胡壮麟语言学笔记第三章

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语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第二部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最小的自由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派生Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱口秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。

胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonology

胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonologyChapter Three PhonologyTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonology Focal points: phoneme; phonological rules Teaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pairTeaching procedure:Outline of this chapter:1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology (at p24)1.1.2 Phonetics1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 concept2.1.2 arguments and examples2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones2.2.2 phoneme2.2.3 Phonemic transcription2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones (P40, Para.2)2.3.2 Complementary distribution(P40,para.2) and free variation2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)3.1.2 progressive3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing,3.2.2 nasalization,3.2.3 dentalization,3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion rule4 Suprasegmental phonemes4.1 concept4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stress4.2.2Intonation4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rules5.2 the deletion rule1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (at p24) 1.1.2 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology1) Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. Both are related to the study of sounds.They differ in their approach and focus.2) Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mentalaspect of the sounds in language while phonetics deals with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.3) definition4) P 16, Para 2: Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute of language and meaning.5)Phonetics focuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 conceptWhen two words are identical in form in every way except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. P392.1.2 arguments and examples1)When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc.2)All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identicalin form except for the initial consonants.3) Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:1) the same number of segment2) one phonetic difference in the same place3) different meaninge.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-billa minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, biteThe minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It’s a phonetic unit or segment. (in the mouth)Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[]”(phonetic transcription)Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.2.2.2 phoneme:(P16, Para.1) A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.( Or a phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.)2.2.3 Phonemic transcription: Phonemes are placed in slashes “// ” (cf.phonetic transcription)e.g. Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/. 2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones are the variants of the same phoneme.2.3.2 Complementary distribution and free variationPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phoneme, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]; If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context.Strictly speaking, every sound is different from every othersounds. But in phonology some of the difference may be ignored.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning.(1)Complementary distributionE.g 1 / p /→[ p ] / [ s ] _______/ p /→[ p ?] / elsewhereE.g 2 / l /→ [ l ] / _______ V/ l /→[ l?] / V _______Not all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.Not all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.(2)Free variationA phone may sometimes has free variants.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word which maybe caused by dialect or personal habit, then the two sounds are in free variation.2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones1）concept2)transcription3)abstract vs, concrete4)possibility of production3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or the characteristics of a neighboring sound.3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)A following sound influencing a proceeding sound is called regressive assimilation3.1.2 progressiveA proceeding sound influencing a following sound is known as progressive assimilation3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)1) assimilation occurring within a wordcan tan tenth sink2) assimilation occurring beyond a wordYou can keep them.You can go now3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing3.2.2 nasalization3.2.3 dentalization3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion ruleThe “deletion rule”tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. While the letter is mute in “sign”,“design”and “paradigm”, it is pronoun ced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation”, and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as : delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.Sign, design, there is no {g} soundSignature, designation the {g} is pronounced.Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.4 Suprasegmental phonemess4.1 conceptT he phonemic phonemes that occur above the level of the phonemic segments are called suprasegmental phonemes.“Suprasegmental phonology”refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme. Suprasegmental features: includes stress, length, and pitch as what they suppose to be principal suprasegmental features.4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stressStress, including both word and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English形容词词义动词词义′abstract 抽象的ab′stract 摘要；提炼′frequent 时常发生的fre′quent 常去（地点）′perfect 完美的；完全的p er′fect 使完美′present 出席的；现在的pre′sent 给；赠；呈递复合词词义名词短语词义′heavy weight 重量级拳击手heavy ′weight 特别重的人或物′red cap 宪兵red ′cap 红色的帽子′small fry 不重要的人或者物small ′fry 小鱼苗′tall boy（卧室用的）高衣柜tall ′boy 高个子的男孩4.2.2 IntonationIntonation plays an important role in almost all languages: rising, falling, rise-fall, fall-rise intonation.4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rulesThere are principles that govern the combination of soundsin a particular language. These principles are called sequential rules.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1）The first phoneme must be /s/; 2）The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/; 3）The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/.***Sequential rules are language specific.5.2 the deletion ruleThe deletion rule tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example: desi g n, k nife.。

胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享(英语)

胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免"支持"版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章? ???音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章??句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章? ?语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

胡壮林语言学重要章节笔记总结

第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。

胡壮麟语言学名词解释+英语国家概况名词解释+胡壮麟语言学学习笔记

胡壮麟语言学名词解释+英语国家概况名词解释+胡壮麟语言学学习笔记1.语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the uniqueproperties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)笔记和考研真题详解

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解目录第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解内容简介作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。

本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。

每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。

2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。

本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。

3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。

本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。

所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。

另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。

（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记(3)

