First Language Acquisition 母语习得

语言习得

• 错误分析区分了错误（error）和失误（mistake）。 • 错误是学习者语言能力不足造成的，出现规律，学习者无法进行自我纠正。 • 失误是学习者有能力避免但因为粗心等原因造成的，学习者能自我纠正。
• 错误的类型主要有： • 添加（additions）：句中出现不必要的成分，如Does he can dance? • 省略（omissions）：句中缺少必不可少的成分，如I happy。 • 顺序错误（misorderings）：句中成分位置错误，如I to the cinema came。
一、第一语言习得
• First language acquisition • 语言学家提出了很多假说来解释第一语言习得，其中比较著名的是行为主义论或先天主义论。
1.行为主义论
• Behaviourist view. • 行为主义论认为语言的习得像人的其他行为一样是通过刺激——反映过程进行模仿，进而形成习惯的。具体而言，就是学习者不断模仿、操练正确的语言形式直至形成习惯。我们常用的句型练习就是受到这种模式的影响而提出的。
《教程》p. 143
• Generally speaking, there are mainly three different theories concerning how language is learned, namely the behaviorist, the innatist, the interactionist view.
• 考点：理解术语的含义，识别基本的错误类型。
阅读
• • p.143-157 • p.159-173
练习
• 《人文知识》p. 175-177。
4. 输入假说（input hypothesis）

英语语言学第十章母语习得

▪ The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. (motherese)
Stages in child language development
▪ Vocabulary development
1) Under-extension
2) Over-extension
lexical contrast theory and Prototype theory （词汇对比差异和原型理论）
Mommy sock 2) Sentences of three main elements
daddy kick ball that big bag put truck window
Stages in child language development
Pragmatic development
how to speak to others in an approapriate manner e.g. gender; politeness

二语习得的相关概念和理论

母语习得理论(Theories of Acquisition of the Maternal Language) 关于儿童对母语,主要就是口语中的听与说的能力之获得的理论,主要有:行为主义理论,“先天伦”与认知理论等。

行为主义理论(behaviourist theory)的基础就是“强化”论或刺激--反应论,代表人物有语言学家布龙菲尔德与心理学家斯金纳等人。

这种理论认为:语言就是一种人类行为,要观察语言行为就必须找出话语与产生它的环境之间的规律,找出话语与对它做出反应的话语之间的规律性,以便建立起一套完整的母语习得理论。

