英语词类 classification of English words

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英语词汇学(1)

英语词汇学
英语词汇学发展历史与现状： 20世纪80年代中期以后，西方语言学家开始承认词汇学在现代语言学中的合法地位。我国于 20世纪80年代中期开始出现英语词汇学专著。20 世纪末至21世纪初，英语词汇学作为一门独立学科、实用学科和交叉学科的地位得以巩固。
英语词汇学
Nature and domain of English lexicology:
英语词汇学
They are small in number but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. Therefore, native words have the same characteristics as those of the basic word stock. Apart from these, in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features.
英语词汇学
专家： 1、陆国强：1934年生，复旦大学首席教授、外文系英语语言文学博士生导师。出版专著：《现代英语构词》、《现代英语联想与搭配》、《现代英语词汇学》（新版）、《英汉和汉英语义结构对比》。 2、汪榕培：1942年出生，1985年6月到2001年9 月担任大连外国语学院院长。现任大连大学特聘教授，兼任苏州大学、大连理工大学等校博士生导师。 1983年出版的《实用英语词汇学》是我国在这一学术领域中的第一部专著，后来出版的《英语词
英语词汇学
Methods of study ： 1.synchronic approach From a synchronic point of view，words can be studied at point in time，disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. 2.diachronic approach From a diachronic perspective，words can be considered historically and be looked into: the origins and changes in form and meaning.

Week-2-classification-of-English-vocabularyPPT课件

pronominal forms (most commonly found): thou (you, singular and subjective case), thee (you, singular and objective case), thy (your), thine (yours), ye (you, plural)
Week 2 Classification of English Vocabulary
Contents I. Classified by origin: native words, loan words II. Classified by level of usage: common, literary (archaic古代的，古老的 and poetical), colloquial, slang, technical jargon III. Classified by notion: function (or structural) words and content (or full) words
9. Active in collocation, e.g. at first hand; hand in hand (Nearly 90 set phrases with ‘hand’ in them are found in a dictionary.)
08词汇学week 2 Classification of English lary
Other words: aught (anything), betwixt (between), naught (nothing), main (mainland), vale (valley), yon (over there)
08词汇学week 2 Classification of English vocab.ulary

英语本科-英语词汇(考试重点)

英语本科英语词汇学Chapter1—Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义)：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.(1)a minimal free form of a language(2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning(4)a form that can function alone in sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义)：almost arbitrary“no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”.Sound and form(读音和形式)：不统一的四个原因（1）t he English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other;（2）T he pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years;（3）S ome of the difference were creates by the early scribes;（4）T he borrowing is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary; Vocabulary(词汇)：all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words:By use frequency: basic word stocking & nonbasic vocabularyBy notion: content words& functional wordsBy origin: native words& borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇)：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征)：1）All- National character(全民通用性most important)2)Stability(相对稳定性) 3)Productivity(多产性)4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang(语)(4)Argot(暗语)(5) Dialectal words(方言)(6)Archaisms(古语)(7)Neologisms(新词语)：Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meaning.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed Words（外来词语）：Native words（本族词语）：known as Anglo-Saxon words(50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basicword-stocks). Two other features:(1)neutral in style;（2）frequent in use;Borrowed words/Loan words(外来词语)：Words taken over from foreign languages (80% of modern EV) .4 Types of loan words:1)denizens(同化词)：（shirt form skyrta(ON)）2)aliens(非同化词、外来词)：are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling(kowtow(CH)磕头)3)translation loans(译借词)：按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see(From China)4)Semantic loans(借义词)：they are not borrow with reference to the form, but theirmeaning are borrowed.Chapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Threes Stage of Development of the English Vocabulary:1.Old English (450-1100)(vocabulary50,000 to 60,000): was I high inflected language.2.Middle English (1150-1500): remains much fewer inflections.3.Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words comealmost directly from classical language. In Modern E, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English ) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式)1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namelytoots, affixes and other elements(最重要的方式)。

