多恩布什宏观经济学课后习题答案

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多恩布什《宏观经济学》课后习题详解(政策预览)【圣才出品】

第9章政策预览一、概念题1．联邦公开市场委员会（FOMC）答：联邦公开市场委员会是联邦储备系统中一个重要的机构。

它由十二名成员组成，包括：联邦储备委员会全部成员七名，纽约联邦储备银行行长，其它四个名额由另外11个联邦储备银行行长轮流担任。

该委员会设一名主席（通常由联邦储备委员会主席担任），一名副主席（通常由纽约联邦储备银行行长担任），另外，其它所有的联邦储备银行行长都可以参加联邦公开市场委员会的讨论会议，但是没有投票权。

联邦公开市场委员会的最主要工作是利用公开市场操作（主要的货币政策之一），从一定程度上影响市场上货币的存量。

另外，它还负责决定货币总量的增长范围（即新投入市场的货币数量），并对联邦储备银行在外汇市场上的活动进行指导。

2．货币政策规则（monetary policy rule）答：货币政策规则是指基础货币和利率等货币政策工具如何根据经济行为的变化而进行调整的一般要求。

货币政策规则是相对于货币政策操作中相机抉择而言的。

执行货币政策规则的基本原因在于，随意性会导致政策在时间上前后不能一贯以至互相矛盾，进而影响货币政策的效果。

规则型政策的核心是，在方法上遵循计划，不是随机地或偶然地采取行动，而是具有连续性和系统性。

系统性是货币政策规则的中心内容。

根据系统性的要求，货币当局必须建立系统性的反应机制，以考虑私人部门的预期行为，使这一时期的货币政策优化。

货币政策规则的主要好处是，所制定的决策是用于各种不同的情况，而不是以各个个别案例为基础进行设定，这种决策对于预期具有积极的作用。

货币政策规则的一般形式是：()****100t t t t t t Y Y i r Y παππβ⎛⎫-=++-+⨯ ⎪⎝⎭3．泰勒规则（Taylor rule ）答：泰勒规则是用来说明货币当局如何适应经济活动来制定利率的规则。

具体说来，泰勒规则是：()***20.50.5100t t t t t t Y Y i Y ⎛⎫-=++⨯-+⨯⨯ ⎪⎝⎭πππ其中，π*是目标通货膨胀率，常数2近似于长期平均实际利率。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案03

CHAPTER 3Solutions to the Problems in the TextbookConceptual Problems:1. The production function provides a quantitative link between inputs and output. For example, theCobb-Douglas production function mentioned in the text is of the form:Y = F(N,K) = AN1-θKθ,where Y represents the level of output. (1 - θ) and θ are weights equal to the shares of labor (N) and capital (K) in production, while A is often used as a measure for the level of technology. It can be easily shown that labor and capital each contribute to economic growth by an amount that is equal to their individual growth rates multiplied by their respective share in income.2. The Solow model predicts convergence, that is, countries with the same production function, savingsrate, and population growth will eventually reach the same level of income per capita. In other words,a poor country may eventually catch up to a richer one by saving at the same rate and makingtechnological innovations. However, if these countries have different savings rates, they will reach different levels of income per capita, even though their long-term growth rates will be the same.3. A production function that omits the stock of natural resources cannot adequately predict the impactof a significant change in the existing stock of natural resources on the economic performance of a country. For example, the discovery of new oil reserves or an entirely new resource would have a significant effect on the level of output that could not be predicted by such a production function.4. Interpreting the Solow residual purely as technological progress would ignore, for example, theimpact that human capital has on the level of output. In other words, this residual not only captures the effect of technological progress but also the effect of changes in human capital (H) on the growth rate of output. To eliminate this problem we can explicitly include human capital in the production function, such thatY = F(K,N,H) = AN a K b H c with a + b + c = 1.Then the growth rate of output can be calculated as∆Y/Y = ∆A/A + a(∆N/N) + b(∆K/K) + c(∆H/H).5. The savings function sy = sf(k) assumes that a constant fraction of output is saved. The investmentrequirement, that is, the (n + d)k-line, represents the amount of investment needed to maintain a constant capital-labor ratio (k). A steady-state equilibrium is reached when saving is equal to the investment requirement, that is, when sy = (n + d)k. At this point the capital-labor ratio k = K/N is not changing, so capital (K), labor (N), and output (Y) all must be growing at the same rate, that is, the rate of population growth n = (∆N/N).6. In the long run, the rate of population growth n = (∆N/N) determines the growth rate of thesteady-state output per capita. In the short run, however, the savings rate, technological progress, and the rate of depreciation can all affect the growth rate.7. Labor productivity is defined as Y/N, that is, the ratio of output (Y) to labor input (N). A surge inlabor productivity therefore occurs if output grows at a faster rate than labor input. In the U.S. we have experienced such a surge in labor productivity since the mid-1990s due to the enormous growth in GDP. This surge can be explained from the introduction of new technologies and more efficient use of existing technologies. Many claim that the increased investment in and use of computer technology has stimulated economic growth. Furthermore, increased global competition has forced many firms to cut costs by reorganizing production and eliminating some jobs. Thus, with large increases in output and a slower rate of job creation we should expect labor productivity to increase. (One should also note that a higher-skilled labor force also can contribute to an increase in labor productivity, since the same number of workers can produce more output if workers are more highly skilled.)Technical Problems:1.a. According to Equation (2), the growth of output is equal to the growth in labor times the labor shareplus the growth of capital times the capital share plus the rate of technical progress, that is, ∆Y/Y = (1 - θ)(∆N/N) + θ(∆K/K) + ∆A/A, where1 - θ is the share of labor (N) and θ is the share of capital (K). Thus if we assume that the rate oftechnological progress (∆A/A) is zero, then output grows at an annual rate of 3.6 percent, since ∆Y/Y = (0.6)(2%) + (0.4)(6%) + 0% = 1.2% + 2.4% = + 3.6%,1.b. The so-called "Rule of 70" suggests that the length of time it takes for output to double can becalculated by dividing 70 by the growth rate of output. Since 70/3.6 = 19.44, it will take just under 20 years for output to double at an annual growth rate of 3.6%,1.c. Now that ∆A/A = 2%, we can calculate economic growth as∆Y/Y = (0.6)(2%) + (0.4)(6%) + 2% = 1.2% + 2.4% + 2% = + 5.6%.Thus it will take 70/5.6 = 12.5 years for output to double at this new growth rate of 5.6%.2.a. According to Equation (2), the growth of output is equal to the growth in labor times the labor shareplus the growth of capital times the capital share plus the growth rate of total factor productivity (TFP), that is,∆Y/Y = (1 - θ)(∆N/N) + θ(∆K/K) + ∆A/A, where1 - θ is the share of labor (N) and θ is the share of capital (K). In this example θ = 0.3; therefore,if output grows at 3% and labor and capital grow at 1% each, then we can calculate the change in TFP in the following way3% = (0.3)(1%) + (0.7)(1%) + ∆A/A ==> ∆A/A = 3% - 1% = 2%,that is, the growth rate of total factor productivity is 2%.2.b. If both labor and the capital stock are fixed and output grows at 3%, then all this growth has to becontributed to the growth in factor productivity, that is, ∆A/A = 3%.3.a. If the capital stock grows by ∆K/K = 10%, the effect on output would be an additional growth rate of∆Y/Y = (.3)(10%) = 3%.3.b. If labor grows by ∆N/N = 10%, the effect on output would be an additional growth rate of∆Y/Y = (.7)(10%) = 7%.3.c. If output grows at ∆Y/Y = 7% due to an increase in labor by ∆N/N = 10%, and this increase in laboris entirely d ue to population growth, then per capita income would decrease and people’s welfare would decrease, since∆y/y = ∆Y/Y - ∆N/N = 7% - 10% = - 3%.3.d. If this increase in labor is due to an influx of women into the labor force, the overall population doesnot increase and income per capita would increase by ∆y/y = 7%. Therefore people's welfare would increase.4. Figure 3-4 shows output per head as a function of the capital-labor ratio, that is, y = f(k). Thesavings function is sy = sf(k), and it intersects the straight (n + d)k-line, representing the investment requirement. At this intersection, the economy is in a steady-state equilibrium. Now let us assume that the economy is in a steady-state equilibrium before the earthquake hits, that is, the steady-state capital-labor ratio is currently k*. Assume further, for simplicity, that the earthquake does not affect people's savings behavior.If the earthquake destroys one quarter of the capital stock but less than one quarter of the labor force, then the capital-labor ratio falls from k*to k1 and per-capita output falls from y* to y1. Now saving is greater than the investment requirement, that is, sy1 > (d + n)k1, and the capital stock and the level of output per capita will grow until the steady state at k* is reached again.However, if the earthquake destroys one quarter of the capital stock but more than one quarter of the labor force, then the capital-labor ratio increases from k*to k2. Saving now will be less than the investment requirement and thus the capital-labor ratio and the level of output per capita will fall until the steady state at k* is reached again.If exactly one quarter of both the capital stock and the labor stock are destroyed, then the steady state is maintained, that is, the capital-labor ratio and the output per capita do not change.If the severity of the earthquake has an effect on peoples’ savings behavior, then the savings function sy = sf(k) will move either up or down, depending on whether the savings rate (s) increases (if people save more, so more can be invested in an effort to rebuild) or decreases (if people save less, since they decide that life is too short not to live it up).k1k*k2 k5.a. An increase in the population growth rate (n) affects the investment requirement, and the (n + d)k-linegets steeper. As the population grows, more saving must be used to equip new workers with the same amount of capital that the existing workers already have. Therefore output per capita (y) will decrease as will the new optimal capital-labor ratio, which is determined by the intersection of the sy-curve and the (n1 + d)k-line. Since per-capita output will fall, we will have a negative growth rate in the short run. However, the steady-state growth rate of output will increase in the long run, since it will be determined by the new and higher rate of population growth.yy oy1k1k o k5.b. Starting from an initial steady-state equilibrium at a level of per-capita output y*, the increase in thepopulation growth rate (n) will cause the capital-labor ratio to decline from k* to k1. Output per capita will also decline, a process that will continue at a diminishing rate until a new steady-state level is reached at y1. The growth rate of output will gradually adjust to the new and higher level n1.yy*y1t o t1tkk*k1t o t1t6.a. Assume the production function is of the formY = F(K, N, Z) = AK a N b Z c==>∆Y/Y = ∆A/A + a(∆K/K) + b(∆N/N) + c(∆Z/Z), with a + b + c = 1.Now assume that there is no technological progress, that is, ∆A/A = 0, and that capital and labor grow at the same rate, that is, ∆K/K = ∆N/N = n. If we also assume that all natural resources available are fixed, such that ∆Z/Z = 0, then the rate of output growth will be∆Y/Y = an + bn = (a + b)n.In other words, output will grow at a rate less than n since a + b < 1. Therefore output per worker will fall.6.b. If there is technological progress, that is, ∆A/A > 0, then output will grow faster than before, namely∆Y/Y = ∆A/A + (a + b)n.If ∆A/A > c, then output will grow at a rate larger than n, in which case output per worker will increase.6.c. If the supply of natural resources is fixed, then output can only grow at a rate that is smaller than therate of population growth and we should expect limits to growth as we run out of natural resources.However, if the rate of technological progress is sufficiently large, then output can grow at a rate faster than population, even if we have a fixed supply of natural resources.7.a. If the production function is of the formY = K1/2(AN)1/2,and A is normalized to 1, then we haveY = K1/2N1/2.In this case capital's and labor's shares of income are both 50%.7.b. This is a Cobb-Douglas production function.7.c. A steady-state equilibrium is reached when sy = (n + d)k.From Y = K1/2N1/2 ==> Y/N = K1/2N-1/2==> y = k1/2==>sk1/2= (n + d)k ==> k-1/2 = (n + d)/s = (0.07 + 0.03)/(.2) = 1/2 ==> k1/2= 2 = y ==> k = 4 .8.a. If technological progress occurs, then the level of output per capita for any given capital-labor ratioincreases. The function y = f(k) increases to y = g(k), and thus the savings function increases from sf(k) to sg(k).y2k1k2k8.b. Since g(k) > f(k), it follows that sg(k) > sf(k) for each level of k. Therefore theintersection of the sg(k)-curve with the (n + d)k-line is at a higher level of k. The new steady-state equilibrium will now be at a higher level of saving and output per capita, and at a higher capital-labor ratio.8.c. After the technological progress occurs, the level of saving and investment will increaseuntil a new and higher optimal capital-labor ratio is reached. The ratio of investment to capital will also increase in the transition period, since more has to be invested to reach the higher optimal capital-labor ratio.kk2k1t1t2t9. The Cobb-Douglas production function is defined asY = F(N,K) = AN1-θKθ.The marginal product of labor can then be derived asMPN = (∆Y)/(∆N) = (1 - θ)AN-θKθ = (1 - θ)AN1-θKθ/N = = (1 - θ)(Y/N)==> labor's share of income = [MPN*(N)]/Y = (1 - θ)(Y/N)*[(N)/(Y)] = (1 - θ)。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后答案

