英语语言学概论复习
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题11. Which of the following statements about language is NOT trueA. Language is a systemB. Language is symbolicC. Animals also have languageD. Language is arbitrary2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of languageA. SymbolicB. DualityC. ProductiveD. Arbitrary3. What is the most important function of languageA. InterpersonalB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Metalingual4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and ParoleA. SaussureB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his languageA. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is .A. informativeB. phaticC. directiveD. performative7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of sounds8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcriptionA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain languageA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics11. Minimal pairs are used to .A. find the distinctive features of a languageB.find the phonemes of a languageC. compare two wordsD. find the allophones of language12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch.A. phonemeB. speech soundsC. syllablesD. stress13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllableA. CodaB. OnsetC. StemD. Peak三、判断analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used. This is called the prescriptive approach. Ftranscription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. F台州学院考试题1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.English is a typical intonation language.3.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.4.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.1.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.2.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.3.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of studyA. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stopA.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speakB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed” serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pairA. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find16. What are the dual structures of languageA. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguisticsA. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics6. 應用語言學2. closed class words4. distinctive featuresVI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)问答答案1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable byrules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. Community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitraryA. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. Bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. Performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it performA. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situationA. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language—A nice day, isn’t it— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. Duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. F13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. F15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted. F16. Only human beings are able to communicate. F17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. F18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic历时 study of language. F19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms. FIII. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __verbal________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ___creativity_______.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ___yo-he-ho_______ theory.25. Linguistics is the __systematic________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature （南开大学，2004）35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, . words, which are distinct in meaning.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech soundsA. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulationA. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowelsA. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibratingA. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are producedby moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. 28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
英语语言学概论-简答题
1.Synchronic vs diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time inhistory is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.2. Langue and paroleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system sharedby all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situationto situation.3. Competence and performanceChomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitelylarge number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.4. ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example,while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.5. ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time.6. DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basiclevel there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of languagecan be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system.7. DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which arepresent or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide rangeof things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.In contrast, no animal communication system possessesthis feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop.8. Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speakerare both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription:Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians intheir study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.10. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encounteredin the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; itis abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic worldof experience.11. ContextIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of whathas been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s useof language and also the hearer’s interpretation ofwhat is said to him.1. Prescriptive and descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to descriptive; if the linguistic study aimsto lay down rules for“correct and standards” behavior in using language. i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normally known as “grammar” in that the latter is based on “high”(religious, literary) written language. It aims to set models for language user to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the languagepeople actually use, be it correct or not. Modernlinguists believe that whatever occurs in the language use should be described and analyzed in their investigations.2. Competence and PerformanceChomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitelylarge number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue, and unnecessary puses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules. While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langueis a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.3. Assimilation RuleThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound toanother by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This "sloppy" tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e. it does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Componential analysis—a way to analyse lexical meaning 4. Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absentin the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capital letters. For example, theword man is analyzed as comprising the features of+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantics features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. For example, the two word man and woman share the features of +HUMAN, +ANIMATE, and +ANIMATE, butdiffer in the feature of MALE. And the words man and boy share the features of +HUMAN, +ANIMATE, and +MALE, but differ in the feature of ADULT.Componential analysis provides insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.1.The scope of linguistics:phonetics(语音学)phonology(音系学)morphology(形态学)syntax(句法学)pragmatics(语用学)2.Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: Sociolinguistics: the studies of all there socialaspects of language and its relation with society Psycholinguistics: it relates the study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics3.Distinctions in linguistics:Prescriptive VS Descriptive Synchronic VS diachronic Speech VS writing Langue VS parole(瑞，saussure) Competence VS performance Traditional grammar VS linguistics4.Functions of language:descriptive,expressive,social,performative,persuasive,informative.nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.6.Design features(Charleshock美1960)arbitrarinessproductivity duality displacement culturaltransmission7.Phonetics, the study of the phonic medium oflanguage. branches: articulatory~, auditory~,acoustic~.8.Articulatory apparatus: Pharyngeal/oral/nasal cavity,9.音素phone,音位-phoneme,音位变体-allophone.10.Rules in phonology: sequential/assimilation/deletionrules,11.Suprasegmental features(超音段音位)：stress, tone,intonation12.Morpheme词素:free and bound morphemesMorph 语素:distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morphemeAllomorph 同位语素：express indefiniteness in english 13.Derivational morphemes-派生词素 inflectionalmorphemes-屈折词素(tense,number,degree,case)pounds:1)when the two words are in the samegrammatical category.the compound will be in thiscategory2)in many cases, the two words fall into different categories, The class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound(not with a preposition).3)it is often the case that compounded word sequence. 4)the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meaning of its parts. Some words in the basic wrd stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.。
英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
《英语语言学概论》精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题11.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?nguage is a systemnguage is symbolicC.Animals also have l anguagenguage is arbitrary2.Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language?A. SymbolicB. DualityC. ProductiveD. Arbitrary3.What is the most important function of language?A. InterpersonalB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Metalingual4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?A. SaussureB. C homskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous5.According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language?A. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue6.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it?" is .A. informativeB. phaticC. directiveD. performative7.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .A.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB.the perception of soundsC.the combination of soundsD.the production of sounds8.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .A.the place of articulationB.the obstruction of airstreamC.the position of the tongueD.the shape of the lips9.Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription?A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language?A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics11.Minimal pairs are used to .A.find the distinctive features of a languageB.find the phonemes of a languagepare two wordsD.find the allophones of languageually, suprasegmental features include ,length and pitch.A. phonemeB. speech soundsC. syllablesD. stress13.Which is an indispensable part of a syllable?A. CodaB. OnsetC. StemD. Peak三、判断1.The analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used. This is called the prescriptive approach. F2.B road transcription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. F台州学院考试题1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.English is a typical intonation language.3.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.4.Linguistic c is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.1.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a .2.P refers to the realization of langue in actual u se.3.Linguistics is generally defined as t he s study of language.1.Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. M orphology.D. Sociolinguistics.3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?A.VoicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality11.Conventionally a is put in slashes.A. a llophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morphemenguage is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed ”serves .A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14.Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find16.What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and m eaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.19.Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A.Phonology.B.Psycho-linguistics.C.Sociolinguistics.D.Anthropology.IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1.acoustic phonetics6. 應用語言學2. closed class words4. distinctive featuresVI.Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1.Define phoneme. (4 points)2.Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3.What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)问答答案1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable by rules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2.The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）e.g. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3.the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI.Choose the best answer. (20%)nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humanA. contactB. communicationC. relationD. Community2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. Bang3.The function of the sentence ―Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.‖ is.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. Performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say―碎碎（岁岁）平安‖as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feelmight affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place , due to this feature of language, speakers of a language arefree to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—Anice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone thatexists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicat design feature of .A.cultural transmissionB.productivityC.displacementD. Duality9.answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A.PsycholinguisticsB.A nthropological linguisticsC.SociolinguisticsD.Applied linguistics10.deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A.Linguistic theoryB.Practical linguisticsC.Applied linguisticsparative linguisticsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. F13.Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.nguage is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. F15.We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details language system can be genetically transmitted. F16.Only human beings are able to communicate. F17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. F18. A study of the features of the English used in Shake e s a p re’s time is an example of the diachronic 历时study of language. F19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.F20. III.All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.Fill in the blanks. (10%)Fnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of verbal_ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed creativity_ .nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This funct is .24.Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavywork has been c alled the yo-he-ho ________ theory.25.Linguistics is the systematic study of language.26.Modern linguistics is __ ________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of over writing.28.The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.29.Saussure put forward two important concepts. refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s.I V.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Design feature32.Displacementpetence34.Synchronic linguisticsV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language?Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004 ）35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out o a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combineto form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational systemwhich will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Pitch variation is k nown as when its patterns are imposed on s entences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2.Conventionally a is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3.An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4.The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as .A. g lottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7.Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A.Acoustic phoneticsB.Articulatory phoneticsC.Auditory phoneticsD.None of the above8.Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9.Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. G lottal s topD. ConsonantII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11.Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger thanthe segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12.The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire thequality of a speech sound.14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15.Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16.All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17.W hen pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18.According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into vs. lax or long vs. short.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be e ither ______ __ or _______ _, while all vowel sounds are .23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the and the lips.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without .26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating .27.In English there are a number of _________ , which are produced by moving f rom one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28.refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29.is the smallest linguistic unit.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Sound assimilation32.Suprasegmental featureplementary distribution34.Distinctive featuresV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What is a coustic phonetics? （中国人民大学，2003 ）36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation? （南开大学，2004 ）VI.Analyze the f ollowing situation. (20%)37.Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999 ）(1)voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2)low front vowel(3)lateral liquid(4)velar nasal(5)voiced interdental fricative32.Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.plementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34.Distinctive featureIst: refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a d istinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speechsound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are usedto measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds pr in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.11。