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the soundsproduced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to theprinciples of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists ofletters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, someare special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract atsome places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in theoral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way inwhich the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (mannerof articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or theobstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the airstream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused bybringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreamscompletely. In English,[] arefricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator isclose to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to suchan extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this classof sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced bypartially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by thetongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. []is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate. 2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip andthe upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade andthe upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or bladeand the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip andthe back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip orblade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or bladeforms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongueand the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongueand the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongueand the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle atthe posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of thetongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocalfolds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate.Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (oftendivided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of liprounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and loweredfor vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description ofthe actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[],CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing thelip-rounding for a give position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type outmany of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowelgliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detailis referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicateonly these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a givenlanguage while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speechsounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. theEnglish words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and intheir initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of alanguage, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions causedifferences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal adifference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called itsallophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginningof the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak//, it issaid without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] inpeak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e.they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are bothallophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless.Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at theend of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segmentundergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In eachprocess the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in thecase of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we cansay that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set ofsounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a setof situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/)specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (calledthe focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: avoiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound whenit appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 S yllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’tbe // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。

胡壮麟语言学教程笔记精华 - 副本 (2)

胡壮麟《语言学教程》学习指导目录目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (21)Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (29)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (35)Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer (49)Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (53)Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (59)第二部分重点章节测试题 (67)Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology (70)Test Three Morphology (73)Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics (79)Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (88)第三部分测试题参考答案 (91)参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the twolevels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly withoutany definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment ofconversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wildenvironment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that isunknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personalrelationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretchof spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children,the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., tomaintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in languageand society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actuallyconform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages werestudied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description insteadof prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point ofobservation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through thecourse of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since thenwould be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a languageare successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have takenplace in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable andsystematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spokenby an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do,according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discoverthe regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject oflinguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the systemof rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[] are stops and []are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[],CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by onlyone distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in theword like speak//, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated.Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the samephonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; theyare both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless /__________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification ofthe word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raisedvertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.End of Chapter 2Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.。

语言学胡壮麟第三版第三章笔记

Chapter 3 LexiconⅠWhat is word?1. 3 senses of word1) a physically definable unitWord may be seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.2)word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as a specific items (boy and boys are two words).3) a grammatical unitThe work rank is located between morpheme and word group.2.Identification of words1)StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.2)relative uninterruptibilityNew elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.3) a minimum free formWord is the smallest unit that can be used by itself.3.Classification of wods1)Variable and invariable wordsVariable words may have inflective changes. The same word may have differentgrammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.Invariable words refer to those words that do not have inflective endings.2)grammatical words and lexical wordsThose which mainly work for constructing group are grammatical words, such as, conj., prep., art., and pron., are grammatical words also known as function words.Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as n., v., adj.and adv., are lexical words, also known as content words.3)closed-class words and open-class wordsThe closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pron., prep., conj., art., and others.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as n.,v., adj., and many adv..4)word class: particle, auxiliaries, pro-form, determinersⅡThe formation of wordMorpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical.1.classification of morpheme1)free morpheme: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words bythemselves, are free morpheme.bound morpheme: Those that cannot occur alone, must appear with at last another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes,2)root: Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroyingits meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.affix: Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.stem: Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3) inflectional affix n. ----s n. ----`sv. ----ed v. ----ing w. ----ed/enadj./adv. ----er adj./adv. ----estderivational affixDifferences:1^ Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational affixes are vey productive in making new words.2^ Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not.3^ Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.4^ Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.2.word formation1)inflection: It indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes; and wheninflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the terms (to which they are attached) will not change.2)compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, orthe way to join two separate words to produce a single form. It can be further divided into two kinds, the endocentric compound and the exocentric compound.3.Sememe Vs. Morpheme and Phoneme Vs. Morpheme1)sememe Vs. morpheme1^ one morpheme Vs. one sememe2^ one morpheme Vs. more than one sememe3^ one sememe Vs. more than one morpheme4^ morphemes that have no specific sememe5^ function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change2)morpheme Vs. phoneme1^ a single phoneme Vs. a single morpheme2^ a single morpheme Vs. multiple phoneme3^ allomorph4^ morphemic conditionsⅢLexical change1.lexical change proper1)invention2)blendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.3)abbreviation4)acronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5)back-formationBack-formation refers to an usually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.6)analogical creation7)borrowing1^ loanwords2^ loanblend3^ loanshift4^ loan translation2.morpho-syntactical change1)morphological changeThe present section is on the inflectional side, i.e. the form of inflectional affixes.2)syntactical changeEnglish speaker today no longer uses the fifteenth century’s double.3.semantic change1)broadingBroading is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)narrowingNarrowing is contrary to broading: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3)meaning shiftWhat makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.4)class shift5)folk etymologyIt refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.4.phonological change1)loss2)addition3)metathesis4)assimilation5. orthographie change。

胡壮麟-语言学教程修订版-课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter--(3)