Classification of English vowels

through the larynx and oral cavity. Letters that are not vowels are consonants.
Spoken English has approximately 20 distinct vowel sounds, though there are dialectal variations.
Covering / ɔ: / / ɒ / / u: / / ʊ / / ɑ: /
The openness of the mouth
(1).Close vowels:/ i: / / i / / u: / / ʊ /
(2).Semi-close vowels:/ e / / ɜ: /
(3).Semi-open vowels:/ ə / / ɔ: /
Classification of English vowels
第七组：李淑珍，李蓉，陈迷
Definition of Vowels
(1)Vowel is used to refer to either the speech sound in which the mouth is open and the tongue is not touching the mouth, the teeth, etc, or to the letter that represents such a sound.
(4).Open vowels:/ æ / / ɑ / / ʌ / / he lips
(1).Unround: all the front vowels and the central vowals , without
rounding the lips

classification of words

2.4 Slang words
Slang words: language, words or phrase of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary." freshness and novelty. e.g. Buzz, A telephone call: knockout, 引人注目的人或物 nuthouse, 精神病院 to play hooky to play truant cut it out, pussyfoot 住手[口] 谨言慎行 Colloquial and slang words may overlap. It is unusual to find slang outside colloquial speech. Yet, a slang is not generally used in informal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate terms. A slang can become "respectable". e.g. flunk – colloquial stand somebody up, pussyfoot
(a) Archaic words: words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose. e.g. abed ; behold; belike ; natheless; perchance (by chance; possibly); "To die, to sleep; To sleep: perchance to dream." (Shakespeare: Hamlet) arch. (aic) in dictionaries. obsolete words: words completely out of current use. e.g. horse-drawn vehicles-- chaise, landau, victories, curricles, coupe, gig obs. (olete) or dated in dictionaries. (b) Poetical words: words that are traditionally used only in poetry. e.g. array ; the deep ; stead ; morn poet.(tical) in standard dictionaries

英语词汇学

2. Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
- three sources for neologisms:

Marked progress of modern science and technology
e.g. atomic technology, computer, space, bio-chemistry,
What is lexicology?
–
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.
1. Historical development of English vocabulary
- three periods: Old English Middle English Modern English
1) Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon, 449-1100)
before 449, First Settler: Celts spoke Celtic 449-1100, conquerors three Germanic tribes: Angles, Saxons

and Jutes spoke Anglo-Saxon, which had 50,000-60,000 words
2) Middle English (1100- 1500)

