英语语言学：语言中的偏见生成 BIBLIOGRAPHY
专八语言学考点
专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。
2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。
3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。
5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。
6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。
7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。
三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。
词典学术语(修订版)
词典学术语abbreviation 缩略语abbreviative notation 缩略标记abridged 删节的，未足本的abridged dictionary节本词典abridgement 删节，节本absolute equivalent 绝对对应词absolute synonym 绝对同义词abusage 滥用abusive language 辱骂语academic dictionary 学术词典academic lexicography 学术词典学academy dictionary 学院词典accent mark 重音号acceptability 接受性acceptability rating 接受等级access alphabet 检索字母表access point 检索项access structure 检索结构acknowledges 致谢项acrolect 上层方言acronym 首字母缩略词active dictionary 积极词典，主动性词典active vocabulary 积极词汇adjectival noun 形容词性名词adjective complement 形容词性补语adjective compound 复合形容词adjunct 附加性副词adnominal 名词修饰语advanced searches 高级搜索affix 词缀affixation 词缀法，词缀词agglutinative language 黏着型语言alien word 外来词allomorph 语素变体allophone 音位变体allusion 典故alphabetic arrangement 字母顺序排列alphabetic order 字母顺序alphabetic sequence 字母顺序alphabetic writing 字母文字，拼音文字alphabetization 按字母顺序排列alphanumeric combination字母数字组合词alphapedia 字顺百科alternative lexicography 另类词典学ambiguity 歧义ambilogy 双关语amelioration of meaning 词义的扬升Americanism 美国词语，美式英语Ampersand &号（=and）analogical dictionary 类义词典analytic definition 分析式释义analytic language 分析型语言analytical ordering 分析排列angle brackets 尖括号animate noun 生物名词，动物名词anisomorphism 语言差异性antedating 早于已摘录文献的引语anthroponymy 人名学antidictionary 反动词典appendix 附录appreciative 赞赏的，褒义的appropriateness 得体性，适切性approximative equivalent 近义对等词arch 弓形符（即︵）archaic word 古词archaism 古体，古语archaizing dictionary 仿古词典archeography 古文献学archive 引语档案areal linguistics 区域语言学argot 黑话arrow 箭号article 词条，条目artificial language 人工语言asserted meaning 陈述意义association 联想association by contiguity 相邻联想association by contrast 对比联想association by similarity 类似联想association group 联想词群associational word 联想词associative meaning 联想意义asterisk 星号（*）at 单价号（@）attestation isolee 个别使用attributive adjective 修饰性形容词authentic example 真确性例证authentication 求证authenticity 真实性author dictionary 独编词典author’s dictionary 作家词典automatic lemmatization 自动归目automatic lexicography 自动词典学autosemantic word 自义词auxiliary verb 助动词back clipping 截尾缩略back matter 附录部分，后文back matter structure 附录结构back page material 后页材料back-formation 逆构词法backward dictionary 逆序词典，倒排词典barbarism 不纯正的词语，粗野语base 词基，词根base structure 基础结构base word 词目base-repeating 词根重叠释义法basic searches 基本搜索basic sense 基本义项basic vocabulary基本词汇basic word stock 基本词汇bias word 倾向性词语bias-free vocabulary 无偏见词汇biblical expression 圣经词语bibliography书目；目录学bidirectional dictionary 双向双语词典bifunctional dictionary 双功能词典big dictionary 大型词典bilingual dictionary 双语词典bilingual edition双解本，双解版bilingual learner’s dictionary双语学习词典bilingual lexicography双语词典学bilingual thesaurus 双语分类词典bilingualized dictionary双解词典biographical dictionary人名词典biographical entry人名条目biographical lexicography 人名词典学biographical sources传记资料blend 混成词，拼缀词blending 混成法，拼缀法；拼缀词bogey怪字bold-faced type 黑体字borrowed word 外借词borrowing 借词bound equivalent局限对应词bound form 黏附形式bound morpheme黏着词素bound root 黏着词根braces大括号brackets 方括号breve 短音符bridge dictionary桥接词典British National Corpus 英国国家语料库broad notation 宽式标音法broad transcription 宽式音标，宽式记音法browser 浏览器buying guide 购买指南cacography拼写错误cacology 用词不当calque仿照词canonical form 标准形式cant 隐语，黑话capital letter 大写字母caret 脱字号（^）casual style 随便语体，随意文本catachresis 词语误用catchword眉词，导词categorical diversity 范畴的差异性categorical equivalence范畴对应关系categorical identity 范畴一致性categorization 划分范畴，归类caution 提醒号CD-ROM dictionary光盘词典censorship 审查制度census 普查，调查centered period 分节点，音节号，中黑点（·）character dictionary 字典character set 字集check mark 核对号（√）children’s dictionary 儿童词典chronological dictionary 序时词典circular definition 循环释义circularity 循环释义，互训circumflex音调符号，长音符号circumlocution 迂回曲折表达法，遁词citation 引语，书证，例证citation file引例档案classificatory label 分类标注，类别标记clause idiom 成语性分句cliché陈词滥调clipped form 截短形式clipped word 截短词clipping 截短法close construction 封闭结构closed combination 封闭型组合closed corpus 封闭式语料库closed-class words 封闭性词类code 代码codification 编码coding代码化cognate 同源词cognitive meaning 认知意义coherence 连贯性co-hyponym 共下义词，共同受支配词coinage 新造词语coined term 新造术语coined word 新造词，新创词college dictionary大学词典collegiate dictionary 大学词典collocation 搭配（关系）collocational information 搭配信息collocative meaning 搭配意义colloquial language 口语colloquial standard 口语标准语colloquial word 口语词colloquialism 口语词colorpedia 彩图百科comb effect 梳子效应combinatory possibility 组合可能性combinatory variant 组合变体combining form 组合形式commercial dictionary 商业词典common core vocabulary 基本词汇，共有核心词汇common usage 普通用法common word 普通词compact dictionary 缩印词典compact edition 缩印版comparative lexicography 比较词典学compilation （词典）编纂compiler 编纂者compiler perspective编篡者视角complementaries互补反义词complete antonym完全反义词complete synonym完全同义词complex word复杂词componential analysis成分分析，义素分析composition合词法compound复合词compound word复合词，合成词compounding复合构词法comprehensive dictionary详解词典computational lexicography计算词典学computer lexicography计算机词典学conceptual connection概念联系conceptual dictionary概念词典conceptual meaning概念意义concise dictionary简明词典concordance语词索引confrontationist linguistics对照语言学conjunct 连接性副词connotation隐含意义；附加意义；内涵connotative meaning内涵意义connotative style咨询文体content word实义词context语境context definition语境释义法context of situation言语环境，情景语境contextual definition语境释义contextual function语境功能contextual meaning语境意义contextual theory语境理论contract word缩写词contracted form,contraction缩写contradictory term 对立性反义词contrast对称词contrastive analysis 对比分析contrastive linguistics 对比语言学conversion词类转化法conversive换位反义词cooccurrence 同现cooccurrence relation同现关系cooccurrence restriction同现限制cooccurrence-range搭配cooccurrent meaning共现意义copying in dictionaries词典抄借copyright版权core group核心词群core sense核心义项core vocabulary核心词汇core word核心词co-reference互见corpus语料库corpus composition语料库的组成corpus correction语料库矫正corpus-orient lexicography语料库技术词典学correction矫正correctness正确性count noun可数名词countable noun可数名词coverage覆盖度creole混合语creolized language混合语cross reference互参，互见，交互参照cross-classification交叉结构cross-reference structure参见结构cryptogram密码cryptology隐语cultivated spoken language有教养的口头语言cultivated usage优雅用法cultural borrowing文化借用cultural context文化环境cultural dictionary文化词典cultural guide文化向导cultural lexicography文化词典学cultural-bound lexical item文化局限词汇项cultural-bound term(word) 文化局限词cultural-loaded expression文化含义词cultural-specific vocabulary文化局限词汇culture- specific vocabulary文化局限词汇cuneiform,cuneiform writing楔形文字curtailed word缩短词cyclopedia百科全书cynicism挖苦语dagger剑号（┼）data bank数据库database数据库，资料库databases & audio-visual materials数据库与声像资料data-processing资料加工，数据处理dead affix废弃的词缀，废缀dead conjugation已经不用的词形变化形式dead language死语言dead metaphor死隐语dead word废词deadjective suffix附加于形容词的后缀deadjective verb来自形容词的动词declension（静词）词尾变化decode解码decoding dictionary解码词典decoding function 解码功能de-etymologization词源中断definiendum被下定义的词语，被释词目definiens(pl.definientia)下定义用的词语，释义defining dictionary释义词典defining vocabulary(DV)定义用词汇，定义用词汇总表definition释义，定义deflexion词尾消失degeneration of meaning词义的降格deictic field指示范围denominal adjective 来自名词的形容词denominal noun 来自名词的名词denominal suffix 附加于名词的后缀denominal verb来自名词的动词denotation所指意义，字面意义denotational meaning指称意义，所指意义denotative meaning外延意义denotatum(pl.denotata)所指客观对象density of entries词条密度derivation派生词；派生法derivation by zero suffix零位后缀派生法derivational affix派生词缀derivational antonym派生反义词derivational compound派生复合词derivational morpheme派生形素derivational suffix派生后缀derivative派生词derived form源出（<）derived sense派生义项derived stem派生词干deriving form派生形式derogatory贬损的，贬义的description描写descriptive dictionary描写性词典descriptive equivalent描写性对应词descriptive function描写功能descriptive trend描写性倾向descriptivism描写主义descriptor系索词，标志词designate定义，所指内容的组成designation指称意义designative word指称词designatum(pl.designata)所指内容desk