宏观经济学第二章概念题1．如果政府雇用失业工人，他们曾领取TR美元的失业救济金，现在他们作为政府雇员支取TR美元，不做任何工作，GDP会发生什么情况？请解释。

答：国内生产总值指一个国家（地区）领土范围，本国（地区）居民和外国居民在一定时期内所生产和提供的最终使用的产品和劳务的价值。

用支出法计算的国内生产总值等于消费C、投资I、政府支出G和净出口NX之和。

从支出法核算角度看：C、I、NX保持不变，由于转移支付TR美元变成了政府对劳务的购买即政府支出增加，使得G增加了TR美元，GDP会由于G的增加而增加。

2．GDP和GNP有什么区别？用于计算收入/产量是否一个比另一个更好呢？为什么？答：（1）GNP和GDP的区别GNP指在一定时期内一国或地区的国民所拥有的生产要素所生产的全部最终产品（物品和劳务）的市场价值的总和。

它是本国国民生产的最终产品市场价值的总和，是一个国民概念，即无论劳动力和其他生产要素处于国内还是国外，只要本国国民生产的产品和劳务的价值都记入国民生产总值。

GDP指一定时期内一国或地区所拥有的生产要素所生产的全部最终产品（物品和劳务）的市场价值的总和。

它是一国范围内生产的最终产品，是一个地域概念。

两者的区别：在经济封闭的国家或地区，国民生产总值等于国内生产总值；在经济开放的国家或地区，国民生产总值等于国内生产总值加上国外净要素收入。

两者的关系可以表示为：GNP=GDP+[本国生产要素在其他国家获得的收入（投资利润、劳务收入）-外国生产要素从本国获得的收入]。

（2）使用GDP比使用GNP用于计量产出会更好一些，原因如下：1）从精确度角度看，GDP的精确度高；2）GDP衡量综合国力时，比GNP好；3）相对于GNP而言，GDP是对经济中就业潜力的一个较好的衡量指标。

由于美国经济中GDP和GNP的差异非常小，所以在分析美国经济时，使用这两种的任何一个指标，造成的差异都不会大。

但对于其他有些国家的经济来说明，这个差别是相当大的，因此，使用GDP作为衡量指标会更好。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案02