单词分类（Wordclassification）

单词分类（Word classification）苹果联合国苹果梨联合国梨杏联合国杏桃联合国桃葡萄联合国葡萄香蕉联合国香蕉菠萝联合国菠萝梅子联合国李子西瓜联合国西瓜橙色联合国橙，桔子柠檬联合国柠檬芒果联合国芒果草莓联合国草莓枇杷联合国枇杷桑联合国桑椹樱桃联合国樱桃石榴联合国石榴图联合国无花果柿子联合国柿子核桃联合国胡桃榛子联合国榛子花生联合国花生枣联合国枣椰子联合国可可番石榴联合国番石榴甘蔗联合国甘蔗松木联合国松落叶松联合国落叶松柏树联合国柏树竹联合国竹杨树联合国白杨柳联合国柳树桦木联合国白桦枫联合国枫树冷杉联合国枞树桉树联合国桉树蝗虫联合国洋槐香樟树联合国樟树檀香联合国檀香木榆树联合国榆木树橡树联合国橡树银杏联合国银杏树霍莉联合国冬青可可联合国椰树日期联合国枣椰树山核桃联合国山核桃树山毛榉联合国山毛榉猴面包树联合国猴面包树棕榈联合国棕榈树月桂树联合国月桂树常春藤联合国常春藤橄榄联合国橄榄树番茄联合国番茄，西红柿芦笋联合国芦笋黄瓜联合国黄瓜茄子联合国茄子豆联合国菜豆甜菜根联合国甜菜根辣椒联合国胡椒马铃薯联合国马铃薯胡萝卜联合国胡萝卜菜花联合国花菜南瓜联合国南瓜甘蓝联合国圆白菜，卷心菜辣椒联合国红辣椒辣椒联合国辣椒大蒜联合国蒜茴香联合国茴香甜瓜联合国香瓜，甜瓜芹菜联合国芹菜洋葱联合国葱韭菜联合国韭菜萝卜联合国萝卜蘑菇联合国蘑菇生菜联合国莴苣，生菜豌豆联合国豌豆菠菜联合国菠菜婊子联合国雌狗马联合国马母马联合国母马小马联合国马驹骡子联合国骡驴联合国驴公牛联合国牛水牛联合国水牛公牛联合国公牛奶牛联合国母牛小牛联合国小牛，牛犊小母牛联合国小母牛猪联合国猪猪联合国猪仔猪联合国猪崽羊联合国羊山羊联合国山羊羔羊联合国羊羔，羔羊狗联合国狗猫联合国猫凯蒂联合国小猫兔子联合国兔子鼠标联合国家鼠公鸡联合国公鸡母鸡联合国母鸡鸡联合国鸡，雏鸡火鸡联合国火鸡鹅联合国鹅公鸡联合国公鸡Tomcat联合国雄猫斑马联合国斑马羚羊联合国羚羊瞪羚联合国小羚羊鹿联合国鹿驯鹿联合国驯鹿长颈鹿联合国长颈鹿狒狒联合国狒狒骆驼联合国骆驼大象联合国象犀牛联合国犀牛河马联合国河马熊猫联合国熊猫狮子联合国狮天猫联合国猞猁黑豹联合国豹彪马联合国美洲豹豹联合国豹老虎联合国虎野猫联合国野猫野牛联合国美洲野牛牦牛联合国牦牛獾联合国獾黄鼠狼联合国鼬，黄鼠狼水獭联合国水獭狐狸联合国狐鬣狗联合国鬣狗狼联合国狼松鼠联合国松鼠海狸联合国河狸土拨鼠联合国土拨鼠熊联合国熊野兔联合国野兔老鼠联合国鼠鼹鼠联合国鼹鼠猴子联合国猴子黑猩猩联合国黑猩猩大猩猩联合国大猩猩猩猩联合国猩猩长臂猿联合国长臂猿食蚁兽联合国食蚁兽鸭嘴兽联合国鸭嘴兽袋鼠联合国袋鼠考拉联合国考拉，树袋熊刺猬联合国刺猬豪猪联合国箭猪，豪猪蝙蝠联合国蝙蝠鲸鱼联合国鲸海豚联合国海豚密封联合国海豹海象联合国海象凤凰联合国凤凰鹰联合国鹰秃鹰联合国秃鹰鹰联合国鹰猎鹰联合国隼苍鹭联合国苍鹰风筝联合国鹞秃鹫联合国秃鹫孔雀联合国孔雀鸭子联合国鸭鹈鹕联合国鹈鹕鸬鹚联合国鸬鹚天鹅联合国天鹅雁联合国雁鸽子联合国鸽子野鸡联合国雉，野鸡鹌鹑联合国鹌鹑鸵鸟联合国鸵鸟鹳联合国鹳海鸥联合国海鸥信天翁联合国信天翁翠鸟联合国翠鸟啄木鸟联合国啄木鸟鹦鹉联合国鹦鹉布谷鸟联合国杜鹃，布谷鸟乌鸦联合国乌鸦喜鹊n.