dictionary案头词典desktop e-dictionary桌面电子词典desktop electronic-dictionary桌面电子词典deterioration of meaning词义降格，词义贬降determiner 限定词deverbal adjective来自于动词的形容词deverbal noun来自于动词的名词deverbal suffix附加于动词的后缀diachronic approach历时角度diachronic dictionary历时词典diacritic变音符，附加符号diacritic sign附加符号diacritical mark变音符，附加符号diacritical marking符号标音法dialect dictionary方言词典dialect lexicography方言词典学dialectism方言词语diction措词dictionary词典，字典dictionary awareness词典意识dictionary criticism词典批评dictionary culture词典文化dictionary family词典家族dictionary for comprehension理解型词典dictionary for production生成型词典dictionary for speakers of the source language源语用户词典dictionary for speakers of the target language目的语用户词典dictionary for translation翻译词典dictionary form词典形式dictionary history词典史dictionary lookup词典查检dictionary maker词典编篡者dictionary making词典编篡dictionary meaning词典意义dictionary of proverbs谚语词典dictionary of the literary language书面语词典dictionary of the spoken language口语词典dictionary proper正文部分dictionary research词典研究dictionary review词典评论dictionary structure词典结构dictionary text词典语篇dictionary typology词典类型学dictionary use词典使用dictionary user词典使用者dictionary with bilingual双解词典dictionary word词典词didactic function教导功能differentia specifica属差differentia (pl. differentiae)种差differential dictionary区别性词典differential linguistics区别语言学diglossia双语现象diglottic level双语现象的变体diminutive指小（词）diminutive suffix指小后缀directories of agencies机构指南disambiguation消除歧义discourse meaning话语意义discrimination辨异，词义辨析disjunct分离性副词distinctive feature区别性特征distributional analysis分布分析法ditransitive verb双宾语动词ditto“同上”号（″）division into syllables分音节DJ丹尼尔▪琼斯标音法domesticated word归化词dominant sense主要意义double brackets双方括号double check双核对号（√）double dagger 双剑号（╪）double scale组成一对的同义词double virgules双斜线号（//）doublet同源异体字echoic word拟声词edition版本editor编辑EFL lexicography英语作为外语的学习词典学electronic bilingual dictionary电子双语词典electronic dictionary电子词典electronic lexicography电子词典学elevation of meaning词义的扬升ellipsis省略号（…）ELT lexicography英语教学词典学emotive meaning 情感意义emotive overtone感情色彩empirical ordering经验排列enclitic后接词encode编码，组码encoding dictionary编码词典encoding function编码功能encyclopedia百科全书encyclopedia definition百科释义encyclopedic dictionary百科词典encyclopedic entry百科条目encyclopedic matter百科信息English Philological Society英语语文协会entailed meaning蕴含意义entry条目，词条entry pane条目窗entry word词目ephemeral word瞬息新词equivalent对应词equivalent analogue等值的对应体ESL(English as second language)作为第二语言的英语ethnolinguistic bilingual dictionary人类语言学双语词典etymological dictionary词源词典etymology词源（学）euphemism委婉语everyday expression日常用语example,example-sentence例句exclamation mark感叹号exegetic dictionary注释词典exemplification括注法explanatory definition解说式释义explanatory equivanlent解释对等词explanatory gloss解释性说明explicit cross-reference明示互参extended sense引申意义extension外延extension of meaning语义扩大extinct language 死语，死亡语extralinguistic context 语言外语境familiar style非正式文体family of languages 语系field场field theory 词场理论field label学科标注figurative meaning比喻意义figurative speech比喻语figurative-metaphorical比喻隐喻的figure of speech修辞格file资料档案files of citation引例档案filler-in填空词fist参见号fixed accent固定重音fixed collocation固定搭配fixed phrase 固定短语fixed stress固定重音fixed word-combination固定词组fixed word-order固定词序folk definition通俗释义folk etymology民俗词源，俗词源学folk speech民间语folk usage通俗用法folk-etymological民俗词源的forcing example强迫性例证foreign affix外来词缀foreign learner’s dictionary外国学习者词典foreign word外来词，外语词foreignism外来词语form of address称呼形式form speech正式言语form style正式文体form word 形式词format板式，开本formative构词成分formulaic definition程式释义four-letter word四字母语，粗俗词语frame(structure)框架（结构）free combination自由组合free morpheme自由语素free root自由词根free translation意译free variant自由变体free variation自由变异free word order自由词序French quotes法文引号，书名号frequency词频frequency word-book频率词表front and back clipping对词的首部与尾部的缩略front clipping对词的首部的缩略front matter前页部分front matter ,front page material前页，前页材料，（正文前的）材料frozen expression定型短语frozen style拘谨文体full homonym实足同形同音异义词full word实词，完全词function word功能词，虚词functional equivalent功能等值functional label功能标注functional language功能语言functional marker功能标记functional typology功能分类法functional varieties功能变体functional word功能词，虚词fuzzy terms模糊词语gazetteer地名索引，地名词典gem dictionary珍宝词典，精选词典general concordance普通词表general dictionary通用词典；普通词典generalization of meaning词的普遍化general-purpose bilingual dictionary综合性双语词典，通用双语词典general-purpose dictionary综合性（语文）词典general-purpose English dictionary综合性英语词典generative dictionary生成词典generic term类属词genus总属genus proximum近种geographical dictionary地理词典geographical entry地理条目geographical sources地理资料ghostword鬼词，别字giving synonyms同义词释义gleaning补遗gloss夹注，注释glossary注释词表，术语汇编glueword连接词gobbledygook官样文章Gothic writing哥特体字，黑体字governed word受支配词governing word支配词government publications政府出版物gradable adjective等级形容词grammar语法grammatical bound meaning受语法限制的意义grammatical coding语法代码grammatical collocation语法搭配grammatical context语法语境grammatical function语法功能grammatical information语法信息grammatical labeling语法代码grammatical marker语法标记grammatical motivation语法理据grammatical pattern语法模式grammatical sequence语法序列grammatically-partial word虚词graphic illustration插图，图解graphic substance形的实体graphic symbol书写符号guide word眉题，向导词habitual collocation习惯性搭配habitual co-occurrence习惯性同现handheld electronic dictionary掌上电子词典haplography掉字，漏写hard word难词head phrase词条headword词目heavy-duty word重负荷词hesitation-form犹豫形式hierarchical structure层级结构hierarchical system层级系统hieroglyphic writing象形文字high word 高位词historical comparative linguistics历史比较语言学historical dictionary（按历史原则编写的）历史词典historical lexicography历史词典学historical ordering 历史排列historical principle历史性原则historism历史词语homograph同形异义词homography同形异义homonym同音异义词，同形异义词homonymy同音异义，同形异义homophone mark同音号humorous幽默的hybrid混合词hybrid language 混杂词hybrid word混合词，杂交词hyperonym总义词hypersemanticized discourse超语义化的说法hyphen连字符；隔音号hyphenated name连号hyphenation断词hyphenation routine连字法规则hypocoristic form爱称形式hypocoristic word爱称词hyponym下义词hyponymy下义关系identifying indication识别性说明ideogram表意文字ideographic symble表意符号ideographic writing表意文字ideography表意文字研究ideographical dictionary概念词典，义类词典ideographical function意识功能idiom习语，成语idiomatic expression习惯性词语idiomatic usage习惯用法idiomatics习语学，成语学illiterate language 文盲用语illustration插图，例证illustrative citation例证，引证illustrative example说明性例句；例证illustrative quotation例证imitation binding仿古装帧imitative semantic change语义变化模仿immediate postpositive直接后置形容词implicative method隐含法implicit cross-reference暗示互参impolite word不礼貌用语imposition强加inappropriate不得体的indention缩格index索引index verborum词语出处索引indexation索引检索indexes & abstracts索引与摘要indexing language索引语言infix中缀inflected language屈折语inflection屈折变化inflectional affix屈折词缀inflectional language屈折语inflectional morpheme屈折词素inflectional variant屈折变体inflective language屈折语inflexion 屈折变化inflexional ending词尾屈折inflexional language屈折语inflexional series屈折序列inflexional suffix屈折后缀informal style非正式文体informant语言调查合作人information card背景资料卡information category信息范畴information retrieval language情报检索语言informative dictionary知识性词典initial inflexion开首屈折initial part词首部分initialism首字母连写词inkhorn term学究气的用语innovation新造词insertible equivalent可插入对应词instruction manual说明手册instrument language古今语言instrumental case工具格intensifier强调成分interactive dictionary交互词典interface language接口语言interjection感叹词interlingual dictionary语际词典interlingual interference语际障碍interlingual purism语际语言纯正主义International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)国际音标，国际音标注音法internationalism国际词intimate style亲昵语体intralingual purism内部语言纯正主义introspective example自省性例证invented example自造词irregular inflection不规则屈折形式italic斜体字italic bold-face type斜黑体jargon行话KK KK音标koine共通语，共同语language for specific purposes专门用途语言language notes语言说明language transfer语言迁移language typology语言类型学langue 语言，语言系统latent word潜在词Latinism拉丁词语learned word文言词learner’s dictionary学生词典lemma词目lemma unit词目单位letter-by-letter arrangement纯字母排列法lexeme词汇单位；词位，词素，词项lexical词汇的，语词的lexical ambiguity词汇歧义；词汇模糊性lexical collocation词汇搭配lexical context词汇语境lexical density词汇密度lexical entry词项，语词条目lexical