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
英语语言学概论
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
《语言学概论》复习
C．家牙打哈抓 D．盖反外丹抬
3．分析句子"我们天天看见从东方的山峰后面升起来的太阳"，能得到的词组成分是（D）。
A． 天天看见从东方的山峰后面。
B． 我们天天看见。
C． 升起来的太阳。
D．东方的山峰后面 。
4．下列各种说法只有（C）是正确的。
8．汉字的发展趋势是（由繁趋简）。
9．语言在不同行业、不同阶层等社会因素方面发生变化，由此产生了（社会方言）。
10．词义会不断地发生变化，例如英语单词deer，过去泛指动物，现在只表示鹿，这种意义变化的方式叫做（缩小）。
三、选择题（每小题2分，共10分）
说明：每题只有一个正确答案，请将正确答案的字母序号填到题中横线上。
①语言从本质上说是社会的，具有社会性。一个社会是一定的经济基础和上层建筑构成的整体。语言就是一定社会的产物，是社会特有的一种现象，社会以外无所谓语言，没有社会，也就没有语言。语言是在劳动过程中因为交际的需要而产生的，是与人类社会、人的抽象思维同时产生的。语言的发展受社会制约，语言随着社会的产生而产生，随着社会的发展而发展，随着社会的死亡而死亡。总之，语言的一切自始至终都与人类社会紧密地联系在一起，社会的任何风吹草动，都会给语言带来影响，都会在语言中反映出来。社会性可以说是语言的本质特性。
5. 变换下面具有语法多义的句子，使其变成单义结构。（3分）
我们负责给这个公司培养四个实验室技术员。
A． 我们负责给这个公司的四个实验室培养技术员。
B． 我们负责给这个公司培养四个实验室的四个技术员。
五、问答题（共40分）
1． 语言是社会现象还是自然现象？说说你的看法。（6分）
英语语言学概论复习题集
英语语言学概论复习题集一、选择题1. 语言学是研究什么的学科？A. 语言的发音B. 语言的结构C. 语言的社会功能D. 所有以上2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 词汇学D. 化学3. 英语中的“语言学”一词来源于哪个希腊词？A. LogosB. PhoneC. GlossaD. Syntax4. 英语的音素有多少个？A. 20个B. 44个C. 100个D. 取决于方言5. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”有何区别？A. 辅音是浊音，元音是清音B. 辅音是清音，元音是浊音C. 辅音可以单独发音，元音不可以D. 辅音不可以单独发音，元音可以二、填空题6. 语言学的主要研究对象是_________。
7. 语言学的三大分支包括语音学、语法学和_________。
8. 英语中的音素数量因_________而异。
9. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”的区别在于_________。
10. 英语语言学中，“语用学”研究的是语言的_________。
三、简答题11. 请简述语言学的定义及其研究范围。
12. 描述语音学和音系学的区别。
13. 举例说明英语中的音节结构。
14. 解释什么是形态学，并简述其研究内容。
15. 什么是社会语言学？它研究哪些方面？四、论述题16. 论述英语语言学中“语义学”的重要性及其研究内容。
17. 描述英语中的词类系统，并解释它们各自的功能。
18. 论述英语语法的复杂性及其对学习者的影响。
19. 讨论英语作为国际语言对全球语言生态的影响。
20. 分析英语中的双关语现象及其在语言使用中的作用。
五、案例分析题21. 阅读以下对话，并分析其中的语用学现象。
- A: Can you pass the salt?- B: Sure, here you go.22. 观察以下句子，并讨论其语法结构：- The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.23. 分析以下广告语中的修辞手法：- Just do it.24. 考虑以下情景，讨论社会语言学在其中的应用：- 在一个多语言社区中，不同语言群体如何交流？25. 研究以下英语习语，并解释其在不同文化背景下的含义：- Break the ice.六、综合应用题26. 设计一个英语语言学的课程大纲，包括至少五个主要模块及其子主题。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习English Linguistics Overview Final ReviewIntroduction:1. Phonetics:Phonetics deals with the physical sounds of human speech. It examines speech sounds, their production, transmission, and perception. It includes articulatory phonetics (how sounds are produced), acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted), and auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).2. Phonology:Phonology focuses on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. It studies phonemes—the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning—and phonological rules, which determine how sounds interact in a language. It also explores the distribution of sounds, syllable structures, and phonological processes like assimilation and vowel harmony.3. Morphology:4. Syntax:Syntax explores the structure of sentences and the rulesthat govern their formation. It analyzes the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses to create well-formed sentences.Syntax also investigates sentence constituents, grammatical relations, word order, and sentence types.5. Semantics:6. Pragmatics:7. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society. It investigates how language varies and changes based on social factors such as gender, age, social class, and geographical location. Sociolinguistics also examines language attitudes, language variation, language contact, and dialectology.8. Psycholinguistics:Conclusion:。
《英语语言学概论》题与答案
ExercisesI.Multiple Choice1. __________ studies language change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics2. Of all the speech organs, the ______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords3. In terms of place of articulation, the following sounds [p], [b], [m] and [w]share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental4. A(n) ______ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme5. Which of the following sound description is for [d]?A. voiced labiodental fricativeB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless labiodental fricativeD. voiceless alveolar stop6. What is the phonetic feature of the sound [u]?A. close back shortB. semi-close front shortC. semi-open central shortD. open front short7. Which of the following sentences contain a derivational affix?A. The cows escaped.B. It was raining.C. Those socks are inexpensive.D. She closed the book.8. The morp heme “ed” in the word “worked” is known as a(n) ______.A. derivational morphemeB. lexical morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. functional morpheme9. “en-” in “enlarge” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root10. ______ is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme11. Which of the following forms is possible word of English?A. sprokeB. bsarnC. mboodD. coofp12. Which pair of words below shows the relation of antonymy. ______A. flourish—thriveB. intelligent—stupidC. casual—informalD. flog—whip13. We call the relation between “furniture” and “wardr obe” as ______.A. hyponymyB. meronymyC. homophonyD. homonymy14. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to ______.A. breakdown of conversationB. confusion of one’s intentionC. hostility between speakers and the listenersD. conversational implicatures15. In the phrase structure rule “S——>NP VP”, the arrow can be read as______.A.is equal toB.consists ofC.hasD.generates16. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______.A. lexicalB. morphemeC. grammaticalD. semantic17. The pair of words “hot” and “cold” are ______.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. co-hyponyms18. Which pair of the following are complementary antonyms?A. alive / deadB. above / belowC. poor / richD. doctor / patient19. What is the relation between the pair of sentences:He likes seafood.He likes crabsA. synonymyB. inconsistencyC. entailmentD. presupposition20. Which pair of the following are homographs?A. piece n. / peace n.B. tear v. / tear n.C. fast adj. / fast v.D. flower n. / rose n.21. Which pair of the following are dialectal synonyms?A. lorry, truckB. kid, childC. collaborator, accompliceD. amaze, astound22. “Lift” and “elevator” form a pair of ______ synonyms.A. stylisticB. dialecticalC. collocationalD. connotative15. All syllables must have a ______.A. onsetB. codaC. nucleusD. consonant23. ______ studies language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics24. ______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics25. Of the following sound combination, only ______ is permissible in English.A. iblkB. ilbkC. ilkbD. blik26. Which pair of words below shows the relation of synonymy. ______A. drunk—soberB. uncle—auntC. young—oldD. casual—informal27. The sense relationship between “He has been to France” and “He h as been to Europe” is ______.