斯金纳在她的代表作《语言行为》一书中认为语言不就是一种思维现象,而就是一种行为。

儿童母语习得要经过模仿--强化--成形三个阶段。

儿童首先模仿自己周围的语言,对环境或成人的话语做出反应。

如果反应就是正确的,即说出的句子符合语法规律,成人就会给予赞扬或以其她方式进行鼓励,以便强化儿童的语言,增加儿童说话的正确性。

为了得到更多的赞扬与鼓励,儿童会重复说过的话,逐步养成习惯,并把它巩固下来。

这样,儿童言语行为的形成过程就是一个缓慢的过程,直到其习惯与成年人的说话方式相吻合。

行为主义理论并不能全面正确地反映出儿童母语习得的过程与心理特点。

行为主义者所理解的语言无非就是声音的刺激与反应,而且把语言与思维(思想)等同起来。

布龙菲尔德的公式S(实际刺激)—r(言语反应)……s(言语刺激) R(实际反应)就表明了这一点。

行为主义语言观就是在一定的历史条件下产生的,它反映了母语习得阶段的阶段性成果,反映了当时人们的认识水平。

它解释了一些母语习得的现象,特别就是“语言时习惯”这一观点就是不容易被否定的。

语言学习的“天性论”(innateness theory)用典型的理性主义的方法来解释儿童语言习得的问题。

代表人物就是乔姆斯基与马克奈尔(D、McNeil)。

这种理论认为:儿童生下来就有一种适于学习语言的、人类独有的能力,即儿童天赋的普遍语法(universal grammar,简称UG)知识。

Modern First Language Acquisition Theory现代母语习得理论

Modern First Language Acquisition Theory现代母语习得理论Language is closely related to the human mind. The human mind, however, is very difficult to study, as it cannot be observed directly. But it leaves its traces everywhere, particularly in language. Language has been a window of the mind. Many people have tried to discern the workings of the mind from the growth of children. Psycholinguists are concerned with the mental processes that are involved in learning to speak, and are also interested in the underlying knowledge and abilities which children must have in order to use language and to learn to use language in childhood. Is language innate or is it learned after birth? Is there any biological foundation for language? How do children acquire their first language? These and other issues have the focus of interests and research to applied linguists, psycholinguists and language teachers. L1 acquisition theories are the attempted explanations for these unanswered questions.1. Major Modern First Language Acquisition Theories现代主要母语习得理论How do children acquire language is at the center of the debate. Learning theorists such as Skinner maintained （1957）that language is acquired through reinforcement. Chomsky （1959 ）argued that language was far too complex to be learned so completely in such a short space of time, by cognitively immature toddlers（baby, child）, merely by reinforcement. He argued that the neonate婴儿arrives equipped with a LAD. This contains a set of rules common to all languages and allows children to learn any language which they are exposed to. Slobin (1985) suggested a similar innate device---the LMC (language making capacity). The interactionists perspective suggests that a combination of biological and cognitive factors plus linguistic environment are all necessary for the acquisition of language.Basically we shall discuss two schools of thoughts on the issue of language acquisition here. The question of how children acquire their first language is answered quite differently by the two schools of theories. The school of behavioristic theory believes that the infant‟s mind at birth is a blank slate to be written on by experience. With regard to language, it claims that children acquire their L1 through a chain of stimulus-response-imitation-reinforcement. The other school of thoughts is based on the innateness hypothesis. People who hold the cognitive view believe that human babies are somewhat predisposed 有倾向to acquire alanguage. They say that there are aspects of linguistic organization that are basic to human brain and that make it possible for human children to learn a language with all its complexity with little or no instruction from family or friends. The nature of language acquisition is still an open question and people are still probing the nature of the innateness of infant‟s mind.2. Brief History of Modern L1 Acquisition Research现代母语习得研究简史1．Modern research on child language acquisition dates back to the late 18th when the German philosopher recorded his observation of the psychological and linguistic development of his young son. 2. Most of the studies carried out between the 1920s and 1950s were limited to diary like recordings of observed speech with some attempts to classify word types, and simply accounts of changes from babbling to the first word and descriptions of the growing vocabulary and sentence length. 3. Most observers regarded language development as a matter of imitation, practice, and habituation. 4. It was not until the 1960s that the study of L1 acquisition received a new major …impetus促进largely because of the Chomsky‟s revolution and the creation of the generative grammar. Researchers began to analyze child language systematically and tried to discover the nature of the psycholinguistic process that enables every human being to gain a fluent control of the exceedingly极度complex system of communication. 5. In a matter of(about) a few decades of language some giant strides were taken, especially in the generative and cognitive model of language, in describing the nature of child language acquisition and the acquisition of particular languages, and in probing universal aspects of acquisition.3. L1 Acquisition Theories: A Behavioristic Perspective行为主义母语习得理论L1 acquisition theories can roughly be divided into two major groups: behavioristic and cognitive.Behaviorists contend主张that language is a fundamental part基本部分of total human behavior. Behaviorists learning theories describe and explain behavior using a SR model.The basic tenet原则of behaviorism is that human beings can not know anything they have not experienced and children and adults learn language through a chain of …stimulus-response reinforcement‟. Since one can not look inside a living organism, one can not observe its internal states. Hence one can not know anything about them. Any statements one makes about internalstates or process are meaningless. Each organism is regarded as a black box that can not be opened for observation. The only meaningful statements one can make about the organism concern what goes into it (stimulus) and what comes out of it (response). The goal of behaviorists, therefore, is to discover and create predictable relationships between stimulus and response. Since they regard language as a basic part of total human behavior, they try to explain L1 acquisition process strictly in accordance with their basic tenet, focusing on the observable aspects of language behavior and their relationships or associations with the objects, events or states of affairs in the world.Some Basic Features of Behavioral Model Pavlov/ Skinner---focus on outwardly observable behavior like structural linguists.---language is a function of reinforcement.---learning is formed through stimili-response-reinforcer.---language is learned through environmental conditioning and imitation of adult models.---language acquisition is a process of habit-formation.--- focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior---the publicly observable responses and relationships or associations between those responses and events in the world around.---Children are conditioned to习惯于learn language. Their parents reinforce and model good grammar and vocabulary use.---A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production of correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned.Two Main Representatives of BehaviorismClassic Behaviorism (Ivan Pavlov)Classic conditioning: the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses.Neo-behaviorism(Skinner’s Operant Conditioning)Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism( a human being) emits a response, or operant( a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is maintained( learned) by reinforcement. I t is learning from the consequences.Operant behavior is behavior in which one operates on environment “Operant” is used because the subject operates or causes some changes in the environment, producing a result that influences whether it will operate in the same way in the future. So verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences.Reinforcement can be defined as a stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. The nature of the reinforcement depends on the effect it has on the leaner.Criticisms of Behavioristic Theory of Language Acquisition行为主义母语习得理论评述No one denies the fact that behaviorism has made its due and early contributions to the development of child language acquisition theory. It emphasized the important and necessary roles of imitation, reinforcement, repetition, and practice in the process of language acquisition. But abstract nature of language shows that it not only contains verbal behaviors but an underlying and rule-governed system. First, in language acquisition, child often creates his own linguistic rules. The best example is that child over generalizes the grammatical rule of forming past regular verbs with ed and extends it to all irregular verbs and creates verbs like goed, comed, breaked, which, of course, are not the result of imitation of the adult‟s language. Child‟s generation of rules indicates that he creates his own rules and has his hypotheses tested in his LAD. Secondly, what child acquires is abstract language system, i.e. competence rather concrete performances to which he is exposed. There is no doubt that any sentence contains both surface and a deep structure. Although sometimes, surface structures of two sentences are the same, the meaning of the deep structures is completely different. The same surface structure and different meanings prove that a child can never understand the difference in meaning by imitating the two surface structures unless he goes deep into the underlying structures. Thirdly, since language is difficult and complicated, a child has to learn its structures and build his communicative competence. Adults can never teach the communicative functions of the language to the child. The drawbacks of the behavioristic acquisition theory are obvious; linguists are still in search of a theory that provides an overall and effective explanation to the child language acquisition.1. L1 Acquisition Theories: A Cognitive Perspective认知主义母语习得理论Behaviorism, with its emphasis on empirical 经验主义，实验observation and the scientific experimentation, can not account for a vast domain of language acquisition that can only be explored by a deeply probing approach---the cognitive approach. Cognitive theory of L1 acquisition emphasizes the mental and psychological process and importance of cognition, thus opening a new horizon for L1 acquisition study.(1) Innateness Theory 心灵主义“先天”论This theory, also known as the nativist approach“先天”论, is representedby Chomsky, Mcneill and Lenneberg. Chomsky attacked behavioristic theory of language learning and reasserted the mentalist views of L1acquisition. Chomsky stressed the active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of imitation and reinforcement. Nativists strongly held that language acquisition is innately determined, that human beings are born with a build-in device of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. The child is born with the innate knowledge of language. This innate knowledge, according to Chomsky, is embodied in a “little black box” of sorts which Chomsky called language acquisition device or LAD. He assumes that the LAD probably consists of three elements---linguistic universals, a hypothesis making device, and an evaluation procedure. The so-called LAD has a number of linguistic universals, or universal grammar (UG) in store. It also has a hypothesis-making device, which is an unconscious process and enables the child to make hypotheses about the structure of language in general, and about the structure of language learning in particular. The hypotheses that the child subconsciously sets up are tested in its use of language, and continuously matched with the new linguistic input that the child obtains by listening to what is said in his immediate environment. This causes the child’s hypotheses about the structure of language to be changed and adapted regularly, through the evaluation procedure, and through a process of systematic changes towards the adult rule system.This view of the language learning process stresses the mental activities of the language learner himself and strongly questions the relevance恰当of such external factors as imitation, frequency of stimulus and reinforcement. A child learns not through imitation but by creative hypothesis testing.For example, he hears a lot of hypotheses but only chooses what he needs and creatively produces the language of his own.Contrasting Child Language Input and OutputUtterances a child hears Utterances a child produces1.Pass me the milk.2.Give me the milk.3.Get me the milk.4.Want some milk.5.Drink some milk. 1. Mommy, milk.6.Take the milk.7.Taste the milk. 2. Milk.8.There is no milk.k, over there.k, please.Some Basic Features of Innateness Theory / Nativist Approach Chomsky, Mcneill and Lenneberg---Language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a unique, biologically based ability of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition---to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language.---Children are born with a special language learning mechanism in their brain called LAD.---Children can acquire grammatical rules subconsciously, with which they can generate an infinite number of sentences with new meanings.A Summary of Innateness Theory / Nativist ApproachIn summary, mentalist views of L1 acquisition posited the following points:1. language is a human-specific faculty.(ability)2. language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind.Although it is part of the learner’s total cognitive apparatus设备,it is separated from the general cognitive mechanismsresponsible for intellectual development.3. the primary determinant of L1 acquisition is the child‟s acquisitiondevice, which is genetically endowed and provides the child with a setof principles about grammar.4. the acquisition device …atrophies萎缩with age.5. the process of acquisition consists of hypothesis-testing, by whichmeans the grammar of the learner‟s mother tongue is related to theprinciples of the universal grammar.But there are still some problems of Innateness Theory / Nativist Approach to L1 acquisition. The problem is that we could not prove the existence of LAD and the generative rules only deal with the forms of language and fail to account for the functions of language.Three Contributions of Nativistic Theories of L1 AcquisitionNativistic theories of child language acquisition have made at least three important contributions to the understanding of the L1 acquisition process. First, they accounted for the aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity in the child‟s use of language.Secondly, they have freed L1 acquisition study from the restrictions of the so-called “scientific method” of behaviorism and begun to explore the unseen, unobservable, underlying, invisible, abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child in the L1 acquisition process. Thirdly, it has begun to describe the child‟s language as a legitimate, 合理rule-governed, consistent system. Psychological and linguistic experiments have found that one-week old babies can distinguish sounds in Frenchfrom those in Russian. The reason that linguistic competence is based on human genes is asserted, and this finding seemed to support Chomsky’s hypothesis of LAD existence.(2)．Cognitive Theory. 功能主义“认知”论The cognitive theory, represented by Slobin, Piaget and Bloom, attempted to account for the linguistic knowledge of the child by a more general theory of cognitive development.Slobin provides a more detailed account of the language acquisition process with the broad outlines of cognitive theory of language development. He suggests that language acquisition is in the same order with the conceptual development of the child. Language development is paced by the growth of conceptual and communicative capacities, operating in connection with innate schema of cognition. Cognitive development has great impact on the linguistic development, which, in turn, will affect conceptual formation.Jean Piaget is another cognitive psychologist who made a thorough renovation to the concept of children‟s development of language and thought. In fact, he developed the experimental methodology for exploring children’s thought and stud ied systematically thought and logic of children. His study proved that the differences in thought between children and adults are of quality rather than of quantity.According to Piaget, language ability never develops earlier than cognitive ability. Human beings has two organizations 机制, one is functional invariants, 不变量，in Piaget’s terminology, which determine how man and his environment react mutually and how man learns from environment. Another is cognitive structure, which is the outcome of the mutual reaction between functional invariants and environment. It is the functional invariants that are the central part of language acquisition. Many research findings proved that two facts are evident in the child language acquisition.Some Basic Features of Cognitive Theory---Child language growth is paced with the cognitive development of the concept and communicative ability---Linguistic and cognitive development keeps up the same pace and has interdependence.---emphasize the interaction of the child‟s p erceptual and cognitive development with linguistic and nonlinguistic events in his environment.We can never study the L1 acquisition thoroughly without considering the mental development of children in the first place. The formation of concept reflects the degrees of mental maturity. L1 acquisition depends on mental development. With the acquisition of concept, language acquisition enters fromsingle-word phase to double-word phase, and later on to discourse. Intellectual development enables children to discard consciously what is unacceptable in a language community and assimilate what is acceptable. Finally children establish an internalized acceptable grammar system.Tips from child first language acquisition:1. A man is bound to acquire a new language only if he is physically normaland grown up in a proper speech community.2. Adults learn a second language in much the same way as a child acquireshis mother tongues.3. In language teaching, practice must be emphasized, sometimes reinforcedpractice needed.( pattern drills , rehearsal ,substitution exercises etc. are necessary.)4. Language learning appears a matter of imitation, but imitation alone isinadequate for acquiring a language.5. There is a natural order in acquiring a language.Stages of Child‟s Acquis ition of First LanguageDuring the process of L1 acquisition, child develops his native language in a more or less stage-like pattern. Different children of different nations usually undergo 4 similar and general phases of language development. Babbling, single-word utterance, double-word utterance and discourse. The numbering of these stages is quite arbitrary and varies from author to author. Based on the newest internet research data, child L1 development can be divided into 6 stages.1. Pre-linguistic Period --- the Babbling Stage (前语言期---呀呀学语阶段)Crying is the child‟s earliest vocalization. 发声法a. cooing, crying (heard by 3 months )---a velar软鹗consonants such as /k/ and /g/---high vowels 元音such as /i/ and /u/b. babbling (heard by 6 months )---long sequences of consonants and vowels---syllables 音节can be identified---intonation 声调语调pattern can be heard---not linked to immediate needs---often uttered in isolation for pleasure---provides practice for later speech2. Acquisition of Concept of the World---a child sees the world as the link between sound and meaning---words vary in the pronunciation: sounds which differ most are learnt first;consonants which are similar are learned last.3. Holophrastic Stage ---the Single Word Stage （独词句期---单词句阶段）---single words become more than just labels---intonation may be of question, command, request…4. Telegraphic Stage--- the Double Utterance Stage and the Stage ofDeveloping Grammar (18 months )---words have been multiplied considerably and are beginning to appear in combination with each other to form two-word and three-word “sentences”.5. Linguistic Behavior and Speech Capacity ( about age 3 )---comprehend an incredible quantity of linguistic behavior---speech capacity expands---use of logical connections---become a “fluent” speaker---form good communicative skills6. Social Functions of Language ( school age)---learn how to use language appropriately---learn to use language in social contexts。