equivalent词义对应词lexical expression词汇表达方式lexical field词汇场lexical gap词汇空缺lexical grammar词汇语法lexical item词汇单位；词位，词素，词项lexical meaning词汇意义lexical set 词群，词集lexical stock词汇总库lexical unit词汇单位lexical word词汇词lexicographer词典学家，词典编篡者lexicographese词典用语lexicographic context词典语境lexicography词典学，词典编篡，词典编篡学lexicology词汇学lexicon词典（尤指古代语言的词典）；词库ligature连音符lingua franca混合语，通用语，交际语linguistic context语言语境linguistic dictionary语文词典linguistic matter语言信息linguistic typology硬译分类学linguistics across culture跨文化语言学literal error排字错误，印刷错误literal meaning字面意义literal translation直译，硬译literary书面语literary language文学语言literary standard文学标准语literary word书面词语live suffix活后缀living affix现在通用的词缀living conjugation“活”的（词形）变化living language现用语言，活语言living word现在通用的词汇loan blend借词混成词，借词拼缀词loan shift转用借词loan translation翻译借词，仿译词loan word借词，外来词local dialect地方方言locution措词logical definition逻辑式定义logical ordering逻辑排列logographic lexicon字典logography速记符long vowel长元音lower-case letter小写字母（印刷用语）LSP lexicography专业英语词典学machine-readable dictionary机读词典machine-aided lexicography机助词典学macro-lexicography宏观词典学macron长音符（加在元音上的“-”）macrostructure宏观结构made-up example自造例main word主导词majuscule大写字母makeshift language代用语言malformation构词错误，误构manual手册maps & atlases地图与地图集marginal meaning外延意义mark,marker标记master index总索引meaning意义meaning discrimination词义辨析meaning-oriented principle意义中心原则means of access检索途径measure adjective度量形容词measure noun度量名词mechanical dictionary电脑词典mediostructure中间结构medium dictionary中型词典megastruture整体结构metalanguage元语言metalexicography元词典学metaphor隐喻metaphoric meaning比喻意义，喻义metaplasm词形变异methodology方法论metonymy换喻，转喻microcontext微观语境microglossary微词典microlexicography微观词典学microstructure微观结构middle matter正文部分midline dot分节点mixed language混合语modal verb情态动词mode式momentary event verb瞬间动作动词monolingual dictionary单语词典monolingual lexicography单语词典学monosemic word单义词monosemy单义性moribund language垂死语言morpheme语素morpheme word语素词morphemic arrangement语素顺序排列morphemic dictionary词素词典morphemical mark形态符号morphology词法morphology label词法标注mother tongue negative transfer母语负迁移motional verb动作动词motivated word有理据的词motivation of word词的理据multi-lingual dictionary多语词典multilingual lexicography多语词典学multi-media dictionary多媒体词典multiword lexical unit多单词词位，复词词汇单位narrow Romic严式罗密克音标narrow transcription严式音标，窄式记音法narrowed meaning狭义narrowing词义缩小native affix本族词缀native language本族语native speaker说本族语的人native speaker’s dictionary本族语词典native word本族词natural language自然语言near-synonym近义词negative transfer负迁移neoclassic formation新古典词的构词法neoclassic word新古典词neologism新词nest(ing)派生词群nest-alphabetic method词集字母排列法nil-equivalent零对应词，无对应词noetics义位学nomenclature术语集nominal definition名目定义nonce-word临时词non-designative非指称词non-echoic word非拟声词non-gradable adjective非等级形容词non-historical dictionary非历史词典non-insertible equivalent非插入对应词non-productive无构词能力的non-restrictive collocation非限制性搭配nonstandard非标准（用语）normal dictionary传统词典normative dictionary规范词典normative lexicography规范性词典学notional passive意义上被动notional system概念系统notional word实义词noun名词noun adjunct附加名词noun cluster名词词组noun compound复合名词noun of multitude群体名词noun-drivative派生名词now rare目前少用nuance细微差别numbered clause分节号（§）numeral数词object宾语object language目的语，对象语言obsolescent陈旧的obsolete已废的obsolete affix废缀obsolete word 旧词obsoletism 已废弃的词语one-phrase definition单一短语释义法one-to-one correspondence一一对应one-to-one equivalent一一对等on-line dictionary在线词典，网络词典onomasiological gap词汇空缺；名称空缺onomasiology定名学onomasticon专名词典onomatopoeic word拟声词open combination开放型组合open corpus开放式语料库open-class words开放性词类opposite meaning对立意义optional variant随意变体oratorical style演说文体ordinal number序数词ordinals序数词orthographic criterion书写标准orthographic syllable拼法音节orthography正字法，拼写法ostensive definition直观定义ostensive definition直观释义法output language输出语outside matter正文外部分overall-descriptive dictionary全面描写词典over-defining过度释义P marker短语标记pagination页码检索paper dictionary纸质词典paradigm（名词、动词等的）词形变化表paragraph分节号（§）；段落；段落号（▪）parallel bars平行号（║）parent language 母语，源语parentheses圆括号parole言语paronym形似词partial conversion部分词类转化partial equivalent部分对应词partial homonym部分同音同形异义词participle分词particle小品词，语助词parts of speech词类parts-of-speech label词性标注passive dictionary被动型词典，消极词典patois土话pedagogical dictionary教学词典pedagogical lexicography教学词典学pejorative轻蔑词pejorative epithet表贬损的修饰语pejorative suffix贬义后缀perfect antonym完全反义词perfect equivalence完全对等perfect equivalent完全对等词perfect homonym完全同音同形异义词period句号period dictionary断代词典period lexicography断代词典学peripheral kinds of vocabulary边缘性词汇peripheral language外围语periphrastic definition迂回定义peroration of meaning词义的降格personal suffix人称后缀phantom word幻象词phenomenological typology现象分类法philological bilingual dictionary语文学双语词典philological dictionary语文词典philology语文学phoneme音位，音素phonemic notation音标，音位标音法phonemic transcription音位标音phonemic word音位词phonemics音位学，音素学phonetic acronym语音缩写词phonetic alphabet音标，语音字母phonetic change语音演变phonetic convergence音变的汇合phonetic hyphen隔音号（-）phonetic motivation拟声理据phonetic pattern语音模式phonetic spelling表音拼写法phonetic syllable语音音节phonetic symbol音标，音符phonetic transcription注音，标音法phonetic writing拼音文字phoneticism音标拼词法phonographic alphabet表音字母phonology音系学，音位学phrasal verb短语动词phrase短语，词组phrase clipping短语略写phrase idiom惯用短语phrase marker短语标记phraseological dictionary熟语词典phraseological lexicography熟语词典学phraseology熟语，熟语集phrasing措词pictograph象形文字pictographic writing图画文字pictorial arrangement图式顺序排列pictorial dictionary图画词典pictorial illustration插图pidgin混杂语pidgin English洋泾浜英语plurality复数性，多重性plurilingual多语种的plurilingualism多语制pocket dictionary袖珍词典pocket electronic dictionary掌上电子词典poetic word诗歌用语poetical archaic word诗用古词poetry诗体poetism诗体词语polite formulas礼貌套语polylingual多语种的polylingual dictionary多语种对照词典polylingualism多语制polyseme,polysemous word多义词（现象）polysemy多义现象，一词多义polysyllable多音节词polytechnic dictionary科技词典popular etymology俗词源学popular language俗语popular word俗语词portmanteau word紧缩词post-modifier后置修饰语postpositive后置形容词pragmalinguistics语用语言学pragmatic analysis语用分析pragmatic equivalent语用对应词pragmatic failure语用失误pragmatics语用学predeterminer前置限定词predicative表语preface序言prefix前缀prefixation加前缀premodifier前置修饰语prescriptive规范性的prescriptive dictionary规范词典prescriptive grammar规定语法prescriptive lexicography规定性词典学prescriptive trend规定性倾向prescriptivism规定主义present participle现在分词presentational affix表义词缀presentational or tectonic typology表述（或构造）分类法primary accent主重音primary linguistic data第一手语言资料primary meaning本义primitive原始词principal language主体语言print dictionary印刷型词典printing印刷proclitic后接发音词productive activity（说、写等）产出性活动productive affix有派生能力的词缀，派生词缀productive bilingual dictionary能产性双语词典productive dictionary产出型词典productive function产出功能productivity能产性pronominal adjective代词性形容词pronouncing dictionary发音词典pronunciation key发音表prototype原型proverb谚语provincial standard地方标准punctuation mark标点符号punning双关语purism语言纯正主义purrword褒词quadrilingual dictionary四语词典quasi-normative bilingual dictionary准规范化双语词典quasi-synonym准同义词quasi-synoymous word准同义词questionnaire问卷，调查表quotation书证quotation mark引号radiation（词义的）辐射radical词根，部首radical flexion词根屈折radical language词根语radical sense原始义range of application使用范围range of collocation搭配范围rare罕用reading programme阅读项目real definition真实定义realization体现关系Received Pronunciation (RP)标准发音receptive activity接收活动receptive function接收功能receptor language接收语reciprocal dictionary互补词典reciprocal relation相互关系reduced entry减缩词条reduplication重叠reduplicative word重叠词reference 参见reference book工具书reference dictionary查考型词典reference matter检索信息reference mark检索符号reference need检索目的reference skill检索技巧reference unit检索单位referent所指事物，词目所指的对象referential definition所指释义referential meaning information所指意义referential pragmatics指代语用学referential symbolism所指符号refinement修饰reflected meaning发射意义regional word地区性词regionalism区域词语register域register label语域标注relational word关系词relative synonym相对同义词，近义词reroute重新查找respelling schemes重拼法respelling system重拼发音符号系统restricted language限制性语言restriction of meaning词义的限制restrictive collocation限制性搭配reverse dictionary逆序词典rheme述位rhyming dictionary音韵词典Roman type正体字root词根root