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案02CHAPTER 2Solutions to Problems in the Textbook:Conceptual Problems:1. Government transfer payments (TR) do not arise out of anyproduction activity and are thus not counted in the value of GDP. If the government hired the people who currently receive transfer payments, then their wages would be counted as part of government purchases (G), which is counted in GDP. Therefore GDP would rise.2.a. If the firm buys a car for an executive's use, the purchase counts asinvestment (I). But if the firm pays the executive a higher salary and she then buys a car, the purchase is counted as consumption (C).2.b. The services that a homemaker provides are not counted in GDP(regardless of their value). However, if an individual officially hires his or her spouse to perform household duties at a certain wage rate, then the wages earned will be counted in GDP and GDP will increase.2.c. If you buy a German car, consumption (C) will increase but netexports (NX = X - Q) will decrease. Overall GDP will increase by the value added at the foreign car dealership, since the import price is likely to be less than the sales price. If you buy an American car, consumption and thus GDP will increase. (Note: If the car you buy comes out of the car dealer's inventory, then the increase in C will bepartially offset be a decline in I, and GDP will again only increase by the value added.)3. GDP is the market value of all final goods and services currentlyproduced within the country. (The U.S. GDP includes the value of the Hondas produced by a Japanese-owned assembly plant that is located in the U.S., but it does not include the value of Nike shoes that are produced by an American-owned shoe factory located in Malaysia.) GNP is the market value of all final goods and services currently produced using assets owned by domestic residents. (Here the value of the Hondas produced by a Japanese-owned Honda plant is not counted but the value of the Nikes by the American-owned shoe plant is.) Neither is necessarily a better measure of the output of a nation.The actual value of the GDP and GNP for the U.S. is fairly close.4. The NDP (net domestic product) is defined as GDP minusdepreciation. Depreciation measures the value of the capital that wears out during the production process and has to be replaced. Therefore NDP comes closer to measuring the net amount of goods produced in this country. If this is what you want to measure, then NDP should be used.5. Increases in real GDP do not necessarily mean increases in welfare.For example, if the population of a country increases by more than real GDP, then the population of the country is on average worse off.Also some increases in output come from welfare reducing events. For example, increased pollution may cause more lung cancer, and the treatment of the lung cancer will contribute toGDP. Similarly, an increase in crime may lead to overtime work for police officers, whose increased salary will increase GDP. But the welfare of the people in the country may not have increased in either case. On the other hand, GDP does not always accurately measure quality improvements in goods or services (faster computers or improved health care) that improve people's welfare.6. The CPI (consumer price index) and the PPI (producer price index)are both measured by looking at a certain market basket. The CPI's basket contains mostly finished goods and services that consumers tend to buy regularly in their daily lives. The PP I’s basket contains raw materials and semi-finished goods, that is, it measures costs to the producer of a product and its first user. The CPI is a concurrent economic indicator, whereas the PPI is a leading economic indicator.7. T he GDP-deflator is a price index that covers the average priceincrease of all final goods and services currently produced within an economy. It is defined as the ratio of current nominal GDP to current real GDP. Nominal GDP is measured in current dollars, while real GDP is measured in so-called base-year dollars. Even though early estimates of the GDP-deflator tend to be unreliable, the GDP-deflator can be a more useful price index than the CPI or PPI (both of which are fixed market baskets). This is true for two reasons: first it measures a much wider cross-section of goods and services; second, a fixed market basket cannot account for people substituting away from goods whose relative prices have changed, while the GDP-deflator, which includes all goods and services produced within the country, can.8. If nominal GDP has suddenly doubled, it is most likely due to anincrease in the average price level. Therefore, the first thing you would want to check is by how much the GDP-deflator has changed, to calculate by how much real output (GDP) has changed. If nominal GDP and the GDP-deflator have both doubled, then real GDP should be the same.9. Assume the loan you made yields you an annual nominal return of 7%.If the rate of inflation is 4%, then your rate of return in real terms isonly 3%. If, on the other hand, if inflation rate is 10%, then you will actually get a negative real rate of return, that is, you will lose 3% of your purchasing power. One way to protect yourself against such a loss of purchasing power is to adjust the interest rate for inflation, that is, to index the loan. In other words, you can require that, in addition to the specified interest rate of the loan of, let’s say, 3%, the borrower also has to pay an inflation premium equal to the percentage change in the CPI. In this case, a real rate of return of 3% would be guaranteed.Technical Problems:1. The text calculates the change in real GDP in 1992 prices in thefollowing way:[RGDP01- RGDP92]/RGDP92= [3.50 - 1.50]/1.50 = 1.33 = 133%.To calculate the change in real GDP in 2001 prices, we first have to calculate the GDP of 1992 in 2001 prices. Thus we take the quantities consumed in 1992 and multiply them by the prices of 2001, as follows:Beer 1 at $2.00 = $2.00Skittles 1 at $0.75 = $0.75_______________________________Total $2.75The change in real GDP can now be calculated as[6.25 - 2.75]/2.75 = 1.27 = 127%.We can see that the growth rate of real GDP calculated this way is roughly the same as the growth rate calculated above.2.a. The relationship between private domestic saving, investment, thebudget deficit and net exports is shown by the following identity:S - I ≡ (G + TR - TA) + NX.Therefore, if we assume that transfer payments (TR) remain constant, then an increase in taxes (TA) has to be offset either by an increase in government purchases (G), a decrease in net exports (NX), or a decrease in the difference between saving (S) and investment (I).2.b. From the equation YD ≡C + S it follows that an increase indisposable income (YD) will be reflected in an increase in consumption (C), saving (S), or both.2.c. From the equation YD ≡ C + S it follows that when eitherconsumption (C) or saving (S) increases, disposable income (YD) must increase as well.3.a. Since depreciation D = I g - I n = 800 - 200 = 600 ==>NDP = GDP - D = 6,000 - 600 = 5,4003.b. From GDP = C + I + G + NX ==> NX = GDP - C - I - G ==>NX = 6,000 - 4,000 - 800 - 1,100 = 100.3.c. BS = TA - G - TR ==> (TA - TR) = BS + G ==> (TA - TR) = 30 +1,100 = 1,1303.d. YD = Y - (TA - TR) = 5,400 - 1,130 = 4,2703.e. S = YD - C = 4,270 - 4,000 = 2704.a. S = YD - C = 5,100 - 3,800 = 1,3004.b. From S - I = (G + TR - TA) + NX ==> I = S - (G + TR - TA) - NX= 1,300 - 200 - (-100) = 1,200.4.c. From Y = C + I + G + NX ==> G = Y - C - I - NX ==>G = 6,000 - 3,800 - 1,200 - (-100) = 1,100.Also: YD = Y - TA + TR ==> TA - TR = Y - YD = 6,000 - 5,100 ==> TA - TR = 900From BS = TA - TR - G ==> G = (TA - TR) - BS = 900 - (-200) ==> G = 1,1005. According to Equation (2) in the text, the value of total output (inbillions of dollars) can be calculated as: Y = labor payments + capital payments + profits = $6 + $2 + $0 = $86.a. Since nominal GDP is defined as the market value of all final goodsand services currently produced in this country, we can only measure the value of the final product (bread), and therefore we get $2 million (since 1 million loaves are sold at $2 each).6.b. An alternative way of measuring total GDP would be to calculate allthe value added at each step of production. The total value of the ingredients used by the bakeries can be calculated as: 1,200,000 pounds of flour ($1 per pound) = 1,200,000100,000 pounds of yeast ($1 per pound) = 100,000100,000 pounds of sugar ($1 per pound) = 100,000100,000 pounds of salt ($1 per pound) = 100,000________________________________________________________ __= 1,500,000Since $2,000,000 worth of bread is sold, the total value added at the bakeries is $500,000.7. If the CPI increases from 2.1 to 2.3, the rate of inflation can becalculated in the following way:rate of inflation = (2.3 - 2.1)/2.1 = 0.095 = 9.5%The CPI often overstates inflation, since it is calculated by using afixed market basket of goods and services. But the fixed weights in the CPI's market basket cannot capture the tendency of consumers to substitute away from goods whose relative prices have increased.Therefore, the CPI will overstate the increase in consumers' expenditures.8.The real interest rate (r) is defined as the nominal interest rate (i)minus the rate of infla tion (π). Therefore the nominal interest rate is the real interest rate plus the rate of inflation, ori = r + π = 3% + 4% = 7%.。

宏观经济学第十版第二章课后习题完美精简中文版

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版第二章课后习题答案完美中文精简版概念题1，他们作为政府雇员支取TR美元，但是不做任何工作，实际上就是加大了政府支出，GDP会增长。