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that canbe distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself,a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex wordhave little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relativepositional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy.Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearrangedas * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing isto be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment:dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the partsof a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum freeform,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself,a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the wordremains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when,seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns,are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e.those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs,adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularlyadded. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs,adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more preciselydefined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introducedinto linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker“to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units inphrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Becauseof their unique properties, which one could hardly expect ofa verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate wordclass.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve asreplacements for different elements in a sentence. For example,in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used beforethe noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine thekind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can bedivided into three subclasses: predeterminers, centraldeterminers and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed.An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can beused only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzedwithout total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of theword left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism,after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the rootnation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound.E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive.A few English roots may have both free and boundvariants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep-in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends andfriendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stemcan be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem maycontain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical classof the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectionalmorphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the differencebetween them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicategrammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s,etc.Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a singleword. In contrast, derivational affixes often change thelexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the wordthey attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivationalaffixes might or might not, such as the relation between smalland smallness for the former, and that between brother andbrotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemanticlinguistic factors outside the word they attach to but withinthe phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boylikes to navigate on the internet.”is determined by thesubject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixesare more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want totalk about the property “clever”or we want to talk about “thestate of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, whichare always word final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivationalaffixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher,etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical classof the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into thecompositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to producea single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway,rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, itis also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually,the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns:self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive,machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V+ N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N andV + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck,walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class ofthe original word either changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of thephonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect theappearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonology ormorphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised byone sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that thesounds become less alike, or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items,their producers or their brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which twowords are blended by joining the initial part of the first word andthe final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts ofthe two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initialpart or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation wherea shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longerform already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugationof some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in thisprocess.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds mayalso occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, whichwas overlooked and accepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called“contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothingto do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. Thisprocess of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, orconversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubtset off graphitic changes.。

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点

1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能 metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学 phonology形态学 Morphology句法学 syntax语义学 semantics语用学 pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informativefunction of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performativedistinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征 aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音 diphthongs,有元音过渡 vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationobstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spread4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationd. nasalityof the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingc. approximationd. aspirationphonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricativeis divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordspalce of articualtionof the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学 phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章

语⾔学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第⼀部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme ⾃由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词⼲A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派⽣词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第⼆部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最⼩的⾃由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventionsor discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派⽣Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借⽤English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱⼝秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)-章节题库-第3章词和形态学【圣才出品】

第3章词和形态学Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones _____.【答案】function words【解析】词可分为词汇词和语法词。

具有词汇意义的词称为词汇词，例如名词、动词、形容词和副词。

表达语法意义的词是语法词，例如连词、介词和代词。

2. In traditional grammar, _____ is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item.【答案】pronoun【解析】在传统语法中，代词是唯一一种可用来代替其他语言项目的词性。

3. In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into _____ words and _____ words.【答案】lexical, grammatical【解析】从词所表达的意义划分，词可分为词汇词和语法词。

4. The _____ is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical orgrammatical.【答案】morpheme【解析】语素是最小的语义单位，是语法中的最小单位。

英语学习胡壮麟语言学详细笔记

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规那么在语言交际中的表达。

胡壮麟语言学教程修订版课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (3)

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. V ariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the nounacting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference thenoun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses:predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 T ypes of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix isthe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes towhich an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without totalloss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism,what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may befree or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence formslept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that astem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may containa root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes andderivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with thefollowing ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammaticalmeaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serveto produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivationalaffixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attachto, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, andthat between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguisticfactors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” isdetermined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivationalaffixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talkabout the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of beingclever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are alwaysword final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can beprefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbalcompound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participantof the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formedby V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original wordeither changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonologicalfactors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, thegrammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of theinfluence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one soundsegment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers ortheir brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of thesecond word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part orcutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in thelanguage.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic andother languages have all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur inutterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked andaccepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understoodin its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do withgeneralization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formationis also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(词和形态学)【圣才出品】

II. Morpheme and Morphology 1. Definition 2. Types of Morphemes (1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme (2) Root, affix and stem (3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix 3. Inflection and Word Formation (1) Inflection (2) Word Formation 4. Allomorph
1. Three Senses of “Word” (词的三种含义) (1) a physically definable unit; (2) both a general and specific term; (3) a grammatical unit. (1) 词是自然的有界限的对立单位； (2) 词既是一个普通术语又是一个与门术语； (3) 词是一个语法单位。
圣才电子书十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台

第 3 章词和形态学
3.1 复习笔记
本章要点： 1. Word Senses
词的含义 2. Classification of Word
词的分类 3. Word Formation
词的形成 4. Lexical Change
4 / 51
圣才电子书十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台

Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. (1) 就词的内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。 (2) 连续性指的是一个词的几个成分之间丌可介入新的成分，即使这个词由多个成分构成。 (3) 词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)笔记和考研真题详解

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解精研学习网-提供下载注册账号-免费试用-满意购买全国547所院校视频及题库全收集考研全套>视频资料>课后详解>历年真题>全部收录作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。

本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。

2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。

本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。

3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。

本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。

所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。

相对于第三版或第四版，对于在第五版新增加的知识点用“▼”标明，以便于使用不同版本教材的读者使用。

第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解。

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Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the nounacting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference thenoun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses:predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix isthe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes towhich an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without totalloss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism,what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may befree or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence formslept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that astem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may containa root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes andderivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with thefollowing ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammaticalmeaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serveto produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivationalaffixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attachto, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, andthat between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguisticfactors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” isdetermined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivationalaffixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talkabout the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of beingclever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are alwaysword final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can beprefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbalcompound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participantof the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formedby V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original wordeither changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonologicalfactors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, thegrammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of theinfluence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one soundsegment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers ortheir brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of thesecond word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part orcutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in thelanguage.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic andother languages have all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur inutterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked andaccepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do withgeneralization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formationis also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。

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