antonym词根反义词root inflexion词根屈折root form词根形式，根式round brackets圆括号runic writing北欧古代文字running head向导词run-on (entry)副词目，内词条sandhi连读变音scholarly dictionary学术词典schoolboy slang学生俚语scientific terminology科技术语search检索，搜索searching window检索窗secondary accent次重音，次重音号secondary compound二次复合词secondary derivative次派生词secondary language第二语言secondary meaning次要意义secondary morpheme-word次语素词secondary phoneme次音位secondary stress次重音segmental dictionary部分语词词典，特种语词词典selection of entries (articles)选条selection of head characters选字selection of headwords选词selection preference选择倾向selection restriction选择限制sell-aware form自觉形式semantic affinity语义一致semantic arrangement语义顺序排列semantic coincidence语义重合semantic component语义成分semantic condensation语义缩合semantic contradiction语义矛盾semantic contrast语义对比semantic criterion语义标准semantic dictionary主题词典semantic divergence词义分化semantic extension语义扩展semantic factor语义因素semantic field语义场semantic function语义功能semantic glosses语义注释semantic inclusion语义包容semantic intersection语义交叉semantic marker语义标记semantic motivation语义理据semantic properties语义特征semantic prototype model语义原型模式semantic shift语义演变semantics语义学sememe义素semi-bilingual半双解semicolon分号semiology,semiotics符号学semi-unabridged dictionary半足本词典sense义项sense discrimination义项区分sense relation义项关系sentence connector连接词sentence idiom成语性句子sentence pattern句型sentence substitute替代词。
英语语言的性别歧视语及其文化背景
（ 西蓝 天学 院外 国语言文 学系 中 国 南 昌 江
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Bibliography
BibliographyGutt, Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.Sperber, Dan & Wilson,Deirdre. Relevance: Communication and Cognition [M].Oxford: Blackwell Ltd., 1986蔡力坚,王瑞.论英语隐喻的汉译[J].中国翻译.1986(6):12-13.程同春(Chen Tongchun),英语隐喻的思考与翻译[J].中国科技翻译.2005:36方梦之(Fang Mengzhi).英语科技文体范式及应用[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社1998:272樊冠钰(Fan Guanyu).科技术语的翻译方法和翻译原则[J].科技英语翻译论坛.2006(1):35-37.韩琴(Han Qin).科技英语特点及其翻译[J].中国科技翻译.2007:5郝雪婧(Hao Xueqian).煤炭工业英语的特点及翻译[J].中国科技翻译.2010:12何自然,冉永平(He Ziran, Ran Yongping),关联理论—认知语用学基础[J],现代外语，1998:286-293林克难(Lin Kenan).关联理论翻译简介[J].中国翻译,1994(4):6-9李国南(Li Guonan).科技语言中的隐喻[J].中国科技翻译.2003(4):47-51刘向红,刘婷婷.(Liu Xianghong, Liu Tingting)科技英语中的隐喻[J].中国科技翻译.2009(1):49-52于艳红(Yu Yanhong).隐喻的认知与翻译[J].语言与翻译.2005(1):53-56张丽莉(Zhang Lili).从科技术语中的隐喻看科技英语翻译[J].西南农业大学学报.2009(6):237-238张新红,何自然(Zhang Xinhong, Heng Ziran).语用翻译:语用学理论在翻译中的应用[J].现代外语,2001(3):286-293赵彦春(Zhao Yanchun).关联理论对翻译的解释力[J].现代外语.1999(3):276-295周红民(Zhou Hongmin).科技英语中的隐喻思维与翻译[J].中国科技翻译.2005(2):47-50朱永生,董宏乐(Zhu Yongsheng, Dong Hongle),科技语篇中的词汇隐喻、语法隐喻及其互补性[J].山东外语教学.2001:5-8姚小平·物理世界和语言世界[J]·外语教学与研究.1999(3)67~71。
参考文献(Bibliography)格式的具体说明
一、总体格式和要求
1.本科毕业论文的参考文献页应该单独起页。
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3.参考文献一般应包括尾注的所有条目，另外还可以列入自己读过的、对论文写作影响较大但未引用的文献。
4.参考文献中如兼有多语种条目，则应分开排列，先外语后中文。外语条目按照文献条目首词字母排序，中文条目按照文献开头的拼音排序；如文献开头的字母或拼音相同，依序参照其后的字母或拼音排序。
4.期刊论文
论文作者. “论文名.”斜体期刊名卷号(期号) (发行年月日),起止页码.
若一年的各期连续编排页码，则只需给出卷号，不需标出期号：
Powell, Welter W.. “The Health-Science Information Struggle: The Private Information Industry versus The National Library of Medicine.”New EnglandJournal of Medicine307(15 July 1982),201-223.
多个作者：桂诗春、宁春岩《XXXXX》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997。
编著：桂诗春、宁春岩主编《语言学方法论》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997。
译著：尤金·奈达著，严久生译《语言文化与翻译》，呼和浩特：内蒙古大学出版社，1998。
3.若著者为公司或机构时，直接将公司或机构作为作者：
英文文献：
9.英文条目各部分的首字母需要大写，文献中的实词和超过5个字母的介词也需要首字母大写。
二、作者部分的写法
1.英文参考文献中作者部分的写法：
作者姓氏,首名中名.如不是为了区别重名的不同作者，中名可省略。
英语语言学概论Chapter13Schools.
Chapter 13 Schools of modernLinguistics现代语言学流派•1 Saussure（索绪尔）and modern Linguistics:•Saussure is the father of modern linguistics for his attempts to describe the structure of language rather than the history of languages・He is the founder of structuralism（结构主义语言学）.Course in general linguistics（普通语言学教程）was published in 1916・•Nature of linguistic sign（语言符号的本质）：every linguistic unit is a sign:•1 bilaterality（双面性）:every sign has two aspects: the material sign which is realized phonetically or graphemically, and the conceptual side, that is , the signifier（能指）and the signified（麻指）or the form and content（形式与内容），sound image（音响形彖）and concept.•Both are of a mental nature and the relation is arbitrary, fixed by convention・•2 linearity（线性特征）:the signifier, being auditory, is unfolded solely in time and it represents a span which is mearurable in a line ・ Linearity has to do with the one・dimensional ordering and sequential ordering of linguistic elements in the course of communication・• Arbitrariness:the relation between the signifier and the signified, or sound image and concept, sign and meaning, is not motivated although fixed by conventi on.•Other contributions: relational nature of linguitic signs（符号的关系性，即与其他符号的关系），langue and parole, synchronic and diacronic.组合与聚合•The European Structuralism• Structural linguistics suggestsstudying language in a systematic way. • Three schools of structuralism: Prague school（布拉格学派）,the Copenhagen School（哥本哈根学狼）and the American school（American descriptive Linguistics）• Prague sc hool focues the function of language; theCopenhagen school emphasizes the relation among linguistic structures and the American school stresses the descrription and analysis of the form of linguistic structure.• But they all accept Saussure's ideas.•The Prague school: founded in 1926 by Mathesius and ceased to work in 1950, represented by Jakobson, Trubetzkoy, Firbas. •It holds that Ianguage is a system of functionally related system; makes the distinction between phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds, language is a functional means of communication, abandons Saussure^s separation of langue and parole, primacy of synchrony over* diachr ony.•Shared premises: 1 a decisive break from the positivistic atomism（实证原子主义）of the Neogrammarians（新语吐学家）；2 it interprets the representation of language as a system and linguistics is an independent science;3 it emphasizes the function of language・•Three contributions•The distinctive feature theory formalized by Jakobson:•1 all features are binary（二分的）:/+nasal/ VS /- ・nasal/, /+ voiced/ VS /-voiced/•2 there is a difference between phonetic and pho no logical features ・Distinctive features are phonological features while phonetical features are surface realizations of phonological features・•3 distinctive features may be defined in terms of articulatory（发音）or acoustic （音响）features.•4 a small set of features is able to differentiate between phonemes of any single language・•Phoneme has three distictive features: discriminative power, minimal, determined by distinctive features・•Trubetzkoy proposed 9 phonological oppositions ・•Functional sente nee perspective（功能句子观）:it studies how information is disributed in sen fences ・Each sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse or theme （主位）and rheme（述位），given information and new intormationis on page 5 predicate （谓语） rhemei New information is the picture subject rhemen New information • communicative dynamism （CD ）（交际动 力）:the amount of information a linguistic item carries in a sentence ・ Subject —verb-objectThe picture issubject （主语） theme given information On Page 5 predicate theme given information•The Copenhagen School:•代表人物:Hjelmslev（1899-1965）•Its approach to linguistics is called glossmatics（语符学）:language is a symbolic system・It should be studied together with other systems・•America n Structuralism: post-Bloomfield linguistics・ It is represented by F. Boas, E. Sapir, L. Bloomfield, Z. Harris.