2，a..厂商为经理买车应该看成投资，经理自己购买轿车则是消费。

b.雇佣配偶的行为是消费，计算GDP时会被计入；而无偿要求她担任此工作则是无形中忽略掉了消费环节，不计入GDP。

c.买美国轿车会使GDP增长，买德国车也会使GDP增加，但是会减少净出口。

3，GDP与GNP的区别在于：GNP是指一个国家(或地区)所有国民在一定时期内新生产的产品和服务价值的总和。

GNP是按国民原则核算的，只要是本国(或地区)居民，无论是否在本国境内(或地区内)居住，其生产和经营活动新创造的增加值都应该计算在内。

GDP是指一个国家(或地区)在一定时期内所有常住单位生产经营活动的全部最终成果。

GDP是按国土原则核算的生产经营的最终成果。

使用GDP计量产出更好，GDP的精确度高。

4，NDP是国内生产净值，NDP是从国内生产总值GDP中扣除资本折旧得到的。

如果用于计算产量，它比GDP更接近产品价值，但是折旧率是人来计算，所以会存在一定误差，在计算数值非常大时用GDP计算比较好。

5，GDP的增加不代表福利的增加，比如说GDP增加，同时人口也增长了，一平均，每个人的GDP没有变化。

我觉得最大的问题是人口问题，人口的增长和减少对人均GDP有影响。

6，CPI居民消费价格指数，是反映与居民生活有关的商品及劳务价格统计出来的物价变动指标，通常作为观察通货膨胀水平的重要指标。

PPI是衡量企业购买的一篮子物品和劳务的总费用。

从消费者的立场计算时我会选择用CPI计算。

7，GDP紧缩指数=（名义GDP/实际GDP） *100区别答不出。

8，物价是否翻了一倍，以及GDP紧缩指数有没有变化。

9，伤心。

以实际利率说明的，将要支付更少利息。

技术题12，b．收入增加意味着可支配收入增加，那么此时就能够购买更多的产品。

对外经贸大学金融学考研多恩布什《宏观经济学》课后题及答案

2．什么时候一国出现对外平衡？出现内部平衡？是其中任一个还是两个都是政策目标。答：当国际收支保持平衡时，就会出现外部平衡；外部平衡指一国经济发展和世界经济相协调的状态，主要指标是国际收支保持基本平衡，没有大量的赤字或赢余。当国内产出处于充分就业时就出现内部平衡。指一国国内经济处于稳定、协调增长的状态，主要指标是经济达到充分就业水平而又没有通货膨胀。外部平衡与内部平衡构成了宏观经济政策的两大目标。在微观层次上，采取适当的贸易鼓励政策，加强技术创新，提高劳动生产率，增强本国产品的国际竞争力；在宏观层次上，通过财政政策和货币政策的有机配合，在充分就业、工资水平较高的条件下，仍能维持国际收支平衡。所以，要使二者同时达到均衡，必须综合运用货币政策和财政政策。
3．（第三章第三题）再假定资本与劳动的份额分别是 0.3 和 0.7。 A．资本存量增长 10%对产出有何影响？ B．劳动数量扩大 10%有何影响？
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C．如果劳动的增加完全归因于人口增长，由此引起产出增长会对人民福利有影响吗？ D．如果劳动的增长归因于妇女涌入劳动场所，结果又将会怎样？答： A：根据公式Y/Y = (1 - )(N/N) + (K/K) + A/A,可知，其他条件不变， K/K = 10%，
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技术题：
1．（第二章第一题）在本书中，我们在表 2-3 的假设经济中，用 1992 年价格计算真实 GDP 的变动。计算 1992-1998 年真实 GDP 的变动，利用同一数据但以 1998 年价格计算。你的回答应该证明，用来计算真实 GDP 使用的价格确实是影响增长率的计算，但通常影响不太大。
1．解释当资本完全流动时，货币政策如何以及为什么会保持其有效性。答：资本完全流动：指投资者能在其选定的任何国家以低交易成本，迅速且无限制地购买资产。货币政策保持有效性的方法：扩张性的货币政策降低了利率，同时由于资本是完全流动的，这将会导致资金的流出，资金的流出将会导致货币贬值。出口商品的价格会下降，外国人购买时就会更便宜，这将会导致对出口商品的更大需求。出口的增加将会带来总需求和国民收入的增加。在资本具有完全流动性的固定汇率制下，财政政策高度有效。财政扩张会提高利率，从而使中央银行增加货币存量，以保持汇率的固定不变。所以，在实施货币政策时，应该同时采取相应的财政政策，从而保持货币政策的有效性。货币政策要保持其有效性的原因：在固定汇率制与资本完全流动的情况下，货币政策无力影响产出。通过增加货币存量，来降低本国利率的任何企图，都将引起资本大量外流，引起货币贬值，从而迫使中央银行不得不以外币购买本国货币，进行抵消。在资本流动的固定汇率制下，中央银行不能独立运用货币政策，所以要采取配套措施来保持货币政策的有效性。

多恩布什《宏观经济学》课后习题详解(衰退与萧条)【圣才出品】

第21章衰退与萧条一、概念题1．大萧条（Great Depression）答：大萧条指1929年至1939年之间发生的全球性经济大衰退，是以商业和经济运营普遍衰退为特征的一种经济状况。

1929～1933年的萧条——“世界经济衰退”比任何一次经济衰退的影响都要深远得多。

这次经济萧条是以农产品价格下跌为起点的，农业衰退由于金融的大崩溃而进一步恶化，尤其在美国，一股投机热导致大量资金从欧洲抽回，随后在1929年10月发生了令人恐慌的华尔街股市暴跌。

在全球范围内，经济衰退造成大规模的持续失业；资本的短缺在所有的工业化国家中都带来了出口和国内消费的锐减；这场灾难还使中欧和东欧许多国家的制度遭到破产。

根据凯恩斯的理论，大萧条是因为有效需求不足而产生的，所以政府的任务是扩大有效需求。

2．大衰退（Great Recession）答：大衰退指的是一场在2007年8月9日开始浮现的金融危机引发的经济衰退，始于美国房地产市场，不断深化并传播到全球，从金融市场传递到商品和服务市场。

大量的低成本抵押贷款，特别是给那些收入太低而不足以支付所购买房屋者的贷款，导致了房价的疯狂上涨。

只要房屋价格继续上涨，房屋所有人就能通过再融资偿还最初的抵押贷款。

当然，一旦房价停止上涨，房屋所有人将只剩下他们难以偿付的贷款，而且不能再融资。

大部分银行通过抵押贷款证券化在金融市场卖掉了抵押贷款。

而当存在真实风险时这些证券被作为无风险证券交易，加上金融衍生品的繁荣发展并被那些对赌注风险毫不知情的投资者不断交易，导致了次级房屋信贷危机的爆发，投资者开始对按揭证券的价值失去信心，引发了大衰退。

3．新政（New Deal）答：新政又称“罗斯福新政”，指面对1929～1933年的世界经济大危机，1933年罗斯福接任美国总统后为挽救经济所采取的一系列社会、经济政策的总称。

新政主要包括通过国会制定了《紧急银行法令》《国家产业复兴法》《农业调整法》等法案，其主旨是强化政府干预，通过采取一系列发展国家垄断资本主义的措施来克服严重的信贷危机及经济衰退。