第一语言习得

Stages of First Language Acquisition

Prelinguistic Sounds 0-1 mo. Sleep, eat, cry 2-5 mos. Cooing (咕咕) stage 5-12 mos. Babbling (婴儿发出的咿呀之声) stage
Cooing (咕咕)

Within a few weeks after birth a child begins to coo —— produce sequences of vowel-like sound Baby’s tongue is relatively large compared to the size of the vocal tract, the front of the tongue easily makes contact with the roof of the mouth, and a baby is very likely to produce coos that sound palatal
First Language Acquisition
—— Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology
Before children start to acquire a language, they must to learn:
Identify
the sounds Produce each of phonemes Combine sounds into larger strings Decode larger strings of sounds into syllables and words
Banana

语言学第一语言习得

The term acquisition: the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. The term learning: applies to a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a language, particularly through formal instruction. Mathematics, for example, is learned, not acquining theory (popular in the 1950s and 60s)
1. B.F. Skinner: the best-known advocator of behaviorist approach.
2. Viewpoint
Like other forms of human behavior, language is learned by a process of habit-formation. There is nothing linguistic in the mind of the newborn infant. The child imitates the speech around it , using a process of trial and error. It is reinforced in these imitations
stimulus → organism → response ↓ ↓ ↓ language input the learner imitation e.g. ‘This is a pencil → ‘This is a pencil’.

About First Language Acquisition(一语习得)