•Two stages: the Bloomfield era and the distributionalism（分布主义）represented by Z. Harris・•It studies and describes dying native American languages・• 2 it studies the obsevable or perceptible data. It neglects meaning but focuses on phonologyandgrammar.3 it is characterised by empirical and inductive procedures(实证和归纳程序)4Jt is influenced by behaviorism(心理学上的行为主义):children learn Ianguage through a chain of stimulus-response reinforcement and adults* use of language is also a process of stimulus -response.Chomsky and transformational-Generative Grammar•T・G Grammar started a evolution in linguistics, called Chomskyan revolution ・•Works: Syntactic Structures (1957): classic theory•Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965): •Standard theor y・Features•1 language is a set of rules or principles ・•2 the aim of linguistics is to capture the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language・•3 the theory relies on intuition•4 it is hypothesis-deductive(假设•演绎)•5 it follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.4 parts of the model: T-G Grammarbase component(phrase structure rules and vocabulary)Ideep structuretransformational componentpho no logical comp orient sema ntic compone ntThe Innate Hypothesis（先天主义假设）•Language is to some extent innate・Human knowledge of language develops from structures, processes and ideas that are in the mind at birth.•Children are born with language acquisition device to learn their native language ・•Competenceand performanee•P260-261•Phrase structure rules, the rules that generate the deep structures ofsen fence.•Structural linguistics and TG Grammar•P 261 TableHalliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar（韩礼德与系统功能语法）•The London School（伦敦学派）：•Malinowski（马林诺夫斯基，人类学家）：he is concerned with the functioning of language ・•Two kinds of situations for Ianguage use: the magic situation: where words or utterance have direct effects on the outside world・Language can get things done. The other is the context of situation: three kinds•1 ・situation in which speech in terrelates with bodily activities・•2 narrative sitation・•3 Situations where speech performs the function of “phatic communion M（客套话）•J. Firth, the founder of the London School •Contributions: 1 he studies prosody（韵律）which in eludes pitch, stress, tone, rhythm,liprounding and nasalization・•2 meani ng is fun ction in con text. There are four levels in con textual analysis:phonological analysis; lexical and semantic analysis; grammatical analysis; and the analysis of the context of situation.•1 language is a social process, a means of social life, a means of doing things or make others doing things・•2 Language consists of two elements: system and structure. Structure is the syntagmatic ordering of elements and system is a set of paradigmatic units・One is horizontal and the other is verticalHallida's Systemic-FunctionalGrammar• Halliday is the father of Systemic- Functional Grammar. Which is built on two concepts by Firth: system and context of situation・• Halliday s grammatical system includes: transitivity system（及物亲统）;mood system（情态系统）;and theme system（主位系统）P 263• Language has three metafunctions（元功能）or macrofunctions（宏观功能）：ideational function （概鸟功能）；interpersonal function（人际动能）and textual function（语篇功能）P263-264 Context includes two communicationplanes（语境包括两个交际平面广genre（言语类型）—context of culture; and register（i普域）一ontext of situation Three variables of context of situation:The field of discourse（语场）;The tenor of discourse（语The mode of discourse（语式）p264summary Saussure Structuralism; The Prague School; the Cope nhage n School and the America n Structualism Chomsky and TG grammar Halliday and Systemic and Functinonal grammar.。
Annotated Bibliography 书目简介
• [10] 姜望琪. Halliday论语篇分析及有关学科[J]. 中国外语，2012，(2): 29-37. • 本文主要总结了Halliday在同济会议上对语篇分 析的观点和看法。主要内容如下： 肯定了语篇分析是语言学的一部分。 篇章和语言系统的关系 篇章和小句的关系 语篇语义学与语篇分析 语用学与语篇分析
• 引言 • 理论框架和研究方法 • 称谓的态度系统 称谓中的态度类型 称谓的正负语义与态度的正向语义关系:对 称与不对称 强度：态度语势 • 结论
• [4] McCarthy, Michael, & Carter, Ronald. Language as Discourse Perspectives for Language Teaching. Beijing: Peking University Press, 2004. This book focuses on a discription of the discourse properties of language which can be applied to language teaching. Michael and Ronald put forword a new discourse-based approach for language teaching in this book.One of the main aims of them is to examine what insights that language teachers and students can get from language study at the level of discourse.
语言中的性别歧视与标记理论
语言中的性别歧视与标记理论摘要：性别歧视语言是排斥某一种性别，或暗示一种性别优于另一种性别的语言。
在大多数情况下，性别歧视语言偏袒男性、贬低女性。
本文在标记理论的基础上，通过对一些与性别相关的词汇进行比较，对英汉语言中的性别歧视现象进行研究。
关键词：性别歧视；标记理论；引言一、性别歧视语言是排斥某一种性别，或暗示一种性别优于另一种性别的语言。
在大多数情况下，性别歧视语言偏袒男性、贬低女性。
例如，男性词汇通常是属于未标记的类别，而女性词汇则是有标记的类别。
语言是社会文化的反映，性别歧视在社会中的存在也会反映在语言中。
在过去，男人被认为是家庭和社会的中心，而女人则被认为是男人附属品。
虽然现在的女性与男性享有平等的权利和地位，但在语言的使用上仍然偏向男性。
本文在标记理论的基础上，通过对一些与性别相关的词汇进行比较，对英汉语言中的性别歧视现象进行研究。
标记理论二、标记语言的概念是由俄罗斯语言学家Trubetzkoy在《语音系统》中引入的。
标记的概念通常被应用于一组反义词中：一个术语被指定为标记词，而它的反对词则是无标记词（Cruse，2014，pp.161）。
John Lyons（1977）在他的专著《语义学》中，对标记的三个主要概念作了区分：第一种是形态标记，指的是一组反义词中，一个词带有形态标记而另一个词没有，例如，happy-unhappy；第二种是分配标记，无标记词被应用于更为广泛的语境中（例如，high-low）；第三种是语义标记：无标记词与识解相关联，术语之间的正常对立关系被中和。
三、标记现象中的性别歧视语言（1）形态标记一般而言，在一对性别相关词中，女性名词是标记词，男性名词是未标记词。
前者往往是后者的派生。
例如：（a）[-ess] actor-actress waiter-waitress prince-princess host-hostess god-goddess（b）[-ine] hero-heroine（c）[-enne] tragedian-tragedienne从上面的例子可以看出，未标记的阳性名词是女性名词的基础，后者通常用词缀或复合词来标记。
毕业论文的notes和bibliography格式
Notes格式：“Notes”居中，四号字，加粗。
每条注释数字上标，首行缩进4字符，注释内容用小四号字，1.5倍行距。
如下：Notes1 卫志强．当代跨学科语言学．北京：北京语言学院出版社，1992：2．2陈侠，黄希庭，白纲．关于网络成瘾的心理学研究．心里科学进展，2003，（11）：331．1)中文机构文件机构名．文件名．出版年代：页码．1中国国家教育部．关于加强高等院校德育教师队伍建设的决定．1998：2．2)中文著作，一个作者：作者名．书名．出版地：出版社，出版年代：页码．1卫志强．当代跨学科语言学．北京：北京语言学院出版社，1992：2．3)中文著作：两个或者三个作者：作者名（用逗号隔开）．书名．出版地：出版社，出版年代：页码．2陈侠，黄希庭，白纲．当代跨学科语言学．北京：北京语言学院出版社，1992：2．4)中文著作：三个以上作者：作者名（用空格隔开）等．书名．出版地：出版社，出版年代：页码．3陈侠等．当代跨学科语言学．北京：北京语言学院出版社，1992：2．5)中文期刊文章：（作者多人以上参照中文著作方式给作者名）作者名．文章名．期刊名，出版年代，（期数）：页码．4陈侠，黄希庭，白纲．关于网络成瘾的心理学研究．心里科学进展，2003，（11）：331．6)中文文集文章：作者名．文章名．文集主编名．文集名．文集出版地：出版社，出版年代：页码．5陈侠．关于网络成瘾的心理学研究．卫志强编．当代跨学科语言学．北京：北京语言学院出版社，1992：331．7)中文译著：作者名．书名．译者名译．出版地：出版社，出版年代：页码．6威廉•莎士比亚．罗密欧与朱丽叶．卫志强译．北京：北京语言学院出版社，1992：15．8)中文工具书：主编名（责任人名）编．书名．出版地：出版社，出版年代：页码．7简清国，林茂竹编．英汉多功能词典．北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1994：1134．9)英文专著，一个作者：作者名．书名．（出版地：出版社，出版年代）页码．8Wang Cunmei．The Investigation of Language Performance about Popular Language of Network．(Wuhan：Wuhan University Press, 2004) 6-7．10)英文专著，两个或者三个作者：作者名（用and连接）．书名．（出版地：出版社，出版年代）页码．9C. A. Dwyer and Zhou Ruanyan．The Investigation of Language Performance about Popular Language of Network．(Wuhan：Wuhan University Press, 2004) 6-7．11)英文专著，三个以上作者：作者名et al．书名．（出版地：出版社，出版年代）页码．10Wang Cunmei et al．The Investigation of Language Performance about Popular Language of Network．(Wuhan：Wuhan University Press, 2004) 6-7．12)英文期刊文章：（作者多人以上参照英文著作方式给作者名）作者名．文章名．期刊名，出版年代，（期数）：页码．11C. A. Dwyer．Assessment and Classroom Learning: Theory and Practice．Assessment in Education, 1998, (1)：111．13)英文文集文章：（包括TCLC, NCLC等大型文献性文集）作者名．文章名．文集主编名, Ed．文集名．(文集出版地：出版社，出版年代) 页码．12Qin Hui．On Localization of the Communicative Approach．Liu Shoulan and Qin Hui, Ed．Teaching English as a Foreign Language—Current Issues．V ol 2．(Kunming: Yunnan University Press, 2002) 9．14)英文工具书：主编名（责任人名）编．书名．（出版地：出版社，出版年代）页码．13Jian Qingguo．A Multifunction English-Chinese Dictionary．(Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1994) 1109．15)网络资源：作者名．文章名．网站名称．（网址）．14卫广新．新课程与角色的转换．香港大学图书馆．（http://sunzil.lib.hku.hk/view/32/3200054.pdf）．*只能接受以.pdf, .html, .htm, .php, .asp为结尾的网址。
语言学教案 Chapter 11
little variation in degree of success or route target language competence
L2 learners vary in overall success and route L2 learners may be content with less than target language competence or more concerned with fluency than accuracy common, plus backsliding (i.e. return to earlier stages of development
7. Instruction not needed 8. Negative evidence correction not found and not necessary