多恩布什宏观经济学答案

Chapter 2 national income accountingTechnical Problems1.The text calculates the change in real GDP in 1996 prices in the following way:[RGDP04 - RGDP96]/RGDP96 = [3.50 - 1.50]/1.50 = 1.33 = 133%.To calculate the change in real GDP in 2004 prices, we first have to calculate the GDP of 1996 in 2004 prices.Thus we take the quantities consumed in 1996 and multiply them by the prices of 2004, as follows:B eer 1 at $2.00 = $2.00Skittles 1 at $0.75 = $0.75_______________________________Total $2.75The change in real GDP can now be calculated as [6.25 - 2.75]/2.75 = 1.27 = 127%.We can see that the growth rate of real GDP calculated this way is roughly the same as the growth rate calculated above.2.a. The relationship between private domestic saving, private domestic investment, the budget deficit, and netexports is shown by the following identity:S - I ≡ (G + TR - TA) + NX.Therefore, if we assume that transfer payments (TR) remain constant, an increase in taxes (TA) has to be offset either by an increase in government purchases (G), an increase in net exports (NX), or a decrease in the difference between private domestic saving (S) and private domestic investment (I).2.b.From the equation YD ≡ C + S it follows that an increase in disposable income (YD) will be reflected in anincrease in consumption (C), saving (S), or both.2.c.From the equation YD ≡ C + S it follows that when either consumption (C) or saving (S) increases, disposableincome (YD) must increase as well.3.a. Since depreciation is defined as D = I g - I n = 800 - 200 = 600 ==>NDP = GDP - D = 6,000 - 600 = 5,400.3.b.From GDP = C + I g + G + NX ==> NX = GDP - C – I g - G ==>NX = 6,000 - 4,000 - 800 - 1,100 = 100.3.c.BS = TA - G - TR ==> (TA - TR) = BS + G ==> (TA - TR) = 30 + 1,100 = 1,1303.d.YD = Y - (TA - TR) = 6,000 - 1,130 = 4,8703.e. S = YD - C = 4,870 - 4,000 = 8704.a. S = YD - C = 5,100 - 3,800 = 1,3004.b.From S - I = (G + TR - TA) + NX ==> I = S - (G + TR - TA) - NX = 1,300 - 200 - (-100) = 1,200.2704.c.From Y = C + I + G + NX ==> G = Y - C - I - NX ==>G = 6,000 - 3,800 - 1,200 - (-100) = 1,100.Also: YD = Y - TA + TR ==> TA - TR = Y - YD = 6,000 - 5,100 ==> TA - TR = 900From BS = TA - TR - G ==> G = (TA - TR) - BS = 900 - (-200) ==> G = 1,100.5.According to Equation (2) in the text, the value of total output (in billions of dollars) can be calculated as: Y =labor payments + capital payments + profits = $6 + $2 + $0 = $8.6.a.Since nominal GDP is defined as the market value of all final goods and services currently produced in thiscountry, we can only measure the value of the final product (bread), and therefore we get $2 million (since 1 million loaves are sold at $2 each).6.b.An alternative way of measuring GDP is to calculate all the value added at each step of production. The totalvalue of the ingredients used by the bakeries can be calculated as:1,200,000 pounds of flour ($1 per pound) = 1,200,000100,000 pounds of yeast ($1 per pound) = 100,000100,000 pounds of sugar ($1 per pound) = 100,000100,000 pounds of salt ($1 per pound) = 100,000__________________________________________________________= 1,500,000Since $2,000,000 worth of bread is sold, the total value added at the bakeries is $500,000.7.If the CPI increases from 2.1 to 2.3, the rate of inflation can be calculated in the following way:rate of inflation = (2.3 - 2.1)/2.1 = 0.095 = 9.5%.The CPI often overstates inflation, since it is calculated by using a fixed market basket of goods and services.But the fixed weights in the CPI's market basket cannot capture the tendency of consumers to substitute away from goods whose relative prices have increased. Quality improvements in goods also often are not adequately taken into account. Therefore, the CPI will overstate the increase in consumers' expenditures.8.The real interest rate (r) is defined as the nominal interest rate (i) minus the rate of inflation (π). Therefore thenominal interest rate is the real interest rate plus the rate of inflation, ori = r + π = 3% + 4% = 7%.Chapter 3Growth theory, exogenous.1.a.According to Equation (2), the growth of output is equal to the growth in lab or times labor’s share ofincome plus the growth of capital times capital’s share of income plus the rate of technical progress, that is,∆Y/Y = (1 - θ)(∆N/N) + θ(∆K/K) + ∆A/A, where2711 - θ is the share of labor (N) and θ is the share of capital (K). Therefore, if we assume that therate of technological progress is zero (∆A/A = 0), output grows at an annual rate of 3.6 percent, since ∆Y/Y = (0.6)(2%) + (0.4)(6%) + 0% = 1.2% + 2.4% = + 3.6%,1.b.The so-called "Rule of 70" suggests that the length of time it takes for output to double can becalculated by dividing 70 by the growth rate of output. Since 70/3.6 = 19.44, it will take just under 20 years for output to double at an annual growth rate of 3.6%,1.c.Now that ∆A/A = 2%, we can calculate economic growth as∆Y/Y = (0.6)(2%) + (0.4)(6%) + 2% = 1.2% + 2.4% + 2% = + 5.6%.Thus it will take 70/5.6 = 12.5 years for output to double at this new growth rate of 5.6%.2.a.According to Equation (2), the growth of output is equal to the growth in labor times the labor shareplus the growth of capital times the capital share plus the growth rate of total factor productivity, that is,∆Y/Y = (1 - θ)(∆N/N) + θ(∆K/K) + ∆A/A, where1 - θ is the share of labor (N) and θ is the share of capital (K). In this example θ = 0.3; therefore,if output grows at 3% and labor and capital grow at 1% each, we can calculate the change in total factor productivity in the following way3% = (0.7)(1%) + (0.3)(1%) + ∆A/A ==> ∆A/A = 3% - 1% = 2%,that is, the growth rate of total factor productivity is 2%.2.b.If both labor and the capital stock are fixed, that is, ∆N/N = ∆K/K = 0, and output grows at 3%, thenall the growth has to be contributed to the growth in total factor productivity, that is, ∆A/A = 3%.3.a.If the capital stock grows by ∆K/K = 10%, the effect on output will be an additional growth rate of∆Y/Y = (0.3)(10%) = 3%.3.b.If labor grows by ∆N/N = 10%, the effect on output will be an additional growth rate of∆Y/Y = (0.7)(10%) = 7%.3.c.If output grows at ∆Y/Y = 7% due to an increase in labor by ∆N/N = 10% and this increase in labor isentirely due to population growth, then per-capita income will decrease and people’s welfare will decrease, since∆y/y = ∆Y/Y - ∆N/N = 7% - 10% = - 3%.2723.d.If the increase in labor is due to an influx of women into the labor force, the overall population doesnot increase, and income per capita will increase by y/y = 7%. Therefore people's welfare (or at least their living standard) will increase.4.Figure 3-4 shows output per head as a function of the capital-labor ratio, that is, y = f(k). Thesavings function is sy = sf(k) and it intersects the (n + d)k-line, representing the investment requirement. At this intersection, the economy is in a steady-state equilibrium. Now let us assume that the economy is in a steady-state equilibrium before the earthquake hits, that is, the capital-labor ratio is currently k*. Assume further, for simplicity, that the earthquake does not affect pe oples’ savings behavior.If the earthquake destroys one quarter of the capital stock but less than one quarter of the labor force, then the capital-labor ratio will fall from k* to k1 and per-capita output will fall from y* to y1.Now saving is greater than the investment requirement, that is, sy1 > (d + n)k1, and the capital stock and the level of output per capita will grow until the steady state at k* is reached again.However, if the earthquake destroys one quarter of the capital stock but more than one quarter of the labor force, then the capital-labor ratio will increase from k* to k2. Saving (and gross investment) now will be less than the investment requirement and thus the capital-labor ratio and the level of output per capita will fall until the steady state at k* is reached again.If exactly one quarter of both the capital stock and the labor stock are destroyed, then the steady state will be maintained, that is, the capital-labor ratio and the output per capita will not change.If the severity o f the earthquake has an effect on peoples’ savings behavior, the savings function sy = sf(k) will move either up or down, depending on whether the savings rate (s) increases (if people save more, so more can be invested in an effort to rebuild) or decreases (if people save less, since they decide that life is too short not to live it up). But in either case, a new steady-state equilibrium will be reached.k1k k2 k5.a.An increase in the population growth rate (n) affects the investment requirement. As n gets larger, the(n + d)k-line gets steeper. As the population grows, increases in saving and investment will be required to equip new workers with the same amount of capital that existing workers already have.273Since the population will now be growing faster than output, income per capita (y) will decrease anda new optimal capital-labor ratio will be determined by the intersection of the sy-curve and the new(n1 + d)k-line. Since per-capita output will fall, we will have a negative growth rate in the short run.However, the steady-state growth rate of output will increase in the long run, since it will be determined by the new and higher rate of population growth.y oy1k1k o k5.b.Starting from an initial steady-state equilibrium at a level of per-capita output y*, the increase in thepopulation growth rate (n) will cause the capital-labor ratio to decline from k* to k1. Output per capita will also decline, a process that will continue at a diminishing rate until a new steady-state level is reached at y1. The growth rate of output will gradually adjust to the new and higher level n1.yy*y1t o t1tkk*k1t o t1t6.a.Assume the production function is of the formY = F(K, N, Z) = AK a N b Z c==>274∆Y/Y = ∆A/A + a(∆K/K) + b(∆N/N) + c(∆Z/Z), with a + b + c = 1.Now assume that there is no technological progress, that is, ∆A/A = 0, and that capital and labor grow at the same rate, that is, ∆K/K = ∆N/N = n. If we also assume that all available natural resources are fixed, such that ∆Z/Z = 0, then the rate of output growth will be∆Y/Y = an + bn = (a + b)n.In other words, output will grow at a rate less than n since a + b < 1, and output per worker will fall.6.b.If there is technological progress, that is, ∆A/A > 0, then output will grow faster than before, namely∆Y/Y = ∆A/A + (a + b)n.If ∆A/A < cn, output will grow at a lower rate than n, in which case output per worker will still decrease.If ∆A/A = cn, output will grow at the same rate as n, in which case output per worker will remain the same.But if ∆A/A > cn, output will grow at a rate higher than n, in which case output per worker will increase.6.c.If the supply of natural resources is fixed, then output can only grow at a rate that is smaller than therate of population growth and we should expect limits to growth as we run out of natural resources.However, if the rate of technological progress is sufficiently large, then output can grow at a rate faster than population, even if we have a fixed supply of natural resources.7.a.If the production function is of the formY = K1/2(AN)1/2,and A is normalized to 1, we haveY = K1/2N1/2 .In this case, capital's and labor's shares of income are both 50%.7.b.This is a Cobb-Douglas production function.7.c. A steady-state equilibrium is reached when sy = (n + d)k.From Y = K1/2N1/2 ==> Y/N = K1/2N-1/2==> y = k1/2 ==> sk1/2 = (n + d)k==> k-1/2 = (n + d)/s = (0.07 + 0.03)/(.2) = 1/2 ==> k1/2 = 2 = y ==> k = 4 .7.d.At the steady-state equilibrium, output per capita remains constant, since total output grows at thesame rate as the population (7%), as long as there is no technological progress, that is, ∆A/A = 0. But275if total factor productivity grows at ∆A/A = 2%, then total output will grow faster than population, that is, at 7% + 2% = 9%, so output per capita will grow at 2%.8.a.If technological progress occurs, then the level of output per capita for any given capital-labor ratioincreases. The function y = f(k) increases to y = g(k), and thus the savings function increases from sf(k) to sg(k).8.b.Since g(k) > f(k), it follows that sg(k) > sf(k) for each level of k. Therefore, the intersection of thesg(k)-curve with the (n + d)k-line is at a higher level of k. The new steady-state equilibrium will now be at a higher level of saving and output per capita, and at a higher capital-labor ratio.8.c.After the technological progress occurs, the level of saving and investment will increase until a newand higher optimal capital-labor ratio is reached. The investment ratio will increase in the transition period, since more investment will be required to reach the higher optimal capital-labor ratio.9.The Cobb-Douglas production function is defined asY = F(N, K) = AN1-θKθ.The marginal product of labor can then be derived asMP N = (∆Y)/(∆N) = (1 - θ)AN-θKθ = (1 - θ)AN1-θKθ/N = = (1 - θ)(Y/N)== > labor's share of income = [MP N*N]/Y = [(1 - θ)(Y/N)](N/Y) = (1 - θ).Chapter 4Growth theory, endogenous1.a. A production function that displays both a diminishing and a constant marginal product of capital canbe displayed by drawing a curved line (as in an exogenous growth model), followed by an upward-sloping line (as in an endogenous growth model). Such a graph is depicted below.1.b.The first equilibrium (Point A in the graph below) is a stable low-income steady-state equilibrium.Any deviation from that point will cause the economy to eventually adjust again at the same steady-state income level (and capital-output ratio). The second equilibrium (Point B) is an unstable high-income steady-state equilibrium. Any deviation from that point will lead to either a lower income steady-state equilibrium back at Point A (if the capital-labor ratio declines) or