First Language Acquisition1. Some fundamental Distinctions(1). First language (L1): The language that an individual learns first, we called it native language or mother tongue.But in multiracial countries, every ethnic group have their own language, so people in such countries have to learn a non-native language for communication, that is the second language (L2).It is learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas.Foreign language is a language indigenous to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to.The difference L2 & FL: social functions and social environment. In pedagogy, a distinction is often made between ‘second language’ and foreign language, the latter being learned for use in an area where that language is not generally spoken.Similarities and differences between L2 and L1X L2 L1 speed NA acquisition is rapidstages systematic stages of development systematic stages of developmenterror correction not directly influential not involved depth ofknowledgebeyond the level of input beyond the level of inputsuccess (1) not inevitable (possiblefossilization*)inevitablesuccess (2) rarely fully successful successful(2) Language acquisition vs. language learningThere is an important distinction made by linguists between language acquisition and language learning. Children acquire language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acquire their first language. They get a feel for what is and what isn‘t correct. In order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication. The emphasis is on the text of the communication and not on the form.Language learning, on the other hand, is not communicative. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an age-appropriate activity for your young learners. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. They can fill in the blanks on a grammar page. Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing. A student who has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly.a) what the process of acquisition is.b) why learned information is not accessible in the same way as acquired information(3). Competence & Performance. This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspect of the theory of petence refers to one‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. It similar to Langue. Performance refer s to the actual use of language in concrete situations, it similar to parole.Langue & parole. Langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker, the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, the realization of language in actual use(4). Deep structure & surface structure. In TG grammar, a deep structure is generated by phrase structure rules. It is abstract and decides the meaning of a sentence. A surface structure is derived from its corresponding deep structure by transformational rules. It is relatively concrete and decides the actual from of a sentence.Phrase structure rules & transformational rules. In TG grammar, phrase structure rules can generate the deep structure of a sentence; transformational rules are applied to derive the surface from its deep structure.(5). Classical Conditioning & Operant conditioningWhen dealing with behavior (learning or modifying) we are dealing with Operant Conditioning and Classical Conditioning. So some understand of both will help.Classical Conditioning: This describes an involuntary, or automatic, response to a stimulus. This type of conditioning is sometimes referred to as respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning as a result of Dr. Pavlov‘s famous experiments with dogs early in the 20th century. Classical conditioning is what happens when an animal learns associations among things. Learning associations means learning that things go together.Classical conditioning, in contrast to operant conditioning, is where responses that are usually reflexive (and thus elicited) are brought under the control of stimulus events that precede the response. This is also called Pavlovian conditioning after Ivan Pavlov, who worked out its fundamental principles through his studies of salivation in dogs, which he found could be elicited by neutral stimuli, such as a tone, that had been repeatedly presented before the presentation of food. Another name for this form of learning is respondent conditioning.Operant Conditioning: is a set of principals that describe how an animal learns to survive in its environment through reinforcement (consequences). This is learning in which behaviors are altered by the consequences that follow them.It is a form of learning in which responses that are usually voluntary (and thus emitted) come to be controlled by their consequences. It is also called Skinnerian conditioning after B.F. Skinner,who worked out its fundamental principles. Another name is instrumental conditioning, since the learned responses, which operate on the environment, are instrumental in either attaining some subsequent desirable reward or avoiding-escaping some subsequent aversive/punishing event.Within Operant Conditioning there are four possible consequences to behavior. They are:1. Positive Reinforcement: Your dog does something you like, you give your dog something he likes. This will increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. ―Positive reinforcement is the basis of all conditioning.‖2. Negative Reinforcement: Involves the removal of a bad consequence when the response is performed. For instance, you say ―sit‖ and apply upward pressure on the leash which tightens the choke chain around your dog‘s neck, your dog sits, and you stop choking him with a choke chain. The release of the choke chain reinforces the ―sit.‖ This also serves to increase the likelihood of the behavior in the future. However, it can be (and often is) argued, that this is technically a punishment. It is not pleasant and the dog learns to sit to avoid being choked.3. Positive Punishment:Involves the presentation (adding) of a bad consequence when the response is performed. For instance, you say ―sit‖, your dog lies down, and you jerk him onto his feet with the leash. This serves to decrease the likelihood of the response in the future. We see positive punishment a lot: child hit brother, parent spanks child; person drives after drinking, person ends up in jail; puppy pees on floor, puppy gets hit with rolled up newspaper.4. Negative Punishment: Involves the removal of a good consequence when the response is performed. For instance, you say ―sit‖, your dog lies down, and you eat the treat you were about to give the dog. You begin to pet your dog and he begins to paw and mouth on you, you STOP petting and ignore him. This also serves to decrease the likelihood of the response in the future; the dog‘s behavior causes what he wants and likes (your petting) to go away.(6). The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (SWH) states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. This controversial hypothesis is named after the linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir and his colleague and student Benjamin Whorf.Strong version: A possible argument against the extreme version of this idea, that all thought is constrained by language, can be discovered through personal experience: all people have occasional difficulty expressing themselves due to constraints in the language, and are conscious that the language is not adequate for what they mean. Perhaps they say or write something, and then think ―that‘s not quite what I meant to say‖ or perhaps they cannot find a good way to explain a concept they understand to a novice. This makes it clear that what is being thought is not a set of words, because one can understand a concept without being able to express it in words.Weak version: The opposite extreme — that language does not influence thought at all — is also widely considered to be false. For example, it has been shown that people‘s discrimination of similar colors can be influenced by how their language organizes color names. Another study showed that deaf children of hearing parents may fail on some cognitive tasks unrelated to hearing, while deaf children of deaf parents succeed, due to the hearing parents being less fluent in sign language.2. Theories of language Acquisition(1). Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants‘ acquisition of their native language, rather than second language acquisition, which deals with acquisition (in both children and adults) of additionallanguages.The capacity to acquire and use language is a key aspect that distinguishes humans from other organisms. A major concern in understanding language acquisition is how these capacities are picked up by infants from what appears to be very little input. A range of theories of language acquisition has been created in order to explain this apparent problem including innatism in which a child is born prepared in some manner with these capacities, as opposed to the other theories in which language is simply learned.(2).The behavioristic approachA behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production of correct responses to stimuli. If a particular behavior is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned.a. The respondent conditioning theory:associated with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov who at the turn the last century conducted a series of experiments in which he trained a dog to salivate to the tone of a bell through a procedure known as classical conditioning. For Pavlov the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses.b. The mediation theory: a modified behavioristic theory in which meaning was accounted for by the claim that the linguistic stimulus (a word or sentence) elicits a mediating response that is self-stimulating, a process that is really covert and invisible, acting within the learner.c. The operant conditioning theory: associated with the American psychologist B. F. Skinner.Respondent behaviour = behaviour that is elicited by a preceding stimulusOperant behaviour = behaviour in which one operates on the environmentWhat is important is the consequence of behavior or reinforcerSummary: a. the role of environment is emphasizedb. human learning is equated with animal learningc. language is learned in the same way as other knowledge and skills are learnedd. learning is habit formation(3). The nativist approach: associated mainly with N. ChomskyChomsky contended that the child is born with an innate knowledge of or predisposition toward language, and that this innate property (the LAD or UG) is universal in all human beings. LAD or Language Acquisition Device: a built-in device of some kind that predispose us to language acquisition – to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of languageAccording to McNeil, LAD has four innate properties:the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environmentthe ability to organize linguistic events into various classes which can later be refinedknowledge that only certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that others are not the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered Summary: a. language learning is species specificb. language learning is determined by LADc. language learning is internalization of linguistic rulesd. the role of environment is not significantUniversal grammar：In linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them. Universal grammar acts as a way to explain how language acquisition works in humans, by showing the most basic rules that all languages have to follow. The most famous theory of the idea of a universal grammar was put forth by the linguist Noam Chomsky in the 1950s. Chomsky held thatthere was a universal grammar hardwired into the brain of all humans, and that all human languages had evolved on top of that universal grammar, and that children learned their native languages using the universal grammar as a support structure.Pivot grammar：In psychology, pivot grammar refers to the structure behind two word phrases often used by children. An example of one of these phrases would be ―all gone‖. Pivot grammar is a part of stage two language developments. Which occurs around the age of 18 months and continues to when the child reaches two years of age. After this the child enters stage three language developments as they learn more words and a more accepted structure of sentences rather than two word utterances.Parallel Distributed Processing：Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) models are a class of neurally inspired information processing models that attempt to model information processing the way it actually takes place in the brain.This model was developed because of findings that a system of neural connections appeared to be distributed in a parallel array in addition to serial pathways. As such, different types of mental processing are considered to be distributed throughout a highly complex neuronetwork.The PDP model has 3 basic principles:1. the representation of information is distributed (not local)2. memory and knowledge for specific things are not stored explicitly, but stored in the connections between units.3. learning can occur with gradual changes in connection strength by experienceConnectionism is a set of approaches in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience and philosophy of mind, that models mental or behavioral phenomena as the emergent processes of interconnected networks of simple units. There are many forms of connectionism, but the most common forms use neural network models.Connectionism is a movement in cognitive science which hopes to explain human intellectual abilities using artificial neural networks (also known as ‗neural networks‘ or ‗neural nets‘). Neural networks are simplified models of the brain composed of large numbers of units (the analogs of neurons) together with weights that measure the strength of connections between the units. These weights model the effects of the synapses that link one neuron to another. Experiments on models of this kind have demonstrated an ability to learn such skills as face recognition, reading, and the detection of simple grammatical structure.(4). The Functional approachForm: the abstract phonological and /or grammatical characteristics of languageFunction: the intended meaning or purpose of language useThe distinction between formalism and functionalism:A formalist description of behavior attempts to discover invariant processes or organismsunderlying the observable data: ―I want milk‖ = subject + verb + objectA functional account of behavior seeks to establish predictive relationships betweenenvironmental or contextual variables and language. The aim of a functional account of language is the prediction and control of verbal behavior in different contexts and individuals Summary: a. interpersonal interaction is emphasizedb. language functions rather linguistic form are emphasizedc. language learning is viewed as a sociolization process.(5). The cognitive approach : associated with Jean PiagetTwo types underlying organization:Functional invariants: the organization which determines the general ways in which humanbeings interact with their environment and learn from it. It includes assimilation & accomodation Cognitive structures: the organization which is the product of the interactionSummary: a. human behavior reflects underlying organizationsb. interaction between genetically transmitted abilities and environment is emphasizedc. language is learned in much the same way as other knowledge and skills are learned3. Issues in First Language Acquisition(1). Competence and performanceIt is not easy to make inference about one‘s competence. This is particularly true for children.(2). Comprehension and productionComprehension competence and performanceProduction competence and performanceComprehension precedes production(3). Nature or nurtureWhat are those behaviors ―nature‖ provides innately in some sort of predetermined biological timetable, and what are those behaviors that are, by environmental exposure –by ―nurture‖, by learning – learned and internalized?(4). UniversalsLanguage is universally acquired in the same manner, and more over, that the deep structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages. There is evidence that the learning of the universal features is not affected by input, but the learning the features found specifically in the target language is affected by input.(5). Systematicity and variabilitySystematicity in the learning process: stages and the ability to infer the phonological, structural, lexical and semantic system of language. Variability in the process of learning: verb tenses in child language, dialectal, stylistic variations in adult speech.(6). Language and thoughtThe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The interactive view(7). imitationIt is one of the important strategies a child uses in the acquisition of language. There are two types: Surface-structure imitation and deep-structure imitation(8). PracticePractice seems to be a key to language acquisition. Frequency of linguistic input plays an important role.(9). InputAdult and peer input is far more important than nativists earlier might have believed. Adult speech seems to shape the child‘s language acquisition. Nurture and environment are tremendously important.(10). DiscourseIn order for successful language acquisition to take place, interaction, rather than exposure, is required; Children do not learn language from overhearing the conversation of others or from listening to the radio, and must, instead, acquire it in the context of being spoken to.。