Similarities between L2 learning and L1 acquisition? A continuing theme has been whether people acquire a second language in the same way as a first. If the L2 stages outlined above are also followed by L1 children, both groups are probably using the same learning process. The L2 sequence for English grammatical morphemes was similar, though not identical, to that found in L1 acquisition by Brown (1972), the greatest differences being the irregular past tense 三门峡职业技术学院 新编简明英语语言学教案 0398-2183570
英美文学作品中的歧义现象分析
2018年40期总第428期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS英美文学作品中的歧义现象分析文/杜冰月前言歧义现象的作用是双面的，主要与歧义现象的应用场合有关。
英美的文学作品都是来源于现实，但是又高于生活。
英美的文学作品都是时代发展的记忆，英美的文学作品反应的都是不同历史时期人物，政治，生活之间的关系。
文学作家为了使自己的文章更加生动就会应用歧义现象，使自己的文学作品充满色彩。
而且，英美国家的文学作家应用的语言本身就与自己生活的环境有关，所以歧义现象的应用更为广泛。
目前，英美国家的文学作品中歧义现的应用主要是“一词多义”的歧义现象，指示代词的歧义现象，预设歧义的应用等。
一、歧义现象在英美文学作品中的作用1.引发读者的思考。
英美文学作品中叙事类的文学作品中歧义现象应用最多，最主要的目的是希望可以通过这些歧义的语言能够引起读者的思考，而不再仅仅停留在读完了作品。
文学作品中歧义的语言会使给读者脑中留下疑问，引发读者的思考和想象。
歧义的语言也会引起读者的兴趣，因此读者会想要弄清楚歧义的语言中表达的到底是什么意思？但是作者在文章中又没有明确地解释其含义，因此读者在阅读的过程中加入了自己的思考。
这就相当于在文学作品中加入了读者的思想，会增加读者对此文学作品的认可度。
预设歧义，由于作家预设的疑问句而产生的一些歧义现象，而且文学作品中在预设疑问后往往在后面并不会明确地做出解释，所以会使作者产生各种歧义现象，是英美作家最常用的写作手法。
由于这样不确定的语言会在读者的心中产生一种朦胧的美感。
由此歧义现象能够表达出作者想要传递给读者的想法，并希望引起读者的共鸣。
2.扩展作品的内涵。
英美文学中的歧义语言即是指具有辨识度的文字，包括指示语在时间、地点等层次。
指示词不是只有简单的指示作用，也不是孤立存在的。
而且，这些指示词在一些语境中并没有特殊的含义，但是当这些指示词指示一些特殊的时间地点时，这些指示词便产生了一些特殊的意义。
简明语言学整理笔记
简明语言学整理笔记精品文档第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <="">Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征Charles Hockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization..④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤ Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。
中英语言中的性别歧视分析
中英语言中的性别歧视分析2015年最新全英原创毕业论文，都是近期写作1 《木马赢家》中父亲的缺席2 扭曲的“美国梦”－－简析“鸡蛋的胜利”的主题3 论《红字》中体现的清教思想4 中西方文化中颜色词的隐喻比较研究5 在现实与理想间挣扎——论巴比特的无助与无奈6 谈电影片名汉译的不忠7 论《献给爱米丽的玫瑰》中冲突和不确定性的体现8 英汉天气词汇的隐喻用法9 英语委婉语的构成与应用10 文档所公布均英语专业全英原创毕业论文。
原创Q 805 990 74 911 《哈利波特》系列里哈利波特与伏地魔的二元对立分析12 福克纳眼中的美国南方—以《献给艾米丽的玫瑰》为例13 经典英文电影台词的文体分析14 双关语在英语广告中的应用及翻译15 英文姓名的起源和文化内涵16 英汉委婉语的跨文化对比研究17 翻译目的论视域下的广告语翻译策略研究18 从《艾玛》看简奥斯汀小说中的对话运用19 浅析新闻英语中模糊语言的运用20 论田纳西?威廉斯《欲望号街车》中的逃遁主义21 The Application of TBLT in English Reading Classes of Junior High School22 从《一个干净明亮的地方》解析海明威的冰山理论23 试析《旅游巴士》中的犹太文化内涵24 Cultural Differences on West-Eastern Business Negotiations25 莎士比亚戏剧《哈姆雷特》中男主人公性格分析26 从生态批评理论的角度分析《鲁滨逊漂流记》27 灵魂救赎者—《七个尖角阁的老宅》中菲比的人物分析28 Oscar Wilde’s Aestheticism on The Picture of Dorian Gray29 《周六夜现场》的幽默剖析30 浅析中西方婚礼习俗的差异和融合31 The Principles and Approaches of Brand Name Translation32 《雾都孤儿》中的女人们——试析狄更斯的女性观33 觉醒的灵魂——解读《兔子归来》中的女性主义34 显现的被动?隐现的自我——《看不见的人》中被动语态的身份建构功能研究35 海明威文学创作中主题的转折点——《乞力马扎罗的雪》36 中国时政新词翻译探析37 The Comparison of Table Manners between China and Western Countries38 从功能对等角度分析英文电影片名汉译39 《厄舍古屋之倒塌》的主题及其象征意义的分析40 “功能对等”理论视角下的词性转换翻译研究41 论希斯克利夫出走的必然性42 An Analysis of Sexism in English Advertisements43 《看不见的人》中的“暗与明”意象探究44 浅析《德伯家的苔丝》中苔丝的反叛精神45 儿童英语游戏教学的艺术46 An Analysis of Hu ckleberry Finn’s Personality47 从尤金?奈达的功能对等理论角度论网络流行语的可译与不可译48 论《老人与海》中圣地亚哥性格的双重性49 On Translation of English Idioms50 从改写理论的角度看情景喜剧的字幕翻译－－以《生活大爆炸》为例51 浅谈年世界金融海啸52 中西文化差异在家庭教育中的体现53 浅谈中美饮食文化差异54 “庸人”自扰——《普鲁弗洛克情歌》主题探究55 跨文化交际中文化移情能力的培养56 On English Film Title Translation from the Perspective of Skopostheorie57 中英手机短信的修辞特点分析58 从玛丽沃斯通克拉夫特的女性主义观点看《傲慢与偏见》的女性形象塑造59 汉英语言中的借词现象60 《查泰莱夫人的情人》中女性性意识的觉醒分析61 《虹》的生态女性主义解读62 中美礼貌用语的跨文化对比分析63 情感因素对英语教学的影响64 中英色彩词的文化内涵异同分析65 浅谈跨文化交际中的禁忌66 国产电影字幕归化与异化研究－－以《集结号》为个案研究67 论《紫色》的社会意义68 悲剧英雄—赫尔曼梅尔维尔笔下的比利巴德形象分析69 《儒林外史》中应对文化缺省的文化负载词翻译70 文化视角下的直译和意译71 英文外贸合同中表时间介词的使用和翻译72 “美国梦”的破灭——《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征73 Analysis of the Character of Elizabeth Bennet in Pride and Prejudice74 On“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, Elegance” in Translation of Business Contract75 分析《野性的呼唤》的生存原则—从美国自然主义观的视角76 形成性评价在培养学生英语学习自主性中的作用77 论《女巫》中的成人形象78 《都柏林人》——一座城市的精神瘫痪79 《红字》中象征手法的运用——以人物名字为例80 中西方文学作品中复仇的异同——《基督山伯爵》和《连城诀》比较研究81 电影《超人：钢铁之躯》中的西方个人英雄主义体现82 从中西文化差异的角度浅析商宴之道83 女性意识的苏醒－－对《愤怒的葡萄》中的约德妈妈形象的分析84 论小组学习在英语教学中的应用85 中西问候语差异对比86 论《宠儿》中象征主义的运用87 透析《劝导》中的新女性形象88 文学翻译中译者风格的彰显89 论《飘》中斯嘉丽的精神源泉90 礼貌策略在商务英语信函中的应用91 A Brief Analysis of the Main Female Characters in Golden Notebook92 A Chinese-English Translation of Public Signs Based on Nida's Fuctional Equivalence Theory93 [毕业论文](经贸英语系毕业论文)微信营销现状分析及发展策略94 中学英语教学中学生交际能力的培养95 从归化和异化的角度看张谷若《德伯家的苔丝》的翻译96 The Racial Stereotypes in American TV Media97 Lin Yutang and his Translation of the Analects98 A Comparison of Chinese and Western Taboos of Social Communication99 图式理论在高中英语阅读教学中的应用100 《蝴蝶君》中两位主角的心理冲突101 应对写作逻辑乱象的对策102 《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观103 论汉英翻译软件的局限性104 英汉谚语中“爱”的情感隐喻对比研究（开题报告+论）105 从语用等效角度透析旅游景点名称英译106107 查尔斯?达尔内——《双城记》中一个内心充满矛盾的人物108 《喜福会》中的中美文化冲突109 英汉颜色词文化内涵的异同分析110 中英颜色词及象征意义111 A Study of Narrative Techniques in Barn Burning112 从民族服饰角度看中美文化价值113 论商务谈判桌上的中西文化差异及其对谈判的影响114 词汇的语义关系及其在初中英语词汇教学中的运用115 中外大学校训对比研究116 A Lonely but Strong-willed Soul A Character Analysis of Ellen Weatherall in The Jilting of Granny Weatherall117 礼貌策略的英汉对比研究—以《傲慢与偏见》及其译本为例118 交际法在中学英语教学中的运用119 培养元认知策略, 提高学生自主学习能力120 追求自然和谐的童真理想—解析凯瑟琳?曼斯菲尔德短篇小说中的儿童形象121 外教口语课堂中存在的问题及对策122 Proverb and Its Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Language123 言语幽默产生的语音机制124 C-E Translation of Public Signs—From the Perspective of Functionalism125 从女性主义批评看《金色笔记》中的人物描写126 对《一小时的故事》的批评分析127 从文化角度对比中美两国谈判风格128 浅谈提高高中生英语写作能力的途径129 从文化差异看英文电影片名的汉译130 高中英语课堂中的文化渗透131 《简爱》中的女性主义132 《乱世佳人》女主人公斯嘉丽的性格分析133 从意象的角度看劳伦斯短篇小说中女性的婚姻爱情观134 On the Symbolic Meaning of the Marlin in The Old Man and the Sea135 论“黑”字所体现的对美国黑人的种族歧视136 信用证中英语语言特点及应用研究137 公示语汉英翻译的问题与对策138 海明威《雨中猫》的文体分析139 浅论《儿子与情人》中劳伦斯的心里分析技巧140 从跨文化交际视角看幽默的言语机制和翻译141 欧?亨利《最后一片叶子》解读142 高中英语阅读词汇障碍突破技巧的研究143 A Comparison of the English Color Terms144 A Comparison of the English Color Terms145 《喜福会》中的女性身份重建146 《到灯塔去》中的两性主义—抵达人类和谐的完美道路147 Risk Comparing of Documentary Collection and Letters of Credit148 《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿的性格分析149 《进入黑夜的漫长旅程》的节奏分析150 Situational Approach to Grammar Teaching in Senior High English Classes 151 A Comparison of the English Color Terms152 从弗洛伊德精神分析视角分析亨伯特和洛丽塔的悲剧153 汉语中的英语外来语154 Angelic devil: an analysis of the image of Catherinein Wuthering Heights 155 Pragmatic Consciousness in College English Teaching156 从英语中性别歧视词看西方女性社会地位之变化157 汽车广告英语的语言特点及其翻译158 译员主体性在歌曲《我有个梦》歌词翻译中的体现159 浅析网络语言翻译中的功能对等160161 交际法在中学英语词汇教学的应用162 从婚礼仪式浅谈中西方文化的冲突和交融163 公示语英译错误分析164 从约翰·斯坦贝克《菊花》看大萧条时期美国妇女的婚姻生活165 Harmony is Everything: an Ecological Analysis of The Grapes of Wrath 166 浅论影视字幕翻译中的归化与异化——以《老友记》为例167 中英颜色词内涵对比分析——《骆驼祥子》个案分析168 情感教学在初中英语课堂中的理论和实践169 On the Absurdity in Waiting for Godot170 论广告英语的语言特色171 On Social Function of English Euphemism Expression172 外国品牌中译的创新翻译研究173 《还乡》中的生态女性主义解读174 浅谈跨文化交际中的理解障碍175 从象征主义视角看《阿拉比》和《一个干净明亮的地方》176 论《麦田里的守望者》的“非乐观性”177 从归化和异化的角度对《小妇人》的两个中文译本的比较研究178 论《外婆的家什》中的象征意义179 On the Influence of Social Environment on Pip’s Growth in Great Expectation180 A Script-based Study of the Female Theme in Scent of a Woman181 Discussio n on How to Arouse the Students’Interests in English Learning182 中美称赞语的对比分析183 从美国总统选举看其民主政治184 《红字》中对自由的求索185 从功能翻译理论看电影《功夫熊猫》的字幕翻译186 Deep Sorrow and Firm Faith－－An Elucidation of William Wordsworth’s Nature View through the Exhaustive Analysis of the “Lucy Poems”187 从文化翻译学行为论看汉语国俗语的英译过程——对林语堂和《吾国吾民》的个案考察188 从文化角度浅析灾难电影《》和《唐山大地震》价值观的异同189 女性的自我迷失与回归—从女性主义视角解读《蒂凡尼的早餐》(开题报告+论文) 190 从异化和归化角度对《爱玛》两个中文译本的比较研究191 试分析两种婚姻的差异——以薛宝钗和夏洛特为例192 从生态女性主义视角解读《永别了,武器》193 阿法——《多芬的海》中的加勒比人194 The Use of Body Language in Teaching195 《玻璃动物园》中的逃避主义解读196 从“动态对等”看品牌名的翻译197 文学翻译中的译者主体性198 《小妇人》中教养方式的分析199 浅析《飘》中斯嘉丽的三次婚姻200 一个纯洁的女人的毁灭—苔丝的悲剧性色彩浅析。
英语专业必备!胡壮麟语言学笔记汇总
Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structurescreativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of language:Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表达情感Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生Referential: context描述客观事实Poetic: message语言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。