喜鹊吞联合国燕子麻雀联合国麻雀夜莺联合国夜莺金丝雀联合国金丝雀八哥联合国八哥鹅口疮联合国画眉罗宾联合国知更鸟云雀联合国云雀企鹅联合国企鹅猫头鹰联合国枭，猫头鹰画眉鸟联合国画眉鸟金鱼联合国金鱼精子联合国巨头鲸挑剔联合国鲤鱼鲫鱼联合国鲫鱼鲢鱼联合国鲢鱼鳗鱼联合国鳗鱼鲱鱼联合国青鱼，鲱鱼乌鱼联合国黑鱼鲈鱼联合国鲈鱼鲑鱼联合国鲑鱼鳟鱼联合国鳟鱼鳀鱼联合国凤尾鱼鳕鱼联合国鳕鱼沙丁鱼联合国沙丁鱼旗鱼联合国旗鱼海的马联合国海马鲨鱼联合国鲨鱼金枪鱼联合国金枪鱼对虾联合国明虾虾联合国虾小龙虾联合国小龙虾，喇蛄龙虾联合国龙虾蟹联合国蟹蚂蚁联合国蚂蚁白蚁联合国白蚁蜜蜂联合国蜜蜂蜜蜂联合国蜜蜂黄蜂联合国黄蜂，胡蜂甲虫联合国甲壳虫联合国苍蝇马蝇联合国厩蝇，牛虻跳蚤联合国跳蚤虱联合国虱子，白虱蜘蛛联合国蜘蛛蚊子联合国蚊摇摆联合国孑孓瓢虫联合国瓢虫萤火虫联合国萤火虫蝉联合国蝉蜻蜓联合国蜻蜓板球联合国蟋蟀蝗虫联合国蝗虫蚱蜢联合国蚱蜢螳螂联合国螳螂卡特彼勒联合国毛虫蜈蚣联合国蜈蚣蝴蝶联合国蝴蝶飞蛾联合国蛾缺陷联合国臭虫蟑螂联合国蟑螂蝎子联合国蝎子蚯蚓联合国蚯蚓蚯蚓联合国蚯蚓水蛭联合国蚂蝗，水蛭蛔虫联合国蛔虫蛇联合国蛇眼镜蛇联合国眼镜蛇蟒蛇联合国蟒蛇响尾蛇联合国响尾蛇蜥蜴联合国蜥蜴变色龙联合国变色龙，避役壁虎联合国壁虎鳄鱼联合国鳄鱼，非洲鳄乌龟联合国海龟乌龟联合国龟青蛙联合国青蛙蝌蚪联合国蝌蚪蟾蜍联合国蟾蜍蜗牛联合国蜗牛墨鱼联合国乌贼鱿鱼联合国枪乌贼，鱿鱼章鱼联合国章鱼蛤联合国蚌贻贝联合国淡菜，贻贝牡蛎联合国牡蛎扇贝联合国扇贝海胆联合国海胆营养联合国营养食欲联合国胃口饥饿联合国饥饿口渴联合国口渴的饥饿的A.饥饿的口渴的A.口渴的贪吃的人联合国暴食者，大肚汉暴饮暴食联合国暴食贪婪联合国贪嘴过量的食物联合国吃得过多饮食联合国食谱宴会联合国宴会早餐联合国早餐午餐联合国午餐晚餐联合国正餐晚饭联合国晚饭汤联合国汤主菜联合国主菜甜点联合国甜点小吃联合国点心，小吃可以联合国罐头锡联合国听水果联合国水果蔬菜联合国蔬菜豆腐联合国豆腐脆联合国炸土豆片炸薯条联合国炸薯条牛奶联合国奶鸡蛋联合国蛋肉联合国肉牛肉联合国牛肉小牛肉联合国小牛肉羔羊联合国羊肉羊肉联合国羊肉牛排联合国牛排砍联合国排骨肉片联合国肉条炖联合国炖肉烤联合国烤肉猪肉联合国猪肉火腿联合国火腿培根联合国咸肉香肠联合国香肠鸡联合国鸡肉火鸡联合国火鸡鸭子联合国鸭鱼联合国鱼肉汤联合国肉汤香料联合国调料盐联合国盐醋联合国醋酱联合国酱油油联合国油色拉油联合国色拉油辣椒联合国辣椒芥末联合国芥末丁香联合国丁香奶酪联合国奶酪黄油联合国奶油面条联合国面条，挂面大米联合国米饭一条面包联合国长面包饼干n.（英）饼干，（美）小面包披萨联合国比萨饼面包联合国面包地壳联合国面包皮蛋糕联合国蛋糕饼干联合国小甜饼月饼联合国月饼馅饼联合国馅饼汉堡包联合国汉堡包煎饼联合国薄煎饼三明治联合国三明治，夹肉面包茶联合国茶咖啡联合国咖啡果汁联合国果汁葡萄酒联合国葡萄酒喝联合国饮料矿泉水联合国矿泉水柠檬水联合国柠檬水啤酒联合国啤酒红葡萄酒联合国波尔多红葡萄酒苹果汁联合国苹果酒香槟联合国香槟酒鸡尾酒联合国鸡尾酒伏特加联合国伏特加威士忌酒联合国威士忌白兰地n.Brandy MartiniN. Martini HoneyN. honey SugarN. sugarChocolate N. chocolate CandyN. candy CompoteN. preserves JamN. jamSourA. acid SweetA. sweet BitterA. bitter HotA. hotSaltyA. salty Delicious A. delicious。