应用语言学chpt4FirstLanguageacquisition

General knowledge of English grammar and semantics
精品文档
Considering his young age and the abstractness of the tasks mentioned in the above, it is a difficult task for a child to master his first language.
Do you think it is a difficult job for a child to finish the dialogue?
精品文档ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
The child has to master the following ability to finish the dialogue.
1. To segment the sound stream into meaningful units
• 在_L_a_n_g_u_e_(语__言__(yǔ中yán，)) “我”既不是(bùshi)指张三也不是(bù shi)指李四，而是指说话人。
精品文档
• 理论语言学家关注语言能力 • 社会语言学家关注语言使用 • 心理语言学家（儿童语言习得）要从学习者
的语言使用情况来研究(yánjiū)/推断其语言能力（
双词句(cíjù)可以表示不同的语义关系和功能，如 Mama Book 可表示以下语义：
This is Mama’s book. Mama gave me the book.
Mama is reading a book.
精品文档
• Telegraphic Stage 电报(diàn bào)式言语；多语句

英语语言学概论第十章笔记

Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得a)The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。

人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。

儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。

b)Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech.语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。

母语习得的概念

、母语习得的概念习得（acquisition）在语言学习理论中是指儿童获得自己母语的过程，又译作"获得"。

人类能够习得语言，是由于人类具有其他动物所不具备的语言习得机制（language acquisition device LAD），婴儿出生以后，凭借这套语言习得机制，在环境的作用下，在短短四五年时间内，就能习得母语口语。

语言学家们对儿童母语习得进行了深入的研究，提出了不同的语言习得理论。

那么，儿童乃至青少年能否凭借这套语言习得机制习得母语书面语及进一步发展母语口语呢？目前这方面的研究尚不多，笔者认为，答案应该是肯定的。

中小学生学习母语即学习语文有别于学习外语，他们生活在母语环境的汪洋大海之中，天天在使用母语，读书看报，听广播看电视，都是在习得母语，这就是母语的第二次习得(母语书面语习得)。

由此看来，母语习得的概念不仅应该包括儿童母语习得，还应该包括中小学生的母语第二次习得。

目前，我国中小学语文教学存在的效率低下费时费力的问题，从根本上讲，就是违背了语言学习的规律，做了太多的课文分析，做了太多的各种练习，缺少与生活的联系，缺少真正的语言实践，即缺少母语习得。