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. presuppositionD. entailment28. In the phrase structure rule “NP—>(Det) N (PP)…”, the arrow can be readas______.A. is equal toB. branches intoC. transformsD. generates29. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][r][s][l][z][n] share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental30. Y’s utterance in the following conversa tion violates the maxim of ______.X: When is Su san’s farewell party?Y: Sometime next month.A.qualityB.quantityC.relationD.manner31. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the ______because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. constative actC. perlocutionary actD. illocutionary act32. We call the relation between “vehicle” and “car” as ______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy33. Which of the following pairs differs from the others in the sense relation? ______A. good, badB. long, shortC. big, smallD. innocent, guilty34. As far as manners of articulation are concerned, which of the followingdiffers from the others? ______A.[p]B. [b]C. [t]D. [f]35. Which pair of the following belong to meronymy?A. animal, tigerB. hand, fingerC. livestock, dogD. furniture, dresser36. “-En” in “blacken” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root37. Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ of sentences.A. formB. structureC. meaningD. sound pattern38. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called____.missivesB. directivesB.expressivesD. declaratives39. The illocutionary point of the____ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.A. declarationsB. expressivesmissivesD. directives40. Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of______.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. mannerII. Blank filling1.Productivityor___ refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produceand understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.2.Some antonyms are g radable_ because there are often intermediate forms betweenthe two members of a pair.3.Duality is the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds andletters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.4.According to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds:prefixes and suffixes.5.Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageare called sequential rules.6.Root_ constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of itsmeaning.7.A suffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original wordand it may change its part of speech.8.In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition ofaffixes to stems to form new words.9.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts ofwords, e.g. –s, -er, -ed and –ing, which are called bound______ morphemes. 10.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.nuguge _is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.12.Saussure put forward two important concepts. Langue_ refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.13.Broad transcription is normally used in dictionary and teachingtextbooks for general purposes.14.The root _ constitutes the core of the word and carries the majorcomponent of its meaning.15.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change thepart of speech of the original word.16. Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakersto talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.17. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is calleda free _ morpheme.18.Clear [l] and dark [l] are allophones of the same one phoneme /l/. They nevertake the same position in sound combinations; thus they are said to be incomplementary distribution.19.Stem is the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create amore complex form that may be another stem or a word.20.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.21.The two sounds [p] and [p h] are in complementary distribution, and they areknown as allophones of the phoneme /p/.22. _Syntax_______ is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combinedto form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.23. Cooperative Principle (CP) is proposed by Paul Grice .24. “Words are names or labels for things.” This view is called naming theory insemantic studies.25. The sentence “My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor” is a contradition.III. True or false questions.( T ) 1. “Where did he buy the beer” presupposes “He bought the beer”.( F) 2. Sense and reference are the same aspects of meaning.( F ) 3. A wor d’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.( T ) 4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.(T ) 5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is grammatical.( T ) 6. “The student’’ in the sentence ‘The student liked the linguistic lecture” and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked thestudent” belong to the same syntactic category.( F ) 7. Compounds with a preposition are in the category of the prepositional part of the compound.(T ) 8. Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.( T ) 9. Linguistic context is concerned with the probability of words or expressions co-occurring or collocating with each other.( T ) 10. When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.( F ) 11. Linguistics is the course of language.( F ) 12.In the history of any language the writing system always came into beingbefore the spoken form.( T ) 13. Articulatory phonetics is concerned about how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.( F ) 14. Language system is genetically transmitted.( T) 15. Phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.(T) 16. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in aparticular order.( T) 17. Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguish between two words and emphasize the syllable or word.( T) 18. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are closed class words.( T) 19. Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.(T) 20. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.( T ) 21. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the Abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply incontext.( F ) 22.Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.( T ) 23. When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to betrue.(T) 24. Coordination refers top the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.(T ) 25. Traditionally,sentence is the minimum part of language that express meaning.。