ongoing growth (if the capital-labor ratio increases). In the latter case, not only total output but also output per capita continues to grow.1.c. A model like the one in this question can be used to explain how some countries find themselves insituations with no growth and low income while others have ongoing growth and a high level of income. In the first case, a country may have invested mostly in physical capital, leading to some short-term growth at the expense of long-term growth. In the second case, a country may have invested not only in physical capital but also in human capital (education, skills, and training), reaping significant social returns.2762.a.If population growth is endogenous, that is, if a country can influence the rate of population growththrough government policies, then the investment requirement is no longer a straight line. Instead it is curved as depicted below.2.b.The first equilibrium (Point A) is a stable steady-state equilibrium. This is a situation of low incomeand high population growth, indicating that the country is in a poverty trap. The second equilibrium (Point B) is an unstable steady-state equilibrium. This is a situation of medium income and low population growth. The third equilibrium (Point C) is a stable steady-state equilibrium. This is a situation of high income and low population growth. In none of these three cases do we have ongoing growth. For any capital stock k < k B, the economy will adjust to k A, but for any capital stock k > k b (even for k > k c), the economy will adjust to k B. During the adjustment process to any of these two steady-state equilibria, the change in output per capita only will be transitory.2.c.To escape the poverty trap (Point A), a country has several possibilities: First, it can somehow find themeans to increase the capital-labor ratio above a level consistent with Point B (perhaps by borrowing funds or seeking direct foreign investment). Second, it can increase the savings rate such that the savings function no longer intersects the investment requirement curve at either Point A or Point B.Third, it can decrease the rate of population growth through specifically designed policies, such that the investment requirement shifts down and no longer intersects with the savings function at Points A or B.3.a.If we incorporate endogenous population growth into a two-sector model in Problem 2, we get acurved investment requirement line and a production function with first a diminishing and then a constant marginal product of capital as depicted below. (Note that the savings function has the same shape as the production function.)3.b. Here we should have four intersections of the savings function sf(k) and the investment requirement[n(y)+d]k. The first equilibrium (at Point A) is a stable low-income steady-state equilibrium. Any deviation from that point will cause the economy to eventually adjust again at the same steady-state income level (and capital-output ratio). The second equilibrium (at Point B) is an unstable low-income equilibrium. Any deviation from that point will lead to either a lower income steady-state equilibrium at Point A (if the capital-labor ratio declines) or a higher income steady-state equilibrium at Point C (if the capital-labor ratio increases). Since Point C is a stable equilibrium, the economy will settle back at that point again whether the capital stock increases or declines. Point D is again an unstable equilibrium but at a high level of income. Any deviation from that point will lead to either a lower income steady-state equilibrium at Point C (if the capital-labor ratio declines) or ongoing growth (if the capital-labor ratio increases).3.c.This model is more inclusive than either of the two models discussed previously and therefore hasgreater explanatory power. While the graphical analysis is far more complicated, we can now see more clearly that a poor country cannot escape the poverty trap at Point A unless it somehow succeeds in increasing the capital-labor ratio (and thus per-capita income) beyond the level at Point B.4.a.The production function is of the formY = K1/2(AN)1/2 = K1/2(4[K/N]N)1/2= K1/2(4K)1/2 = 2K.From this we can see that a = 2 since277Y = Y/N = 2(K/N) == > y = 2k.4.b.Since a = y/k = 2, it follows that the growth rate of output and capital is∆y/y = ∆k/k = g = sa - (n + d) = (0.1)2 - (0.02 + 0.03) = 0.15 = 15%.4.c.The term "a" in the equation above stands for the marginal product of capital. By assuming that thelevel of labor-augmenting technology (A) is proportional to the capital-labor ratio (k), it is implied that the level of technology depends on the amount of capital per worker that we have, which may not be realistic.4.d.In this model, we have a constant marginal product of capital and therefore we have an endogenousgrowth model.5.a.The production function is of the formY = K1/2N1/2==> Y/N = (K/N)1/2 ==> y = k1/2.From k = sy/(n + d) = sk1/2/(n +d) ==> k1/2 = s/(n + d)==> y* = s/(n + d) = (0.1)/(0.02 + 0.03) = 2==> k* = sy*/(n + d) = (0.1)(2)/(0.02 + 0.03) = 4.5.b.Steady-state consumption equals steady-state income minus steady-state saving (or investment), thatis,c* = y – sy = f(k*) - (n + d)k* .The golden-rule capital stock corresponds to the highest permanently sustainable level of consumption. Steady-state consumption is maximized when the marginal increase in capital produces just enough extra output to cover the increased investment requirement.From c = k1/2 - (n + d)k ==> (∆c/∆k) = (1/2)k-1/2 - (n + d) = 0==> k-1/2 = 2(n + d) = 2(.02 + .03) = .1==> k1/2 = 10 ==> k = 100.Since k* = 4 < 100, we have less capital at the steady state than the golden rule suggests.5.c.From k = sy/(n + d) = sk1/2/(n + d) ==> s = k1/2(n + d) = 10(0.05) = 0.5.5.d.If we have more capital than the golden rule suggests, we are saving too much and do not have theoptimal amount of consumption.Chapter 9Income and spending2781.a. AD = C + I = 100 + (0.8)Y + 50 = 150 + (0.8)YThe equilibrium condition is Y = AD ==>Y = 150 + (0.8)Y ==> (0.2)Y = 150 ==> Y = 5*150 = 750.1.b.Since TA = TR = 0, it follows that S = YD - C = Y - C. ThereforeS = Y - [100 + (0.8)Y] = - 100 + (0.2)Y ==> S = - 100 + (0.2)750 = - 100 + 150 = 50.As we can see S = I, which means that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled.1.c.If the level of output is Y = 800, then AD = 150 + (0.8)800 = 150 + 640 = 790.Therefore the amount of involuntary inventory accumulation is UI = Y - AD = 800 - 790 =10.1.d. AD' = C + I' = 100 + (0.8)Y + 100 = 200 + (0.8)YFrom Y = AD' ==> Y = 200 + (0.8)Y ==> (0.2)Y = 200 ==> Y = 5*200 = 1,000Note: This result can also be achieved by using the multiplier formula:∆Y = (multiplier)(∆Sp) = (multiplier)(∆I) ==> ∆Y = 5*50 = 250,that is, output increases from Y o = 750 to Y1 = 1,000.1.e.From 1.a. and 1.d. we can see that the multiplier is α = 5.2.a.Since the mpc has increased from 0.8 to 0.9, the size of the multiplier is now larger. Therefore weshould expect a higher equilibrium income level than in 1.a.AD = C + I = 100 + (0.9)Y + 50 = 150 + (0.9)Y ==>Y = AD ==> Y = 150 + (0.9)Y ==> (0.1)Y = 150 ==> Y = 10*150 = 1,500.2.b.From ∆Y = (multiplier)(∆I) = 10*50 = 500 ==> Y1 = Y o + ∆Y = 1,500 + 500 = 2,000.2.c.Since the size of the multiplier has doubled from α = 5 to α1 = 10, the change in output (Y) that resultsfrom a change in investment (I) now has also doubled from 250 to 500.3.a. AD = C + I + G + NX = 50 + (0.8)YD + 70 + 200 + 0 =320 + (0.8)[Y - TA + TR]= 320 + (0.8)[Y - (0.2)Y + 100] = 400 + (0.8)(0.8)Y = 400 + (0.64)YFrom Y = AD ==> Y = 400 + (0.64)Y ==> (0.36)Y = 400279==> Y = (1/0.36)400 = (2.78)400 = 1,111.11The size of the multiplier is α = 1/0.36) = 2.78.3.b.BS = tY - TR - G = (0.2)(1,111.11) - 100 - 200 = 222.22 - 300 = - 77.783.c.AD' = 320 + (0.8)[Y - (0.25)Y + 100] = 400 + (0.8)(0.75)Y = 400 + (0.6)YFrom Y = AD' ==> Y = 400 + (0.6)Y ==> (0.4)Y = 400 ==> Y = (2.5)400 = 1,000The size of the multiplier is now reduced to α1 = (1/0.4) = 2.5.3.d.The size of the multiplier and equilibrium output will both increase with an increase in the marginalpropensity to consume. Therefore income tax revenue will also go up and the budget surplus should increase. This can be seen as follows:BS' = (0.25)(1,000) - 100 - 200 = - 50 ==> BS' - BS = - 50 - (-77.78) = + 27.783.e.If the income tax rate is t = 1, then all income is taxed. There is no induced spending and equilibriumincome always increases by exactly the change in autonomous spending. In other words, the size of the expenditure multiplier is 1.From Y = C + I + G ==> Y = C o + c(Y - TA + TR) + I o + G o = C o + c(Y - 1Y + TR o) + I o + G o ==> Y = C o + cTR o + I o + G o = A o==> ∆Y = ∆A o4.On first sight, one may want to conclude that this is an application of the balanced budget theorem,since, as long as Y = 1,000, a change in the tax rate by 5% will cause total tax revenues to change by ∆TA = 50, which is the same as the change in government purchases, that is, ∆G = 50. As long as income (Y) stays the same, the budget surplus will not be affected. However, this combined fiscal policy change will have an effect on national income and, since national income goes up, so does the government’s tax revenue, due to the fact that we have income taxation. Therefore we should expect an increase in the budget surplus. This can easily be shown with a numerical example.For example, in Problem 3.d. we had a situation where the following was given:Y o = 1,000, t o = 0.25, G o = 200 and BS o = - 50.Assume now that t1 = 0.3 and G1 = 250 ==>AD' = 50 + (0.8)[Y - (0.3)Y + 100] + 70 + 250 = 370 + (0.8)(0.7)Y + 80 = 450 + (0.56)Y.From Y = AD' ==> Y = 450 + (0.56)Y ==> (0.44)Y = 450==> Y = (1/0.44)450 = 1,022.73280BS1 = (0.3)(1,022.73) - 100 - 250 = 306.82 - 350 = - 43.18 == > BS1– BS o = -43.18 - (-50) = + 6.82Therefore we see that the budget surplus has increased, since the increase in income tax revenue is larger than the increase in government purchases.5.a.While an increase in government purchases by ∆G = 10 will change intended spending by ∆Sp = 10,a decrease in government transfers by ∆TR = -10 will change intended spending by a smaller amount,that is, by only ∆Sp = c(∆TR) = c(-10). The change in intended spending equals ∆Sp = (1 - c)(10) and equilibrium income should therefore increase by∆Y = (multiplier)(1 - c)10.5.b.If c = 0.8 and t = 0.25, then the size of the multiplier isα = 1/[1 - c(1 - t)] = 1/[1 - (0.8)(1 - 0.25)] = 1/[1 - (0.6)] = 1/(0.4) = 2.5.The change in equilibrium income is∆Y = α(∆A o) = α[∆G + c(∆TR)] = (2.5)[10 + (0.8)(-10)] = (2.5)2 = 55.c.The budget surplus should increase, since the level of equilibrium income has increased and thereforethe level of tax revenues has increased, while the changes in government purchases and transfer payments cancel each other out. Numerically, this can be shown as follows:∆BS = t(∆Y) - ∆TR - ∆G = (0.25)(5) - (-10) - 10 = 1.25Chapter 10Money, interest, fiscal policy1.a. Each point on the IS-curve represents an equilibrium in the expenditure sector. (Note that this is aclosed economy, that is, NX = 0).The IS-curve can be derived by setting actual income equal to intended spending, orY = C + I + G = (0.8)[1 - (0.25)]Y + 900 - 50i + 800 = 1,700 + (0.6)Y - 50i ==>(0.4)Y = 1,700 - 50i ==> Y = (2.5)(1,700 - 50i) ==> Y = 4,250 - 125i.1.b.The IS-curve shows all combinations of the interest rate and output level such that the expendituresector (the goods market) is in equilibrium, that is, actual output equals intended spending. A decrease in the interest rate stimulates investment spending, making intended spending greater than actual output. The resulting unintended inventory decrease leads firms to increase their production until actual output is again equal to intended spending. This means that the IS-curve is downward sloping.1.c.Each point on the LM-curve represents an equilibrium in the money sector. Therefore the LM-curvecan be derived by setting real money supply equal to real money demand, that is,281M/P = L ==> 500 = (0.25)Y - 62.5i ==> Y = 4(500 + 62.5i) ==> Y = 2,000 + 250i.1.d.The LM-curve shows all combinations of the interest rate and level of output such that the moneysector is in equilibrium, that is, the demand for real money balances is equal to the supply of real money balances. An increase in income will increase the demand for real money balances. Given a fixed real money supply, this will lead to an increase in interest rates, which will then reduce the quantity of real money balances demanded until the money market clears again. In other words, the LM-curve is upward sloping.1.e.The level of income (Y) and the interest rate (i) at the equilibrium are determined by the intersectionof the IS-curve with the LM-curve. At this point, the expenditure sector and the money sector are both in equilibrium simultaneously.From IS = LM ==> 4,250 - 125i = 2,000 + 250i ==> 2,250 = 375i ==> i = 6==> Y = 4,250 - 125*6 = 4,250 - 750 ==> Y = 3,500Check: Y = 2,000 + 250*6 = 2,000 + 1,500 = 3,500i125 ISLM62,000 3,500 4,250 Y2.a.As we have seen in 1.a., the value of the expenditure multiplier is α = 2.5. This multiplier is derivedin the same way as in Chapter 9. But now intended spending also depends on the interest rate, so we no longer have Y = αA o, but ratherY = α(A o - bi) = (1/[1 - c + ct])(A o - bi) ==> Y = (2.5)(1,700 - 50i) = 4,250 - 125i.2.b.In the IS-LM model, an increase in government purchases (G) will have a smaller effect on outputthan in the model of the expenditure sector used in Chapter 9, in which interest rates are assumed to be fixed. This can be answered most easily with a numerical example. Assume that government purchases increase by ∆G = 300. The IS-curve shifts parallel to the right by==> ∆IS = (2.5)(300) = 750.Therefore, the equation of the new IS-curve is: Y = 5,000 - 125i.282。