distinctive features语言学
distinctive features语言学【最新版】目录1.引言2.语言学中的独特特征3.语言的定义和功能4.语言的独特特征5.语言的独特特征对人类社会的影响6.结论正文【引言】语言学是一门研究语言的学科，它探讨语言的结构、发展和使用。
在语言学中，独特特征是指语言所具有的特殊属性，这些属性使语言与其他交流方式区分开来。
【语言的定义和功能】语言是人类交流的基本工具，它使人们能够表达思想、传递信息和交流感受。
语言不仅包括口头表达，还包括书面表达和手势等非言语交流方式。
【语言的独特特征】语言的独特特征包括以下几个方面：首先，语言具有结构性。
语言是由音素、词汇和语法等基本单位构成的，这些单位按照一定的规则组合成语言表达。
其次，语言具有共享性。
语言需要被使用者共同理解和使用，才能够发挥交流的作用。
再次，语言具有可变性。
语言会随着时间和地域的变化而发生变化，这种变化可以是语音、词汇或语法上的变化。
最后，语言具有创造性。
语言使用者可以通过语言表达自己的思想和感受，这种表达可以是新的、创造性的。
【语言的独特特征对人类社会的影响】语言的独特特征对人类社会产生了深远的影响。
首先，语言的结构性使得人们可以系统地学习和使用语言，这为人类社会的发展提供了重要的基础。
其次，语言的共享性使得人们可以进行有效的交流和合作，这为人类社会的进步提供了重要的动力。
再次，语言的可变性和创造性使得人们可以不断地创新和发展，这为人类社会的繁荣提供了重要的保障。
【结论】语言学中的独特特征对语言的定义、发展和使用都产生了重要的影响。
新世纪高等院校 综合教程 第一册 教师用书 笔记 unit 12 Gender Bias in Language
Unit 12 Gender Bias in LanguageSection One Pre-reading Activities (2)I. Reading aloud (2)II.Cultural information (2)III. Audiovisual supplements (3)Section Two Global Reading (4)I. Text analysis (4)II. Structural analysis (4)Section Three Detailed Reading (5)Text I (5)Section Four Consolidation Activities (16)I. Vocabulary Analysis (16)II. Grammar Exercises (20)III Translation exercises (23)V. Oral activities (25)VI. Writing Practice (26)VII. Listening Exercises (28)Section Five Further Enhancement (31)I. Text II (31)II. Memorable Quotes (34)Section One Pre-reading ActivitiesI. Reading aloudRead the following sentences aloud, paying special attention to incomplete plosives and liaison. A plosive which has no audible release is put in brackets.1. Yet it is often misunderstood and misinterpreted, for language is a very complicated mechanism with a grea(t) deal of nuance.2. This is an example of the gender bias that exists in the English language.3. It is at this point that Nilsen argues tha(t) the gender bias comes into play.4. It is up to us to decide wha(t) we will allow to be used and ma(d)e proper in the area of language.II.Cultural information1. Why We Need an Equal Rights Amendment:Why We Need an ERA; The Gender Gap Runs Deep in American LawMartha Burk and Eleanor Smeal Why is the amendment needed? Twenty-three countries —including Sri Lanka and Moldova—have smaller gender gaps in education, politics and health than the United States, according to the World Economic Forum. We are 68th in the world in women's participation in national legislatures. On average, a woman working full time and year-round still makes only 77 cents to a man's dollar. Women hold 98 percent of the low-paying "women's" jobs and fewer than 15 percent of the board seats at major corporations. Because their private pensions—if they have them at all —are lower and because Social Security puts working women at a disadvantage and grants no credit for years spent at home caring for children or aging parents, three-quarters of the elderly in poverty are women. And in every state except Montana, women still pay higher rates than similarly situated men for almost all kinds of insurance. All that could change if we put equal rights for women in our Constitution.2. Gender bias in educationGender bias in education is an insidious problem that causes very few people to stand up and take notice. The victims of this bias have been trained through years of schooling to be silent and passive, and are therefore unwilling to stand up and make noise about the unfair treatment they are receiving. Girls and boys today are receiving separate and unequal educations due to the gender socialization that takes place in our schools and due to the sexist hidden curriculum students are faced with every day. Unless teachers are made aware of the gender-role socialization and the biased messages they are unintentionally imparting to students everyday, and until teachers are provided with the methods and resources necessary to eliminate gender-bias in their classrooms,girls will continue to receive an inequitable education.Sadker, D., Sadker, M. (1994) "Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls". Toronto, ON: Simon & Schuster Inc.III. Audiovisual supplementsWatch a video clip and answer the following questions.1. What happened to the woman?2. What does the defense counsel mean in the last sentence?Answers to the Questions:1. She was hit by a male doctor when she was slowly pulling out and got severely injured in her neck. But she doesn’t have insurance, so she’s in debt now.2. He is trying to convince the jury that a male ER (emergency room) doctor is not possible to lose control of his car, but a woman facing a lot of problems in her life like Erin is quite dangerous when she is driving. The defence counsel’s words obviously show his gender discrimination.Video Script:Erin: I was pulling out real slow and out of nowhere his Jaguar comes racing around the corner like a bat out of hell ... They took some bone from my hip and put it in my neck. I don’t have insurance, so I’m about $17,000 in debt right now ... I couldn’t take painkillers ‘cause they made me too groggy to care for my kids ... Matthew’s eight, and Katie’s almost six ... and Beth’s just nine months ... I just wanna be a good mom, a nice person, a decent citizen (I)just wanna take good care of my kids, you know?Ed (Prosecuting Counsel): Yeah. I know.Defence Counsel: Seventeen thousand in debt? Is your ex-husband helping you?Erin: Which one?Defence Counsel: There’s more than one?Erin:Yeah. There’re two. Why?Defence Counsel: So, you must have been feeling pretty desperate that afternoon.Erin:What’s your point?Defence Counsel: Broke, three kids, no job. A doctor in Jaguar? Must be a pretty good meal ticket.Ed: Objection!Erin: What? He hit me!Defence Counsel: So you say.Erin: He came tearing around the corner out of control.Defence Counsel: An ER doctor who spend his days saving lives was the one out of control?Section Two Global ReadingI. Text analysis1. Which two opinions are presented in the first paragraph?There are those who believe that the language that we use everyday is biased in and of itself. Then there are those who feel that language is a reflection of the prejudices that people have within themselves.2. Which sentences in the conclusion show the writer’s attitude?In the last p aragraph, we find these sentences: “It is necessary for people to make the proper adjustments internally to use appropriate language to effectively include both genders. We qualify language. It is up to us to decide what we will allow to be used and made proper in the area of language.” Evidently, they denote the writer’s attitude toward what we should do about gender bias in language.II. Structural analysis1. What type of writing is the text?This text is an expositive essay with reference to gender bias in language.2. What’s the main strategy to develop this expositive essay?The text is mainly developed by means of exemplification. Examples are abundantly used in Paragraphs 2-6.Section Three Detailed ReadingText IGender Bias in Languagenguage is a very powerful element. It is the most common method of communication.Yet it is often misunderstood and misinterpreted, for language is a very complicated mechanism with a great deal of nuance. There are times when in conversation with another individual, that we must take into account the person’s linguistic genea logy. There are people who use language that would be considered prejudicia l or biased in use. But the question that is raised is in regard to language usage: Is language the cause of the bias or is it reflective of the preexisting bias that the user holds? There are those who believe that the language that we use in day-to-day conversation is biased in and of itself. They feel that the term "mailman", for example, is one that excludes women mail carriers. Then there are those who feel that