社会变项：地位结论：社会地位越高的人，越倾向于发出词语中的r音。

二、拉波夫（William Labov）对纽约[r]音的调查拉波夫：探索语言变异的个别理论纽约流行的r音假设：假如纽约市本地人中有任何两个集团在社会分层的阶梯上处于高低不同的地位，那么他们在发[r]音上也会表现出相应的差异。

假设被证实：越是社会地位高的人，或越是正规的场合，就会有越高的卷舌率语言变项：发r音/不发r音，w/v ，公交车/巴士语言变项可选择音位、词素、句法、词语等各层次上的某个结构单位语言变项的独特之处在于它同相应的社会变项发生有意义的共变。

60年代前半期拉波夫运用定量分析法研究语言变量与社会变量之间的关系拉波夫感觉到下层黑人倾向不发[r]音做出假设：假如纽约市本地人中两个集团处于不同的社会阶层，那么他们在发[r]音上也会表现出相应的差异。

怎样证实这个假设呢？怎么引导被试在自然状态下发出[r]音呢？1.确认这个商店第四层楼有什么商品（例如，女士鞋子）2.走进商店，向店员询问：“Excuse me, where are the women’s shoes?”3.店员会回答：“Fourth floor.”4.装作没听清，继续问：“Excuse me?”5.店员会重新放慢语速回答：“Fourth floor.”6.跑到店员看不到的地方记下以下信息：商店名称，所在楼层，性别，年龄（以五年为单位估测），职业（售货员，导购员，收银员，仓库管理等），人种，（是否有）方言或异国口音在每一层楼都会询问同样问题，在第四层则问“Excuse me, whatfloor is this?”一共264位受访者，长达六个半小时。

社会语言学复习资料

1.英国语言学家罗宾斯划分语言与方言的标准2.西方社会语言学界对语体种类的划分西方一般把语体分为以下五种：1）礼仪语体这种语体非常正式，一般都后固定的格式，大多被采用于各种电力。

例如开幕式致辞。

2）正式语体，也就是书面体。

如演讲，演说等，其特点是句子较长、文法规范等。

3）商议语体。

这是一种半正式的语体，介于正式的与随便的语体之间。

使用这种语体的对象往往是不熟悉的人，说话用商议的口吻，使对方也能参加谈话中来，提供反馈。

比如在接受采访，回答记者访问的时候。

4）随便语体。

5）亲切语体。

3.社会变迁与语言发展变化的关系(理解)社会变迁的概念：社会学家把凡是社会制度、社会结构、人口、人的环境以及道德、法律、哲学、宗教、文学艺术、风俗习惯、时尚等一切社会现象的突发的、急剧的变化、或演进的、缓慢的变化都叫做社会的变迁。

在世界历史上，由于种族歧视而引起语言消失现象也有不少的例子。

1940年由于政治原因罗马尼亚将一部分地区割让给苏联后，苏联当局就宣布罗马尼亚文学语言为资产阶级语言，并把这种语言的书籍一把火烧光了。

这一部分地区的语言就变成了俄语。

另一方面，有些濒临消失的语言，由于政局的变迁而得以死而复生，也就是说已经不再使用的语言又开始使用了。

如，希伯来语的使用曾长期局限于犹太人阅读经书和犹太教活动中，就像清朝中后期一样，只在重要的场合使用，平时说话的时候用汉语的口语形式。

同样的，希伯来语口语形式已经消失了2000多年了。

普通人根本不会使用了。

但以色利建国后，通过学校教育在不到30年的时间里，把这种语言的口语形式复活了。

主要体现在一下几方面：首先是政治变迁对语言的影响一是政治决策加速一种语言的消亡。

二是政治势力的变化会影响到语言的地位其次，社会的突变、渐变及其与语言的变化。

所谓社会的突变，实际上主要是指社会形态的突变，社会的其他方面都是渐变。

社会的突变不会必然的导致语言的突变。

社会的渐变是绝对的，语言也就在社会的渐变中不断地发展。

社会语言学教程期末复习材料

社会语言学教程期末复习材料第一章1.“社会语言学”这一学科名称，是由“社会学”和“语言学”复合而成的。

其基本内容包括两个方面：1)一是社会语言学，其基本涵义是：从语言的社会属性出发，用社会学的方法研究语言，从社会的角度解释语言变体和语言演变。

2)二是语言社会学，其基本涵义是：从语言变体和语言演变的事实，来解释相关的社会现象及其演变和发展的过程。

3)两者的研究方向不同，简而言之，前者从社会研究语言，后者从语言研究社会。

2.社会语言学的三位先锋：拉波夫、特鲁杰和海姆斯。

3.着重调查研究不同阶层、不同年龄、不同场合的语言差异，即语言变项。

4.《纽约市百货公司（r）的社会分层》P105.特鲁杰的方言调查P11这个世界在亚马逊河的西北部地区。

该地区一半在巴西境内，一半在哥伦比亚。

它地广人稀，面积相当于英格兰，而人口只有1万左右。

居民大多数是土著印第安人，分为20多个部落，这些部落又组成了5个部落群。

每个部落都说不同的语言——不同到相互之间无法理解的程度，也非源于同一母语。

5个部落群实行族外通婚制。

结果是一个男子的妻子肯定说一种和他不同的语言。

妻子要住在丈夫长大的地方，与子女讲话的时候必须用丈夫的语言（“语言从夫婚姻”）。

母亲不能把自己的语言交给孩子，而是把自己只不过像外国人一样所讲的一种语言教给孩子。

孩子生活在大家庭里，跟讲父亲语言的人接触较多，他们的语言没有出现“退化”现象。

问题：1、语言确定部落；2、语言显示地位；3、在一个讲X语言的部落里，有土著语使用者，也有非土著语使用者。

如果要编写X 语言的语法，语法的适用对象究竟是谁？是所有土著语言使用者（包括散落在其他部落的妇女）？还是该部落里的所有说话者，包括土著人和非土著人？语言的接触、双语现象、语码的选择等。