多恩布什宏观经济学课后答案01

Problems1. "A country's rate of economic growth is determined solely by the amount ofresources available to the country." Comment on this statement.Increases in the availability of resources, that is, labor and capital used in the production of goods and services account for only part of a nation's economic growth. The efficiency with which these factors of production are used also affects economic growth. Increases in the efficiency of production result from increases in the education and skill levels of the labor force and from newer and more efficient technology. In addition, the factors of production are not fully employed all the time. During an expansion or recovery, the use of the factors of production increases, which leads to an increase in production and output.2. In the 1960s, increases in the rate of unemployment were generally associatedwith decreases in the inflation rate and vice versa. But in the 1970s and 1980s unemployment and inflation often moved in the same direction. How can you explain this?A shift in aggregate demand causes the unemployment rate and the inflation rate to move inopposite directions, whereas a shift in aggregate supply causes unemployment and inflation to move in the same direction. Most disturbances in the 1960s came from the demand side, while many of the disturbances in the 1970s and 1980s came from the supply side.3. "Since the long-run AS-curve is vertical, we can conclude that the total real outputof a nation cannot grow in the long run." Comment on this statement.The AD-AS framework is a static framework that assumes that the level of potential GDP is fixed. However, the potential GDP of a nation grows over time as the amount of available resources or the efficiency with which these resources are used increases. Figure 1-4 in the text clearly indicates that the long-run (vertical) AS-curve moves to the right by a small percentage each year.4. "Long-run growth can best be studied by focussing on the reasons for businesscycles." Comment on this statement.Growth theory focuses primarily on the accumulation of inputs and improvements in technology that allow for an increased standard of living over time.Since growth theory tries to explain the average growth rate of an economy over many years, it ignores the short-run fluctuations (recessions and booms) that occur over the course of business cycles.5. "In the very short run real output is fixed and therefore any increase in aggregatedemand will simply increase the price level but not affect how many goods andservices are produced in an economy." Comment on this statement.The short-run AS-curve is completely horizontal, based on the assumption that prices are constant. An increase in aggregate demand will therefore increase the level of output but will not affect the price level. It follows therefore that in the short run the level of output is solely determined by aggregate demand.6. "There is always a clear tradeoff between unemployment and inflation." Comment.The short-run Phillips curve describes an empirical relationship between wage and price inflation and the rate of unemployment. This curve shows that the higher the rate of unemployment, the lower the rate of inflation and vice versa (at least in the short run). However, in the long run there is no clear-cut tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. The economic events of the 1970s and 1980s showed us that unemployment and inflation can increase or decrease simultaneously.7. The index of leading economic indicators is supposed to signal future developmentsin the economy and is calculated from variables in different sectors of the economy.Pick one leading economic indicator from each of the following sectors and briefly state the rationale for including this indicator in the calculation of the index:(1) the labor sector, (2) business activity, (3) the financial sector, and (4) residentialconstruction.The answer to this question is student specific. Here is a sample answer.The labor sector:Employment figures as well as the unemployment rate should be used to look for changes in the labor sector. The unemployment rate is more often discussed in the media, but the employment figures have smaller cyclical variations and are thus a better indicator of labor market conditions.Business activity:New orders, changes in inventories, capacity utilization, and industrial production are often used to interpret business activity. When using inventory changes it is important to distinguish between desired inventory changes, which may reflect changes in business expectations, and undesired inventory changes that reflect changes in the demand for the product.The financial sector:Stock market activity, changes in money supply, or credit conditions can be used to show trends in financial markets. While the relationship between changes in stock values and the economy is not as close as it used to be, a continued increase in stock prices generally reflects increased optimism about future economic conditions. It also means an increase in wealth for stockholders and easier access to funds for firms wishing to make new investments.Residential construction:A change in new building permits or housing starts may be the first sign of changing economic conditions. The housing sector is very sensitive to interest rate changes and tends to be indicative of other sectors of the economy, which often react in a similar way although to a lesser degree and with a time lag.8. Briefly discuss the usefulness of each of the following as leading economicindicators:(i) inventory changes, (ii) the GDP-deflator, (iii) the unemployment rate,(iv) the Dow Jones Industrial Average.Desired inventory changes reflect changes in business expectations and can be used as a leading economic indicator. But undesired inventory changes reflect changes in demand for the product and are therefore a lagging economic indicator. Only if one can separate out desired from undesired inventory changes, will it be possible to spot more clearly signs of an upcoming boom or recession.The GDP-deflator is the most complete price index, since it measures price changes of all final goods and services currently produced in a country. But the GDP-deflator is a lagging indicator, showing what has happened over the last quarter. In addition, initial GDP data tend to be fairly unreliable and have to be frequently revised.The unemployment rate has fairly small cyclical variations and is used as a measure for variations in the demand for labor. Changes in the unemployment rate also correspond well with changes in GDP. But the unemployment rate is a concurrent indicator.Changes in stock values generally reflect changes in expectations of financial investors about dividends. If stock values go up people may feel wealthier and thus consumer spending may increase. Firms may have an easier time issuing new stock and thus they may invest more. In this case, we can expect an economic upswing. However, changes in stock values often may simply be due to speculative behavior and may not be related to real economic activity.9. In each of the three pairs below, which variable would you choose (and why) as aleading economic indicator:(i) labor productivity or the unemployment rate(ii) the CPI or the PPI(iii) stock market changes or housing startsLabor productivity generally shows long run trends in the labor market and will determine wages and therefore living standards. It is a leading indicator, but cannot be easily used for forecasting.The unemployment rate has fairly small cyclical variations and is used as a measure for variations in the demand for labor. It is a very accurate measure of economic performance--at least as far as the labor sector is concerned. However, the unemployment rate is a concurrentand not a leading indicator.The CPI measures the price increase of a fixed market basket of 386 goods and services purchased by an average urban family. The CPI is easily available and is supposed to measure cost of living increases. However, the CPI is a concurrent indicator.The PPI measures average price changes of a market basket of over 1,000 intermediate goods up to the retail stage. It is relatively easily available and shows future price trends with relative accuracy. The PPI is a leading indicator and does not always correspond exactly with the CPI.Stock market changes reflect changes in expectations of financial investors about dividends arising from a perceived change in economic conditions. If stock values increase consumers may feel wealthier (and thus spend more), and firms have an easier time issuing new stock (and thus invest more). But while a change in stock values may indicate an upcoming change in economic conditions, it also could simply have been caused by speculative behavior. Thus, it is a leading indicator that is, however, not always reliable.The demand for housing is very interest sensitive, since mortgage interest payments are a large part housing costs. Housing starts tend to increase sharply when interest rates drop to low levels, that is, when the economy is at the bottom of a recession. A change in housing starts thus is often seen as a turning point in the economy, since other sectors in the economy are expected to react similarly to changes in interest rates but with a lag and to a lesser degree. The increase in construction work naturally also stimulates economic activity in other sectors of the economy. Thus housing starts is seen as a fairly reliable leading economic indicator.。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十二版课后答案完整版