language is a reflection of the prejudices that people have within themselves. That is to say, the words that people choose to use in conversation denote the bias that they harbor within their own existence.2.There are words in the English language that are existing or have existed (some of themhave changed with the new wave of “political correctness” coming about) that havei nherently been sexually biased against women. For example, the person who investigatesreported complaints (as from consumers or students), reports findings, and helps to achieve fair and impartial settlements is ombudsman (Merriam-Webster Dictionary), but ombudsperson here at Indiana State University. This is an example of the gender bias that exists in the English language. The language is arranged so that men are identified with exalted positions, and women are identified with more service-oriented positions in which they are being dominated and instructed by men. So the language used to convey this type of male supremacy is generally reflecting the honored position of the male and the subservience of the female. Even in relationships, the male in the home is often referred to as the “man of the house,” even if it is a 4-year-old child. It is highly insulting to say that a 4-year-old male, based solely on his gender, is more qualified and capable of conducting the business and affairs of the home than his possibly well-educated, highly intellectual mother. There is a definite disparity in that situation.3.In American culture, a woman is valued for the attractiveness of her body, while a manis valued for his physical strength and his achievements. Even in the example of word pairs the bias is evident. The masculine word is put before the feminine word, as in the examples of Mr. and Mrs., his and hers, boys and girls, men and women, kings and queens, brothers and sisters, guys and dolls, and host and hostess. This shows that the usage of many of the English words is also what contributes to the bias present in the English language.4.Alleen Pace Nilsenn notes that there are instances when women are seen as passivewhile men are active and bring things into being. She uses the example of the wedding ceremony. In the beginning of the ceremony, the father is asked who gives the bride away andhe answ ers, “I do.” It is at this point that Nilsen argues that the gender bias comes into play.The traditional concept of the bride as something to be handed from one man (the father) to another man (the husband-to-be) is perpetuated. Another example is in the instance of sexual relationships. The women become brides while men wed women. The man takes away a woman’s virginity and a woman loses her virginity. This denotes her inability, apparently due to her gender, to hold on to something that is a part of her, thus enforcing the man’s ability and right to claim something that is not his.5.To be a man, according to some linguistic differences, would be considered an honor. Tobe endowed by genetics with the encoding of a male would be as having been shown grace, unmerited favor. There are far greater positive connotations connected with being a man than with being a woman. Nilsen yields the example of “shrew” and “shrewd.” The word “shrew”is taken from the name of a small but especially vicious animal; however in Nilsen’s dictionary, a “shrew” was identified as an “ill-tempered, scolding woman.” However, the word “shrewd,” which comes from the same root, was defined as “marked by clever discerning awareness.” It was noted in her dictionary as a shrewd businessm an. It is also commonplace not to scold little girls for being “tomboys” but to scoff at little boys who play with dolls or ride girls’ bicycles.6.In the conversations that come up between friends, you sometimes hear the words“babe,” “broad,” and “chick.” These are words that are used in reference to or directed toward women. It is certainly the person’s right to use these words to reflect women, but why use them when there are so many more to choose from? Language is the most powerful tool of communication and the most effective tool of communication. It is also the most effective weapon of destruction.7.Although there are biases that exist in the English language, there has been considerablechange toward recognizing these biases and making the necessary changes formally so that they will be implemented socially. It is necessary for people to make the proper adjustments internally to use appropriate language to effectively include both genders. We qualify language. It is up to us to decide what we will allow to be used and made proper in the area of language.Paragraph 1Questions：1. What does the writer think of language?The author thinks that language is very powerful and the most common method of communication, but is often misunderstood and misinterpreted, for it is a very complicated system of symbols with plenty of subtle differences.Words and ExpressionsCollocation:1. bias:1) n. an opinion or feeling that strongly favors one side in an argument or an item in a group or series; predisposition; prejudicee.g. This university has a bias towards the sciences.Students were evaluated without bias.2) vt. to unfairly influence attitudes, choices, or decisionse.g. Several factors could have biased the results of the study.Collocation:bias against/towards/in favor ofe.g. It's clear that the company has a bias against women and minorities.Phrase:gender bias: sex prejudice; having bias towards the male and against the femalee.g. Gender bias is still quite common in work and payment.2. nuance: adj. slight, delicate or subtle difference in color, appearance, meaning, feeling, etc.e.g. Language teachers should be able to react to nuances of meaning of common words.He was aware of every nuance in her voice.Synonym:subtletyCollocation:nuance of3. prejudicial: adj.causing harm to sb’s rights, interests, etc.; havin g a bad effect on sth.e.g. These developments are prejudicial to the company’s future.What she said and did was prejudicial to her own rights and interests.Synonyms:damaging, detrimental, prejudiciousDerivation:prejudice: n.4. in/with regard to: in connection with; concerninge.g. I have nothing to say in regard to your complaints.She is very sensitive in regard to her family background.I refuted him in regard to his injustice.5. reflective: adj. (of a person, mood, etc.) thoughtful; (of a surface) reflecting lighte.g. She is in a reflective mood.These are reflective number plates.Derivation:reflectiveness: n.6. denote:vt. be the name, sign or symbol of; refer to; represent or be a sign of somethinge.g. What does the word "curriculum"denote that "course" does not?Crosses on the map denote villages.Derivations:denotative: adj.denotation: n.Synonyms:connoteindicate7. harbor: vt.1) keep bad thoughts, fears, or hopes in your mind for a long timee.g. She began to harbor doubts over the wisdom of their journey.2) contain something, especially something hidden and dangerouse.g. Sinks and draining boards can harbor germs.3) protect and hide criminals that the police are searching fore.g. You may be punished if you harbor an escaped criminal or a spy.Derivation:harbor: n.Sentences1. ... language is a very complicated mechanism with a great deal of nuance. (Paragraph 1) Explanation: … language is a very complicated system of communication. Even slight variations in the pitch, tone, and intensity of the voice and in the choice of words, etc. can express a great deal of subtle shades of meaning.2.… we must take into account the person’s linguistic genealogy. (Paragraph 1): Paraphrase: we must consider the person’s long-standing conventions in language use. Translation: 我们必须将这人的语言谱系学考虑在内。
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