在语言学习理论中，还有一个与习得（acquisition）相对应的概念，那就是学习（learning），有人把它译作"学得"。

语言学家克拉申（Krashen）首先区别了这两个概念，他认为，习得是一种下意识的掌握语言的过程。

语言习得者通常意识不到他们在习得一种语言，而只知道他们是为了交际、实用而运用这种语言。

而学习是有意识的学习语言知识，掌握语言规则的过程。

显而易见，这种意义上的学习，与当前我们语文课堂上的学习基本上是一致的。

在第二语言习得理论中，克拉申认为习得和学习是成人掌握语言的两种不同途径，不过，习得比学习更重要，学习只起辅助作用。

同样，笔者认为在中小学生语文学习中，也有习得和学习两种途径。

过去，我们只注重学习这条途径，而完全忽略了习得这条途径。

Modern First Language Acquisition Theory现代母语习得理论

Modern First Language Acquisition Theory现代母语习得理论Language is closely related to the human mind. The human mind, however, is very difficult to study, as it cannot be observed directly. But it leaves its traces everywhere, particularly in language. Language has been a window of the mind. Many people have tried to discern the workings of the mind from the growth of children. Psycholinguists are concerned with the mental processes that are involved in learning to speak, and are also interested in the underlying knowledge and abilities which children must have in order to use language and to learn to use language in childhood. Is language innate or is it learned after birth? Is there any biological foundation for language? How do children acquire their first language? These and other issues have the focus of interests and research to applied linguists, psycholinguists and language teachers. L1 acquisition theories are the attempted explanations for these unanswered questions.1. Major Modern First Language Acquisition Theories现代主要母语习得理论How do children acquire language is at the center of the debate. Learning theorists such as Skinner maintained （1957）that language is acquired through reinforcement. Chomsky （1959 ）argued that language was far too complex to be learned so completely in such a short space of time, by cognitively immature toddlers（baby, child）, merely by reinforcement. He argued that the neonate婴儿arrives equipped with a LAD. This contains a set of rules common to all languages and allows children to learn any language which they are exposed to. Slobin (1985) suggested a similar innate device---the LMC (language making capacity). The interactionists perspective suggests that a combination of biological and cognitive factors plus linguistic environment are all necessary for the acquisition of language.Basically we shall discuss two schools of thoughts on the issue of language acquisition here. The question of how children acquire their first language is answered quite differently by the two schools of theories. The school of behavioristic theory believes that the infant‟s mind at birth is a blank slate to be written on by experience. With regard to language, it claims that children acquire their L1 through a chain of stimulus-response-imitation-reinforcement. The other school of thoughts is based on the innateness hypothesis. People who hold the cognitive view believe that human babies are somewhat predisposed 有倾向to acquire alanguage. They say that there are aspects of linguistic organization that are basic to human brain and that make it possible for human children to learn a language with all its complexity with little or no instruction from family or friends. The nature of language acquisition is still an open question and people are still probing the nature of the innateness of infant‟s mind.2. Brief History of Modern L1 Acquisition Research现代母语习得研究简史1．Modern research on child language acquisition dates back to the late 18th when the German philosopher recorded his observation of the psychological and linguistic development of his young son. 2. Most of the studies carried out between the 1920s and 1950s were limited to diary like recordings of observed speech with some attempts to classify word types, and simply accounts of changes from babbling to the first word and descriptions of the growing vocabulary and sentence length. 3. Most observers regarded language development as a matter of imitation, practice, and habituation. 4. It was not until the 1960s that the study of L1 acquisition received a new major …impetus促进largely because of the Chomsky‟s revolution and the creation of the generative grammar. Researchers began to analyze child language systematically and tried to discover the nature of the psycholinguistic process that enables every human being to gain a fluent control of the exceedingly极度complex system of communication. 5. In a matter of(about) a few decades of language some giant strides were taken, especially in the generative and cognitive model of language, in describing the nature of child language acquisition and the acquisition of particular languages, and in probing universal aspects of acquisition.3. L1 Acquisition Theories: A Behavioristic Perspective行为主义母语习得理论L1 acquisition theories can roughly be divided into two major groups: behavioristic and cognitive.Behaviorists contend主张that language is a fundamental part基本部分of total human behavior. Behaviorists learning theories describe and explain behavior using a SR model.The basic tenet原则of behaviorism is that human beings can not know anything they have not experienced and children and adults learn language through a chain of …stimulus-response reinforcement‟. Since one can not look inside a living organism, one can not observe its internal states. Hence one can not know anything about them. Any statements one makes about internalstates or process are meaningless. Each organism is regarded as a black box that can not be opened for observation. The only meaningful statements one can make about the organism concern what goes into it (stimulus) and what comes out of it (response). The goal of behaviorists, therefore, is to discover and create predictable relationships between stimulus and response. Since they regard language as a basic part of total human behavior, they try to explain L1 acquisition process strictly in accordance with their basic tenet, focusing on the observable aspects of language behavior and their relationships or associations with the objects, events or states of affairs in the world.Some Basic Features of Behavioral Model Pavlov/ Skinner---focus on outwardly observable behavior like structural linguists.---language is a function of reinforcement.---learning is formed through stimili-response-reinforcer.---language is learned through environmental conditioning and imitation of adult models.---language acquisition is a process of habit-formation.--- focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior---the publicly observable responses and relationships or associations between those responses and events in the world around.---Children are conditioned to习惯于learn language. Their parents reinforce and model good grammar and vocabulary use.---A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production of correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned.Two Main Representatives of BehaviorismClassic Behaviorism (Ivan Pavlov)Classic conditioning: the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses.Neo-behaviorism(Skinner’s Operant Conditioning)Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism( a human being) emits a response, or operant( a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is maintained( learned) by reinforcement. I t is learning from the consequences.Operant behavior is behavior in which one operates on environment “Operant” is used because the subject operates or causes some changes in the environment, producing a result that influences whether it will operate in the same way in the future. So verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences.Reinforcement can be defined as a stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. The nature of the reinforcement depends on the effect it has on the leaner.Criticisms of Behavioristic Theory of Language Acquisition行为主义母语习得理论评述No one denies the fact that behaviorism has made its due and early contributions to the development of child language acquisition theory. It emphasized the important and necessary roles of imitation, reinforcement, repetition, and practice in the process of language acquisition. But abstract nature of language shows that it not only contains verbal behaviors but an underlying and rule-governed system. First, in language acquisition, child often creates his own linguistic rules. The best example is that child over generalizes the grammatical rule of forming past regular verbs with ed and extends it to all irregular verbs and creates verbs like goed, comed, breaked, which, of course, are not the result of imitation of the adult‟s language. Child‟s generation of rules indicates that he creates his own rules and has his hypotheses tested in his LAD. Secondly, what child acquires is abstract language system, i.e. competence rather concrete performances to which he is exposed. There is no doubt that any sentence contains both surface and a deep structure. Although sometimes, surface structures of two sentences are the same, the meaning of the deep structures is completely different. The same surface structure and different meanings prove that a child can never understand the difference in meaning by imitating the two surface structures unless he goes deep into the underlying structures. Thirdly, since language is difficult and complicated, a child has to learn its structures and build his communicative competence. Adults can never teach the communicative functions of the language to the child. The drawbacks of the behavioristic acquisition theory are obvious; linguists are still in search of a theory that provides an overall and effective explanation to the child language acquisition.1. L1 Acquisition Theories: A Cognitive Perspective认知主义母语习得理论Behaviorism, with its emphasis on empirical 经验主义，实验observation and the scientific experimentation, can not account for a vast domain of language acquisition that can only be explored by a deeply probing approach---the cognitive approach. Cognitive theory of L1 acquisition emphasizes the mental and psychological process and importance of cognition, thus opening a new horizon for L1 acquisition study.(1) Innateness Theory 心灵主义“先天”论This theory, also known as the nativist approach“先天”论, is representedby Chomsky, Mcneill and Lenneberg. Chomsky attacked behavioristic theory of language learning and reasserted the mentalist views of L1acquisition. Chomsky stressed the active contribution of the child and minimized the importance of imitation and reinforcement. Nativists strongly held that language acquisition is innately determined, that human beings are born with a build-in device of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. The child is born with the innate knowledge of language. This innate knowledge, according to Chomsky, is embodied in a “little black box” of sorts which Chomsky called language acquisition device or LAD. He assumes that the LAD probably consists of three elements---linguistic universals, a hypothesis making device, and an evaluation procedure. The so-called LAD has a number of linguistic universals, or universal grammar (UG) in store. It also has a hypothesis-making device, which is an unconscious process and enables the child to make hypotheses about the structure of language in general, and about the structure of language learning in particular. The hypotheses that the child subconsciously sets up are tested in its use of language, and continuously matched with the new linguistic input that the child obtains by listening to what is said in his immediate environment. This causes the child’s hypotheses about the structure of language to be changed and adapted regularly, through the evaluation procedure, and through a process of systematic changes towards the adult rule system.This view of the language learning process stresses the mental activities of the language learner himself and strongly questions the relevance恰当of such external factors as imitation, frequency of stimulus and reinforcement. A child learns not through imitation but by creative hypothesis testing.For example, he hears a lot of hypotheses but only chooses what he needs and creatively produces the language of his own.Contrasting Child Language Input and OutputUtterances a child hears Utterances a child produces1.Pass me the milk.2.Give me the milk.3.Get me the milk.4.Want some milk.5.Drink some milk. 1. Mommy, milk.6.Take the milk.7.Taste the milk. 2. Milk.8.There is no milk.k, over there.k, please.Some Basic Features of Innateness Theory / Nativist Approach Chomsky, Mcneill and Lenneberg---Language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a unique, biologically based ability of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition---to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language.---Children are born with a special language learning mechanism in their brain called LAD.---Children can acquire grammatical rules subconsciously, with which they can generate an infinite number of sentences with new meanings.A Summary of Innateness Theory / Nativist ApproachIn summary, mentalist views of L1 acquisition posited the following points:1. language is a human-specific faculty.(ability)2. language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind.Although it is part of the learner’s total cognitive apparatus设备,it is separated from the general cognitive mechanismsresponsible for intellectual development.3. the primary determinant of L1 acquisition is the child‟s acquisitiondevice, which is genetically endowed and provides the child with a setof principles about grammar.4. the acquisition device …atrophies萎缩with age.5. the process of acquisition consists of hypothesis-testing, by whichmeans the grammar of the learner‟s mother tongue is related to theprinciples of the universal grammar.But there are still some problems of Innateness Theory / Nativist Approach to L1 acquisition. The problem is that we could not prove the existence of LAD and the generative rules only deal with the forms of language and fail to account for the functions of language.Three Contributions of Nativistic Theories of L1 AcquisitionNativistic theories of child language acquisition have made at least three important contributions to the understanding of the L1 acquisition process. First, they accounted for the aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity in the child‟s use of language.Secondly, they have freed L1 acquisition study from the restrictions of the so-called “scientific method” of behaviorism and begun to explore the unseen, unobservable, underlying, invisible, abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child in the L1 acquisition process. Thirdly, it has begun to describe the child‟s language as a legitimate, 合理rule-governed, consistent system. Psychological and linguistic experiments have found that one-week old babies can distinguish sounds in Frenchfrom those in Russian. The reason that linguistic competence is based on human genes is asserted, and this finding seemed to support Chomsky’s hypothesis of LAD existence.(2)．Cognitive Theory. 功能主义“认知”论The cognitive theory, represented by Slobin, Piaget and Bloom, attempted to account for the linguistic knowledge of the child by a more general theory of cognitive development.Slobin provides a more detailed account of the language acquisition process with the broad outlines of cognitive theory of language development. He suggests that language acquisition is in the same order with the conceptual development of the child. Language development is paced by the growth of conceptual and communicative capacities, operating in connection with innate schema of cognition. Cognitive development has great impact on the linguistic development, which, in turn, will affect conceptual formation.Jean Piaget is another cognitive psychologist who made a thorough renovation to the concept of children‟s development of language and thought. In fact, he developed the experimental methodology for exploring children’s thought and stud ied systematically thought and logic of children. His study proved that the differences in thought between children and adults are of quality rather than of quantity.According to Piaget, language ability never develops earlier than cognitive ability. Human beings has two organizations 机制, one is functional invariants, 不变量，in Piaget’s terminology, which determine how man and his environment react mutually and how man learns from environment. Another is cognitive structure, which is the outcome of the mutual reaction between functional invariants and environment. It is the functional invariants that are the central part of language acquisition. Many research findings proved that two facts are evident in the child language acquisition.Some Basic Features of Cognitive Theory---Child language growth is paced with the cognitive development of the concept and communicative ability---Linguistic and cognitive development keeps up the same pace and has interdependence.---emphasize the interaction of the child‟s p erceptual and cognitive development with linguistic and nonlinguistic events in his environment.We can never study the L1 acquisition thoroughly without considering the mental development of children in the first place. The formation of concept reflects the degrees of mental maturity. L1 acquisition depends on mental development. With the acquisition of concept, language acquisition enters fromsingle-word phase to double-word phase, and later on to discourse. Intellectual development enables children to discard consciously what is unacceptable in a language community and assimilate what is acceptable. Finally children establish an internalized acceptable grammar system.Tips from child first language acquisition:1. A man is bound to acquire a new language only if he is physically normaland grown up in a proper speech community.2. Adults learn a second language in much the same way as a child acquireshis mother tongues.3. In language teaching, practice must be emphasized, sometimes reinforcedpractice needed.( pattern drills , rehearsal ,substitution exercises etc. are necessary.)4. Language learning appears a matter of imitation, but imitation alone isinadequate for acquiring a language.5. There is a natural order in acquiring a language.Stages of Child‟s Acquis ition of First LanguageDuring the process of L1 acquisition, child develops his native language in a more or less stage-like pattern. Different children of different nations usually undergo 4 similar and general phases of language development. Babbling, single-word utterance, double-word utterance and discourse. The numbering of these stages is quite arbitrary and varies from author to author. Based on the newest internet research data, child L1 development can be divided into 6 stages.1. Pre-linguistic Period --- the Babbling Stage (前语言期---呀呀学语阶段)Crying is the child‟s earliest vocalization. 发声法a. cooing, crying (heard by 3 months )---a velar软鹗consonants such as /k/ and /g/---high vowels 元音such as /i/ and /u/b. babbling (heard by 6 months )---long sequences of consonants and vowels---syllables 音节can be identified---intonation 声调语调pattern can be heard---not linked to immediate needs---often uttered in isolation for pleasure---provides practice for later speech2. Acquisition of Concept of the World---a child sees the world as the link between sound and meaning---words vary in the pronunciation: sounds which differ most are learnt first;consonants which are similar are learned last.3. Holophrastic Stage ---the Single Word Stage （独词句期---单词句阶段）---single words become more than just labels---intonation may be of question, command, request…4. Telegraphic Stage--- the Double Utterance Stage and the Stage ofDeveloping Grammar (18 months )---words have been multiplied considerably and are beginning to appear in combination with each other to form two-word and three-word “sentences”.5. Linguistic Behavior and Speech Capacity ( about age 3 )---comprehend an incredible quantity of linguistic behavior---speech capacity expands---use of logical connections---become a “fluent” speaker---form good communicative skills6. Social Functions of Language ( school age)---learn how to use language appropriately---learn to use language in social contexts。