2023年自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。

2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。

2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解

Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,/doc/214202390.html,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic field Polysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following: Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languagesare known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- -NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,th e morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据Morphological motivation 形态的理据Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy , antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation HomonymyBased on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound butdifferent in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄> On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similaror nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter 华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk ofwood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④S ynonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible andthought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come home Keep in mind take offto no avail like a breeze2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only="" in="" words="" ,not="" fact="" bdsfid="283"> is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket bury the hatchet。

关于英语词汇的分类关系

关于英语词汇的分类关系
英语词汇可以根据不同的分类关系进行归类。

以下是一些常见的英语词汇的分类关系：
1. 词性（Parts of Speech）：根据词语的语法功能，可将英语
词汇划分为名词（Noun）、动词（Verb）、形容词（Adjective）、副词（Adverb）、代词（Pronoun）、连词（Conjunction）、介词（Preposition）和感叹词（Interjection）等。

2. 词根（Root Words）：词根是构成其他词汇的基本单元，能
够在不同的词汇中保持相同或相似的含义。

通过添加前缀、后缀或改变词根的形态，可以构成新的词汇。

例如，“act”是一
个常见的词根，可以衍生出“actor”（演员）、“activate”（激活）等词汇。

3. 同义词（Synonyms）：同义词指的是具有相同或相似义义
的词汇，可以用来替代彼此。

例如，“happy”与“joyful”、“large”与“big”都是常见的同义词。

4. 反义词（Antonyms）：反义词指的是具有相反意义的词汇，形成对立关系。

例如，“hot”与“cold”、“up”与“down”都是常见
的反义词。

5. 词汇场域（Lexical Fields）：词汇场域是指根据词汇所属的
主题或领域进行分类。

例如，体育相关的词汇可以组成一个词汇场域，包括“ball”（球）、“goal”（进球）等等。

除了以上的分类关系外，英语词汇还可以根据形式、语义、词源等进行分类。

这些分类关系有助于我们系统地学习和理解英语词汇的使用和意义。

Part 2 Classification

实词(content words)包括：
noun名词
n. (tree, road, desk,…) verb动词 v. (make, perform, carry, …） adjective 形容词a. （good, clever, clean, …） adverb 副词 ad. (rather, very, carefully, …)
Part 2 Classification of Words
Part 2 Classification of Words 词的分类

The English vocabulary consists of different kinds of words, which may be classified by different criteria（标准）. In this section we will discuss four main criteria:
set expressions 固定的表达方式 Idiomatic usages 成语，习语 Proverbial sayings 谚语
heart
A change of heart After one’s heart A heart of gold At heart Break one’s heart Cross one’s heart Cry one’s heart out Eat one’s heart out
Words translated according to the sound:
tofu yen 瘾 cool 酷 wonton 馄饨 typhoon 台风
Semantic-loans 义借词
Words are borrowed according to the meaning.

英语词汇学之Classifications of Word 词的分类(中英对照)

Classifications of Wordnon-basic vocabularyWords that do not have the stated characteristics belong to non-basic vocabulary of the language. They include the following:(1) Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine: photoscanning, hepatitis, indigestion, penicillin; in mathematics: algebra, trigonometry, calculus, in music: symphony, orchestra, sonata, concerto; in education: audiovisual, megauniversity, microteaching, etc.(2) Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business: bottom line for 'inescapable implication, unavoidable result, ultimate version', ballpark figures for 'estimate', bargaining chips for 'an advantage held by any of the parties in a negotiation'; in horse-racing: hold him back for 'prevent a horse from winning', hold him in for 'force a horse to run behind at the beginning of a race so as to reserve speed for the finish'; in medicine: paranoid for 'suspicious, worried', persona for 'mannerism', hypo for 'hypodermic syringe'; in warfare: buster for 'bomb'. Generally speaking, people outside the circle have difficulty in understanding such words.(3) Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant (shoptalk of any sub-group), jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population.Certain words are labeled 'slang' not because of their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage. Dough and bread, for instance, are standard when they are used as food terms but slang in the sense of 'money'. Similarly, grass and pot have standard or formal use meaning, respectively, i.e. 'type of plant life' and 'cooking utensil,' but slang use meaning 'marijuana.' Such words as beaver (girl), smoky, bear (police), catch (talk to), holler (call), Roger (understand), X-rays (radar) are all slang words. The concept 'head' can be referred to by nut, dome, upper, bean, block and so on; in the same way, the meaning of 'drunk' can be expressed in as many terms as over three hundred such as elevated, merry, jolly, comfortable, boiled, grassy, tight, knocked out, blue-eyed, fried, paralyzed, pickled, stiff, stunned. These examples indicate that much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang enjoy popular use. Almost everyone uses some slang sometimes, and some people use a lot of slang often. Those who don't go to offices seldom find themselves in formal situations, and those who spend more time with close friends than business associates and mere acquaintances, use the most slang, because slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. As some people claim, slang avoids pretensions. It is "language that rolls up its sleeves" and gets to work.(4) Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to thesub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it, e.g. can-opener(all-purpose key), dip (pick-pocket), persuader (dagger).(5) Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. For example, beauty (AusE =excellent, great), chook (AusE =chicken), cocky (AusE=small farmer), station (AusE =ranch); auld (ScotE =old), bluid (ScotE =blood), coo (ScotE =cow), hame (ScotE =home), lough (IrE =lake), bog (IrE =swamp).(6) Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech. Here are some examples: thou (you), ye (plural you), thee (objective you), wilt (will), brethren (brother), troth (pledge), quoth (said), aught (anything), hereof (of this, concerning this), therefrom ( from thator there), wherein (in what).(7) Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Here are some examples from 12,000 WORDS: microelectronics: the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuits futurology: a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trends AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeE-mail: electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systemsInternet: an international computer network linking both business and private users freak out: withdraw from reality and society esp. by taking drugs.非基本词汇基本词汇以外所有词的总和构成非基本词汇。