语言学概论期末考试复习题及参考答案
语言学概论（八）期末考试复习题及参考答案一、单选题1.（2分）语言符号的任意性是指A.语言符号可以任意使用和创造B.绝大多数语言符号的能指和所指之间没有必然的理据关系C,可以任意使用语言符号绐事物命名D∙语言符号的能指和所指可以任意改变参考答案：B2.（2分）下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的•组是A.image1..pngB.image2.pngC.image3.pngD.Image4.png参考答案：B3.（2分）“汽车”和“轿车”是A.上下位词B.同义词C.等义词D.近义词参考答案，A4.（2分）下列几种社会方言中，具有排他性的一项是A.阶级习惯语B.行话C隐语D.学生腔参考答案：C5.（2分）下列关于亲属语言的表述中，不正确的项是A亲属语言是社会完全分化的产物B∙亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系C.语言亲属关系有亲疏远近的分别D.亲属语言间不存在语音对应关系参考答案：D6..（2分）“老郎鼓励我考大学”是A.生谓诃组B.兼语词组C.连动词组D.复句词组参考答案，B7.12分）目前己知的最古老的拼音文字是一A.古埃及文字8.占希腊文字C腓尼基文字D∙中国的甲骨文参考答案：C9.（2分）划分词类的最本质的标准是A.分布标准8.意义标准C.形态标准D逻辑标准参考答案，A9.（2分）外语学习中的后期阶段被称为A.中介语阶段B.目标语阶段C低平期D高原期参考答案I D10.（2分）英语“students"中的"∙s"是.A.虚词语素B∙词根语素C.构形语素D.构词语素参考答案：C11.（2分）认为“思维和语言各自发展,二者没仃关系”的学者不包括A.古希腊哲学家柏拉图B.法国哲学家迪卡尔C.英国哲学家座布斯D.苏联语言学家马尔参考答案：D12.（2分）以卜.不属于语言学的三大发源地的是A.中国B.埃及C.印度D希腊•罗马参考答案，B13.（2分）下列语言学流派中桀中研究语言本体的流派是A.功能语言学B∙社会语言学C认知语言学D.结构语言学春考答案：D14.（2分）下面词组中,结构类型与其他各组不同的•组是A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.民航大厦/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究辨考答案：C15.（2分）关于语言获得的原因，卜列学说中偏重于内部条件解择的一项是A.天赋说B.摹仿说C强化说D剌激反应说参考答案；A16.（2分）传统上把汉字的单纯字符称为A偏旁B笔画C记号D.独体字参考答案，D17.（2分）北京话“面”单念时读作但“面包”却读作［mi?mpau）,这种语流音变现象是A溺化B.增音C同化D.异化春考答案：C18.（2分）汉语中的词类（词的语法分类）可以首先分出的两个大类是一A.基本词和非基本词B.实诃和虚词C.典型词和兼类词D.体词和谓词参考答案：B19.（2分）目前对于语言和思维的关系，比较一致的观点是A.有什么样的思维，就有什么样的语言B∙有什么样的语言，就有什么样的思维C思维对语言有•定影响，但更重要的是语言决定思维D.语言对思维有一定影响,但更重要的是思维决定语言参考答案，D20.（2分）听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是A.音素B.国i音C音位D.音节参考答案：D21.（2分）首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是A洪堡特B.索绪尔D.萨丕尔分考答案：B22.（2分）判断两种话是不同语言还是同一种语言的不同方言应该主要参考A.相互理解程度B.语言结构的差异程度C.共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D∙地域临近程度参考答案，C23.（2分）语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在丁语言符号的A.任意性B.强制性C离散性D.系统性参考答案：A24.（2分）下列各项中，谓词和变元之间属于动作与结果关系的是A.写黑板B.打篮球C.织毛衣D.寄包裹参考答案，C25.（2分）从词的构造类型上看，汉语“动人”一词属于A.单纯词B.复合词D.简缩词参考答案：B26.（2分）语法的演变之所以比语汇缓慢，是因为A语法规则比较简单B.语法规则数量较少C.语法规则具有强制性D∙语法规则具有抽象性参考答案IC27.（2分）构形语素属于A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.自由语素D.黏若语素参考答案：D28.（2分）下列各组中,三个复合词构词类型不一致的一组是A.席卷耳鸣地震B.打倒切断推翻C发光散热出气D.天地欢乐爱好弁考答案：A29.（2分）在语言谱系分类的层级体系中,域大的类别是一A.语族B.语支C.语系D∙语群参考答案，C30.（2分）从语音的社公功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是A.音位B.音素C.音节D.各渡参考答案：B31.（2分）人类语言和动物的交际方式A.完全一致B.有根本区别C有•定的差别D∙基本一样参考答案：B32.（2分）“我知道你很聪明。
英语语言学概论期末复习
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic ）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness ）与理据性（motivation ）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion ）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification ）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family ）——语族（group ）——语支（branch ）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation ）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating isolating languagelanguage ）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language ）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional inflectional languagelanguage ）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis polysynthesis languagelanguage ）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
语言学概论复习题及参考答案
语言学概论一、填空题：1.双唇、浊、鼻音的国际音标是，舌面前、高、圆唇元音的国际音标是，舌面前、半高、不圆唇元音的国际音标是，舌面后、半高、圆唇元音的国际音标是。
2.舌面后、半高、圆唇元音的国际音标是，齿间、浊、擦音的国际音标是__________，双唇、不送气、浊、塞音的国际音标是__________，舌尖中、送气、清、塞音的国际音标是。
3.根据发音特征描述，写出下列元音：舌面后半高圆唇元音是，舌面前低不圆唇元音是，舌面前高圆唇元音是。
4.汉语的七大方言是、、、、、、，其中是现代汉民族共同语的基础方言。
5.根据语素在词中的不同作用，把词根和词缀叫作语素，而把词尾叫作语素。
6.世界上的语言从语法结构角度来划分，一般可以分为四种类型，即：、、和复综语，汉语属于。
7. 是由两个或两个以上构词语素组成的词。
8. 和是语言发展的两个突出的特点。
9.研究通常以词为界，词以上的规则叫，词以下的规则叫。
10.语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是和。
11.语言符号的和是它的两大特点。
12.每个元音的音质是由、、三个方面的因素决定的。
舌位的高低，舌位的前后，嘴唇的圆展13.以音素为材料进行分析的音位是，具有区别意义作用的音高、音重、音长这类音位叫做。
14.一般说来，地域方言间的差别主要表现在上。
15.根据发音特点，音素可以分为和两类，例如汉语音节中的声母，主要就是由充当的。
16.用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员。
17.人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性。
18.几种句子格式表示相同或相近的结构意义，称为。
同一个句子表示几种不同的结构意义，称为。
19.语音的、、三个环节，分别对应于语音的生理、物理、心理三个方面的属性。
20.句子按其语气可以分为陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹等不同的类型，例如“什么书他都喜欢看”是。
语言学概论1期末复习(4)
《英语语言学1》期末复习题(4)一、判断题（每小题1分，共20分）得分：分Part I.Directions: Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write “T” for true and “F” for false in the Bracket. (1 point each, 20 points)1.Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentences patterns of a language. ( )2.According to semantic triangle, there is no direct link between a symbol and referent, i.e.between a word and a thing it refers to.( )3.Constituents that can be substituted for one another with loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category.( )4.Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others. ( )5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. ( )6.IC Analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures ( )7. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning ( )8.All words can said to contain a root morpheme. ( )9.Free morpheme can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes. ( )10.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth,the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. ( )11.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are said to be in complementary distribution. ( )12.The word “modernizations” is made up of three morphemes. ( )13.The English spelling exactly represents its pronunciation.( )14.Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentences patterns of a language.( )15.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tonguethat is raised the highest. ( )nguage is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints.( )17.Constituents that can be substituted for one another with loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category. ( )18.onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which shows the arbitrarynature of languages.( )19.Allophones are described in phonetic terms.( )20.Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. ( )二、选择题（每小题 1分，共20分）得分：分Part II. Directions: choose the best answer from the four choices to complete the following sentences or answer the questions. Mark the corresponding letter. (1 point each, 20 points)1. language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.A. culturalB. conventionalC. decodedD. vocal2. A word with several meanings is called _________.A. an abnormal wordB. a polysemous wordC. a synonymous wordD. none of the above3. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is known as a(n) __________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form4. The syntactic rules of any language are ________ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite5. “I picked some tulips.” __________ “I picked some flowers.”A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with6. Cold and hot is a pair of ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converse7. “Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes8. The study of language at one point of time is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. historicC. diachronicD. descriptive9. Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above10. Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ___________.A. phonemic contrastB. complementary distributionC. minimal pairD. none of the above11. Bloomfield drew on __________ psychology when truing to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming12. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by _______ in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. N. ChomskyC. F. SaussureD. M. A. K. Halliday13. Which of the following is a correct description of reference?A. a relationship between an expression and other expressions which have the same meaningB. the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an expressionC. a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression used in anutterance to pick out that objectD. an intra-linguistic relationship between lexical items14. What is function of the sentence “How do you do’?A. DirectiveB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Evocative15. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ________ dialectsA. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional16. Which of the following languages has the syllabic writing system?A. ChineseB. JapaneseC. EnglishD. French17. Which descr iption of the meaning components of the word “father” is right?A. [+human, +adult,-male]B. [+human, -adult, +male]C. [–human, +adult, -male]D. [+human, +adult, +male]18. Once the notion of ________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content19. The classic semantic triangle reflects__________.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above20. The noun tear and the verb tear are __________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above三、填空题（每空1分，共10分）得分：分Part III. Directions: Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank with the most appropriate word. (1 points each, 20 points)1)The three branches of phonetics are labeled as a____________ phonetics, auditory phoneticsand acoustic phonetics respectively.2)One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over w_________.3)S_________ studies the sentence structure of language.4)C____________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dividedinto meaning components.5)The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are h_____________.6)The modern linguistics is d____________, not prescriptive, and its investigations are based onauthentic and mainly spoken language data.7)M___________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8)Langue refers to the language system shared by a community of speaker while p________contrasted with langue is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.9)The transformational component has transformational rules, which change the deep structuresgenerated by the phrase structure component into s________ structure. (surface)10)In semantic triangle, the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct, and it ismediated by c___________.四、解释专业术语（每小题4分，共20分，）得分：分Part IV. Directions: Define the following terms. Write the definitions of each term in the following required space: (2 points each, 10 points)1. Syntactic category:2. deep structure:3. semantic triangle:4. true condition:5. componential analysis:五、论述题（每题15分, 共30分）得分：分Part V. Essay Question: (30%)1. What are the seven types of meaning proposed by G. Leech in his Semantics?2. What are the differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar?3. Draw a surface structure and the deep structure for the following sentence.“the girl put the toys in the box”。
英语语言学概论笔记(期末复习资料)
英语语言学概论笔记（期末复习资料）【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?―Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languag es have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English,―livre‖ in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, ―check‖ in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or―new‖. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?―Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell thedifference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque orunmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguist s refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into aninfinite更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person totalk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking si tuation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he cansay it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (byN.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?―Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless,has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. Ifa human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak thewolf’s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, ―Please do something to make me happy.‖ Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that 更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 ―speaking‖ and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six ―design features‖ whichanimal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F.Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a hum an child. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the ―Wolf Child‖in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin etal., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic langua ge (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, orif you don’t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., ―Tell me the result whenyou finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin an d J.Searle’s ―indirect speech act theory‖(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278)at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s―Cooperative Principle‖(see HuZhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I’d liketo know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I’m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urgecustomers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions theutterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, ―OK‖, which means more than speech, and more than an average socialindividual may do for the construction. The j udge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?―Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, butto investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave nolinguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjectivein the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective,matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes partof the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if itstopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle oflinguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speechis primary; because it existed long long before writing systems cameinto being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds:更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing aswritten codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if itonly describes and analyses the facts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguisticstudies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or reli gious) written records. Modernlinguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believesthat whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers ―langue‖to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. Thelangue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. Aspeaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造native language.(3) C homsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on manytopics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?―Phonetics‖ is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods fortheir description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin etal., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch ofphonetic research from the hearer’s point ofview, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and theresonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g.Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unroundvowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phoneticvariation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The form er was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (1) ―Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speechsounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. T he speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and threedifferent[p]’s, readily making possible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖,i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are theallophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g.,―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖,―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation‖. Theplosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation.更多精华请登陆考研1号网 。
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《英语语言学概论》复习纲要
1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。
第二，以
各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。
第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。
2.各章节复习要点如下
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance
Study of the origin of language
What are the functions of language
Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription
Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification
Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
Differences between intonation and tone
Chapter 3 From morpheme to phrase
Definitions of the following terms: morpheme, morphology, backformation, blending, class shift
Differences between root and stem, inflectional VS derivational affix Analyze the morphemes contained in English words, such as internationalization, distempered, moonwalk, frienships
What are the characteristics of a word
Understand the classification of English words: variable VS invariable, grammatical VS lexical, closed-class VS open-class, particles, auxiliaries, determiners
Understand the processes of word formation with examples: blending, abbreviation, acronym, backformation, class-shift
Chapter 4 From word to Text
Definitions of the following terms: syntax, endocentric VS exocentric construction, coordination VS subordination
Syntactic functions of English sentences: subject (agent VS patient, grammatical VS logical), predicate, object
Categories in English: number, gender, agreement
Chapter 5 Meaning
Definitions of the following terms: semantics, the referential theory, semantic triangle, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy
Understand synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy with examples Subclassification of antonymy
Componential analysis in practice: such as boy, girl, woman, man, mother, father (entailment and polysemous)
Chapter 6 Language and cognition
Definition of the following terms: psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics Understand the three issues of psycholinguistics: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production
Understand examples concerning construal operations
Understand examples concerning categorization (basic level, superordinate and subordinate levels)
Understand examples concerning metaphor (target domain, source domain)
Understand examples concerning metonymy
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society
Definition of the following terms: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, the theory of context of situation
Understand the two examples (Hopi language and study of color words) concerning Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Differences between pragmatics and semantics
Understand the theory of Illocutionary Act (three senses)
Understand the theory of Conversational Implicature, the four principles of Cooperative Principle (Maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner), and the examples indicating the violation of Cooperative Principle
Understand the characteristics of implicature。