课次1：二语习得概述

二语习得研究的理论框架
研究领域一：二语学习者语言特征一 (characteristics of learner language )： (1) errors (2) acquisition orders and developmental sequences (3) variability (4) pragmatic features
二语习得专家Ellis的一些基本观点
Second language acquisition（SLA） refers to the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored setting.
研究领域四：二语学习者(the language learner ) ： (1) general factors (2) learner strate习得的过程和本质。一是描述，二是解释。二语习得研究的性质：跨学科性质，或者说是一门交叉学科。涉及语言学、心理学、社会学、认知学、文化学等领域。
一些基本概念
第一语言（简称“一语”）第二语言（简称“二语”）母语外语目的语
思考：美国人在韩国学习汉语与在中国学习汉语，主要差别何在？学习语言的环境不同（1）美国人在韩国学习汉语——“外语环境”（foreign language context）：目的语（即汉语）在课堂之外不作为交际语言使用。（2）美国人在中国学习汉语——“二语环境” （second language context）：目的语（即汉语）在课堂之外作为交际语言使用。简言之，二语环境和外语环境的对立，取决于目的语在课堂之外的社区中是否常用。中国人在中国学习英语与在美国学习英语的环境差别呢？二语习得可能发生在外语环境，也可能发生在二语环境。

关于一语习得、二语习得和外语学习的理论探讨

322020年07期总第499期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS关于一语习得、二语习得和外语学习的理论探讨文/宁天舒一、前言语言习得(Language Acquisition)与外语学习(ForeignLanguage Learning)都是人类对于语言的学习。