句子成分与句子分类

Outline 一、句子(sentence)的定义二、句子的成分(constituent)
（一）句子成分的定义
（二）句子成分的构成
三、句子的分类
（一）按用途（function）
（二）按结构（structure）
四、简单句的五种基本类型五、复合句的三大基本类型
一、句子(sentence)的定义：句子是按照一定的语法规律组成，具有主语部分和谓语部分，能表达一个完整的意思，并有一定的语调的一组词。句子开头的第一个字母要大写，句子末尾要有句号、问号或感叹号。
Байду номын сангаас
状语 (adverbial) 定义：修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子，表示时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、程度、条件、比较、方式,让步,伴随。 1. How about discussing it again at six? (时间状) 2. Last night she didn’t go to the party because of the rain.（原因状） 3. I shall go there if it doesn’t rain.（条件状） 4. Mr. Smith lives on the third floor.（地点状） 5. She put the eggs into the basket with great care.（方式状）
宾语种类： (1)双宾语(间宾indirect指人+直宾direct指物) Lend me your dictionary, please. (2)复合宾语（宾语+宾补） They elected him their monitor.
补足语 (complement) 补足语是一种补足主语和宾语意义的句子成分。补足主语意义的句子成分叫做主语补足语(subject complement) ，补足宾语意义的句子成分叫做宾语补足语(object complement)。 1. Phoebe was found alive. (主补) 2. He was called Oliver Barret. (主补) 3. His father named him Dongming.（宾补） 4. They painted their boat white.（宾补） 5. Let the fresh air in.（宾补）

2-2 Classification of English vowels 英语语言学ppt

Ten cups
ten girls
Word-final /s,z/ become palato-alveolar before palato-alveolar fricatives and the palatal frictionless continuant/;
This ship This year has she those young men
It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. For
example, in the words feel[fi:ł], leaf[li:f], tar[tha:], star[sta:],there are altogether 7
live bird v ß
Word-final /l/ is non-velarised if followed by an initial vowel;
fill it
Word-final /t/ become bilabial before bilabial consonants /p, b,m/;
4)the length of vowels
long vowels: They are usually marked with a colon such as[i:] and [ɑ:]
short vowels: other vowels in English are short vowels such as [e],[ə] and [æ].
that pen /..p pen/ that boy/..p b../ that man /..p m../
Word-final /d/ become voiced bilabial before bilabial consonants /p, b,m/;

《英语词性分类》课件

Morphological changes
03
The morphological changes of English words are also an important basis for classification, such as changes in the tense, voice, and number of verbs.
Grammar function
01
Classify words based on their grammatical function in sentences, such as nouns referring to things and verbs representing actions or states.
Non fine verbs
These verbs do not have fine forms and are often used in dependent clauses or as adjuncts For example, "to be" is a non finite verb because its forms are "to be," "being," and "being."
要点一
要点二
Purpose
Part of speech classification is a fundamental task in natural language processing and linguistic research, which helps to understand the structure and meaning of sentences and improve the accuracy of tasks such as text analysis and machine translation.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS Words fo Anglo-Saxon OrginNative words Most native words in Modern English are monosyllabic native characterBy origin They form a great majority of the basic word stock stablilityBasic word stock: all umulated over a long time word forming abilityBorrowed words——words borrowed form other languages ability to form collocationWords connected with the orginary things and activities necessary to lifeCommon words The great majority of English are common wordsThey are stylistically neutralWords chiefly used in writing , esp in books in a more elevated style, in official documents, formal speech Literary words Most are French, Latin or Greek originWords Archaic and poetical words archaic words: words no longer in common useBy leavel poetical words: words used in poems onlyof usage Colloquial words——words used in speech or infomal writingWords of Vigorous, colorful, facetious or taboo nature for specific occasions, uses. from the unvention use of standard Slang words vocalbularyRestricted to time and region( it is the unconventional use of unconventional words )Technical words——Words used for various special fieldsBy notion Function words/ grammatial words/ closed-class words ——154 words ( The number is limited )Content words/ lexical words/ open-class words ——The number is limitless。