一个部落里会有不同语言，对语言的选择往往根据需要而定（与子女讲话的时候必须用丈夫的语言这点除外）。

要是来了客人不懂X部落的语言，而部落中有人懂客人的语言，那么，主人在跟客人讲话的时候，就会使用客人的语言。

语言学期末复习资料整理版

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

社会语言学的知识点总结

社会语言学的知识点总结一、语言的社会功能语言在社会中具有丰富而复杂的功能，它不仅仅是一种交流工具，更是一种社会行为。

语言的社会功能主要包括交际功能、表达功能、认同功能和权力功能。

1. 交际功能：语言是人类交际的工具，通过语言可以实现信息的传递、情感的表达和意见的交流。

交际功能是语言最基本的功能，它使人们能够相互了解、合作、协调和交流。

2. 表达功能：语言可以表达个体的情感、意愿、愿望和态度。

通过语言，人们可以表达自己的个性、情感和思想，使自己在社会中得到认可和理解。

3. 认同功能：语言是人们认同和归属的标志，不同的语言和方言代表了不同的社会群体和文化社区。

通过语言，人们能够建立起自己的认同感，并与他人进行交流和互动。

4. 权力功能：语言在社会中还具有权力的功能，它能够影响人们的认知、态度和行为。

在政治、商业、媒体等领域，语言可以被用来操纵和控制人们的思想和行为。

语言的社会功能可以帮助人们更好地理解语言的使用和影响，为语言的社会学研究提供了重要的理论基础。

二、语言变化语言是一个动态的系统，它不断地发生变化和演变。

语言变化是语言中普遍存在的现象，它主要包括语音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的变化。

1. 语音变化：语音是语言的基本要素，它的变化直接影响着语言的表达和理解。

语音变化主要包括音位变化、音系变化和音位组合的变化等方面。

2. 词汇变化：词汇是语言的重要组成部分，它的变化主要体现在新词的产生、词义的演变和词汇的丰富化等方面。

词汇变化不仅受到语言内部的影响，还受到社会、文化和科技发展的影响。

3. 语法变化：语法是语言的基本结构，它的变化主要表现在句法结构的变化、时态、语态和语气的变化等方面。

语法变化反映了语言的发展和变革。

4. 语用变化：语用是语言使用的规范和约定，它的变化主要体现在语言的礼貌性、语境适应性和语用标记等方面。

语用变化反映了语言在社会互动中的灵活运用。

语言变化是语言发展的必然趋势，它反映了语言的生命力和适应能力。

期末语言学复习重要资料

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language design features:1.Arbitrariness 2.Duality3.Productivity4.Displacement5.Cultural transmissionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.The scope of linguistics:phonetics语音学the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified.(Phonetics studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. ) Phonology音系学the study of how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning(It identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and the function of each sound.)morphology 形态学:the study of the form of words(It identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and looks into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words)syntax 句法学the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences(It investigates the rules governing the combination of words into sentences and identifies the permissible sequences in a language and the relationships between elements in sentence structure.)semantics语义学:the study of meaning pragmatics 语用学:the study of meaning in context of use(It looks into the relation between linguistic expressions on the one hand and objects, persons and events to which the words refer on the other. It also studies the ways in which the meaning in a language is structured and distinguishes different types of meaning.)historical linguistics 历史语言学:the study of language change (It is concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved in language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.)Parole 言语---- the realization of langue in actual use. Competence 语言能力---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language二Phonetics：A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”;Auditory phonetics声学语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”;Acoustic phonetics听觉语音学---from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to anotherSpeech organs: three important areas：Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonetics & phonology：Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answerquestions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.四Syntax句法学：a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Morphology形态学refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Derivational morphemes派生语素---- are affixes added to an existing form to create a word.Inflectional morphemes曲折语素---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaningMorphological rules：The rules that govern the formation of words。

社会语言学期末复习资料

语言学纲要期末复习资料

语言学复习资料

社会语言学概论复习资料

社会语言学复习资料

社会语言学概论复习资料word

社会语言学概论知识点总结

社会语言学-中南大学网络教育2014年6月课程考试复习资料

社会语言学期末重点总结

社会语言学考试资料

社会语言学 复习资料 讲义

社会语言学期末复习

社会语言学期末复习资料全

社会语言学复习资料

社会语言学教程期末复习材料

语言学 期末复习资料 整理版

社会语言学的知识点总结

期末语言学复习重要资料

社会语言学复习资料讲义

语言学期末复习资料整理版