语言习得通常包括第一语言习得和第二语言习得。

近年来，国内外出现了一大批关于一语习得、二语习得和外语学习间的比较研究。

Van Patten、Calvo Cortés等人在一语、二语和外语的定义、习得/学习者主体特征、习得/学习的语言生态环境、学习方式、动机、习得/学习结果等方面做了理论探讨；Schuetze通过实验研究了一语和二语的异同，以及在二语习得环境中的二语习得和在外语环境中学习外语的问题。

这些研究，绝大多数都在比较中探寻语言习得或学习主体的内在机理和外部条件。

本文将概括性地对其特征及其相关性的理论解释作简要的比较，以期对外语教学给出一些有直接指导意义和有较强应用价值的理论借鉴。

二、一语习得、二语习得和外语学习的理论性分析1.普遍语法原则——参数论。

在众多有关语言习得的理论解释中，影响最大的莫过于Chomsky 普遍语法原则——参数论。

这种理论解释的核心思想是：人的语言是人类遗传基因规定的语言习得机制在后天环境作用下发展形成的。

一语习得起始的初始状态(initial state)的人脑和二语习得起始的已经进入稳定态(steady state)的人脑肯定不相同，先天初始的普遍语法和参数化后的普遍语法肯定也不相同。

因此，不能把习得一语的参数化过程简单地照搬到二语习得上，更不能照搬到外语学习上。

2.相通性。

无论一语还是二语或者外语，既然习得和学习的目标都是语言，三者之间势必会有一些相通的地方。

其中最主要表现是，语言能力的获得是一种人体机能的发展变化过程，是人脑特定脑区的神经组合及相关的语言认知器官发育成熟的过程，最终形成程序性(Procedural)的语言能力和下意识的语言行为。

二语习得的相关概念和理论

母语习得理论（Theories of Acquisition of the Maternal Language）关于儿童对母语，主要是口语中的听和说的能力之获得的理论，主要有：行为主义理论，“先天伦”和认知理论等。

行为主义理论（behaviourist theory)的基础是“强化”论或刺激--反应论，代表人物有语言学家布龙菲尔德和心理学家斯金纳等人。

这种理论认为：语言是一种人类行为，要观察语言行为就必须找出话语和产生它的环境之间的规律，找出话语和对它做出反应的话语之间的规律性，以便建立起一套完整的母语习得理论。

斯金纳在他的代表作《语言行为》一书中认为语言不是一种思维现象，而是一种行为。

儿童母语习得要经过模仿--强化--成形三个阶段。

儿童首先模仿自己周围的语言，对环境或成人的话语做出反应。

如果反应是正确的，即说出的句子符合语法规律，成人就会给予赞扬或以其他方式进行鼓励，以便强化儿童的语言，增加儿童说话的正确性。

为了得到更多的赞扬和鼓励，儿童会重复说过的话，逐步养成习惯，并把它巩固下来。

这样，儿童言语行为的形成过程是一个缓慢的过程，直到其习惯与成年人的说话方式相吻合。

行为主义理论并不能全面正确地反映出儿童母语习得的过程和心理特点。

行为主义者所理解的语言无非是声音的刺激和反应，而且把语言和思维（思想）等同起来。

布龙菲尔德的公式S（实际刺激）—r（言语反应）……s（言语刺激）R（实际反应）就表明了这一点。

行为主义语言观是在一定的历史条件下产生的，它反映了母语习得阶段的阶段性成果，反映了当时人们的认识水平。

它解释了一些母语习得的现象，特别是“语言时习惯”这一观点是不容易被否定的。

语言学习的“天性论”（innateness theory）用典型的理性主义的方法来解释儿童语言习得的问题。

代表人物是乔姆斯基和马克奈尔（D. McNeil）。

这种理论认为：儿童生下来就有一种适于学习语言的、人类独有的能力，即儿童天赋的普遍语法（universal grammar，简称UG)知识。

4-First-Language-Acquisition语言习得

2021/8/2
15
2.1.2.3 Systematicity and Variability
Most data gathered so far point to the systematic nature of the language learning process. From two or threeword utterances to full sentences, children exhibit a remarkable ability to infer the phonological, structural, lexical, and semantic system of language.
Chapter 2 First Language
Acquisition
By 郭小宁、李黎、刘洪艳、王媛
2021/8/2
1
Outline of Chapter 2
Theories of First Language Acquisition
Behavioristic Approaches Nativist Approaches Functional Approaches
2021/8/2
4
The Continuum of First Language Acquisition Theory
Extreme
Behaviro-istic
Position
Behavioritic Approaches
Functional Approaches
Nativist Approach
Verbal Behavior, like other behavior, is controlled by its consequences:

第一语言习得解读.

母语习得对语言教学的启示1如果语言普遍现象确实存在而且可使识别那么第二语言中的这种普遍成分似乎首先教给学习者让他们操2既然习得母语的儿童是通过积极参不交往而习得语言的那么我们应该考虑是否从一开始就让第二语言学习者时常有机会练习已学会的语言项目
第一语言习得
据说，儿童习得第一语言时就是把听到的语言“搬来”就用。这种说法对吗？如果不对，那么第一语言如何学到的？
学习vs习得
习得：儿童不自觉地自然地掌握母语的过程和方法，通过大量接触语言在交际中掌握语言，没有人专门教他，也没有人刻意地纠正他的错误，不注重语言形式而注重意义，语言规律的掌握是无意识的，习得过程是由不自觉到自觉。我们常说第一语言习得，儿童母语的习得。
学习：指在学校环境中，有意识地掌握第二语言的过程和方式，它注重语言形式，过程由自觉到不自觉，我们常说第二语言学习。
皮亚杰关于儿童语言习得的观点：
1、人类有一种先天的认知机制，但这种先天的认知机制不是乔姆斯基所说的由普遍语法构成的语言能力（即天赋固有的核）。
2、儿童并没有特殊的语言学习能力。儿童的语言能力只是一般人类认知能力的一个组成部分。
(LAD) Language Acquisition device
它首先是一种基于对刺激—反应论猛烈批判立场上建立起的理论,是基于理性主义的理论。
代表人物是语言学家乔姆斯基、卡茨，心理学家米勒与马克奈尔。
先天论认为：人类生来就具有一套语言知识，这套语言知识必定含有世界上所有自然语言的共同特征，即具有普遍性。Chomsky 称这种语法为“普遍语法 ”(Universal Grammar)。”
1.第一语言习得的过程
习得过程大体上分五个阶段
（1）喃语阶段：又叫语前阶段，6个月到1岁，牙牙学语，模仿大人的话，能听懂一些词和句子，能用特定的声音来表示一定的意义。

First Language Acquisition 母语习得

语言习得

英语语言学 第十章 母语习得

二语习得的相关概念和理论

Modern First Language Acquisition Theory现代母语习得理论

第一语言习得

语言学 第一语言习得

About First Language Acquisition(一语习得)

应用语言学chpt4FirstLanguageacquisition

英语语言学概论第十章笔记

母语习得的概念

Modern First Language Acquisition Theory现代母语习得理论

课次1：二语习得概述

关于一语习得、二语习得和外语学习的理论探讨

二语习得的相关概念和理论

4-First-Language-Acquisition语言习得

第一语言习得解读.

英语语言学第十章母语习得

语言学第一语言习得