多恩布什《宏观经济学》（第12版）笔记和课后习题详解内容简介知择学习网的多恩布什《宏观经济学》（第12版）笔记和课后习题详解严格按照教材内容进行编写，遵循教材第12版的章目编排，共分24章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记，总结本章的重难点内容；第二部分是课（章）后习题详解，对第12版的所有习题都进行了详细的分析和解答。

目录第1章导论1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解第2章国民收入核算2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解第3章增长与积累3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解第4章增长与政策4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解第5章总供给与总需求5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解第6章总供给和菲利普斯曲线6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解第7章失业7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解第8章通货膨胀8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解第9章政策预览9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解第10章收入与支出10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解第11章货币、利息与收入11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解第12章货币政策与财政政策12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解第13章国际联系13.1 复习笔记13.2 课后习题详解第14章消费与储蓄14.1 复习笔记14.2 课后习题详解第15章投资支出15.1 复习笔记15.2 课后习题详解第16章货币需求16.1 复习笔记16.2 课后习题详解第17章联邦储备、货币与信用17.1 复习笔记17.2 课后习题详解第18章政策18.1 复习笔记18.2 课后习题详解第19章金融市场与资产价格19.1 复习笔记19.2 课后习题详解第20章国家债务20.1 复习笔记20.2 课后习题详解第21章衰退与萧条21.1 复习笔记21.2 课后习题详解第22章通货膨胀与恶性通货膨胀22.1 复习笔记22.2 课后习题详解第23章国际调整与相互依存23.1 复习笔记23.2 课后习题详解第24章前沿课题24.1 复习笔记24.2 课后习题详解内容第2章国民收入核算2.2 课后习题详解一、概念题1.经过调整的GNP( ( adjusted GNP)答:经过调整的GNP指以具有不变购买力的货币单衡量的国民生产总值。

多恩布什《宏观经济学》课后习题详解(前沿课题)【圣才出品】

第24章前沿课题一、概念题1．GDP的周期成分（cyclical component of GDP）答：GDP的周期性成分指产出围绕其增长趋势的波动，即经济波动或经济周期。

经济增长的过程就是总体经济活动的扩张和收缩交替反复出现的过程。

一个完整的经济周期包括繁荣、衰退、萧条、复苏（也可以称为扩张、持平、收缩、复苏）四个阶段。

在繁荣阶段，经济活动全面扩张，不断达到新的高峰。

在衰退阶段，经济短时间保持均衡后出现紧缩的趋势。

在萧条阶段，经济出现急剧的收缩和下降，很快从活动量的最高点下降到最低点。

在复苏阶段，经济从最低点恢复并逐渐上升到先前的活动量高度，进入繁荣。

2．菜单成本（menu cost）答：菜单成本指企业为改变销售商品的价格，需要给销售人员和客户提供新的价目表所花费的成本，类似于饭馆改变价格重新制作菜单所产生的成本。

它是新凯恩斯主义为反击新古典主义的批判并证明其所主张的价格黏性的重要理由。

关于菜单成本能否引起价格的短期黏性，经济学家们的观点是不一致的。

一部分经济学家认为，菜单成本通常非常小，不可能对经济产生巨大影响。

另一部分经济学家却认为，菜单成本虽然很小，但由于总需求外部性的存在，会导致名义价格出现黏性，从而对整个经济产生巨大影响，甚至引起周期性波动。

3．理性预期（rational expectations）答：理性预期又称合理预期，指在有效地利用一切信息的前提下，对经济变量作出的从长期来看最为准确的，又与所使用的经济理论、模型相一致的预期。

约翰·穆思在其《合理预期和价格变动理论》一文中首先提出这一概念，其含义有三个：①作出经济决策的经济主体是有理性的。

②所作决策为正确决策，经济主体会在作出预期时力图获得一切有关的信息。

③经济主体在预期时不会犯系统性错误。

即使犯错误，他也会及时有效地进行修正，使得在长期而言预期保持正确。

它是新古典宏观经济理论的重要假设（其余三个为个体利益最大、市场出清和自然率），是新古典宏观经济理论攻击凯恩斯主义的重要武器。

多恩布什宏观经济学课后答案

多恩布什宏观经济学课后答案【篇一：宏观经济学课后习题答案】> 1、我们将本章阐述的收入决定模型叫做凯恩斯模型。

什么原因使得凯恩斯模型成为古典模型的对立面呢？在凯恩斯模型中价格水平是假定不变的，也就是说总供给曲线是水平的，产出由总需求唯一的决定。

而另一方面，在古典模型中，价格完全取决于充分就业下的产出水平，也就是说总供给曲线是竖直的。

而由于本章中的收入决定模型所做的假设是价格水平是固定的，与凯恩斯模型的假设相同，所以我们使用凯恩斯模型，凯恩斯模型也因此成为古典模型的对立面。

2、什么是自主性变量？在本章中，我们规定总需求中那些组成部分是自主性的？自主性变量是外生变量，由模型以外的东西决定。

本章中我们假设：总需求的自主性开支（autonomous spending—c*）、自主性投资（autonomous investment—i0）、政府购买（government purchases—g0）、税收（taxes—ta）、转移支付（transfer payments—tr）、净出口（net export—nx）是自主性的。

3、根据你对于联邦政府许多部门同意并实施政策变动所需时间的了解，你能想到有关财政政策稳定经济的任何问题么？对于经济学家和政客们来说，在某一经济问题上达成共识很困难，因此一项政策的决定常常需要很长时间。

在这段时间里，经济很可能发生巨大的变动。

如果在经济衰退过后已经出现快速增长趋势的时候才决定好通过减税改善前一段时间的经济状况，那么，毫无疑问，这一过时的政策会导致通货膨胀，起到完全相反的作用。

4、为什么将比例税所得与福利制度等机制成为自动稳定器？选择其中一个稳定器，详细解释它如何并且为什么会影响产出波动。

自动稳定器是经济中的一种机制，它会自动减少为适应自主性需求变动所需要的产出变动量而不需要政府一步步具体地加以干预。

当自动稳定器处于适当状态时，投资需求的变动对产出的影响会变小。

这意味着自动稳定器的存在使我们期望产出波动可以比没有这些自动稳定器时的幅度减小。

10宏观经济学英文版(多恩布什)课后习题答案全解

CHAPTER 10MONEY, INTEREST, AND INCOMEAnswers to Problems in the Textbook:Conceptual Problems:1. The model in Chapter 9 assumed that both the price level and the interest rate were fixed. But the IS-LM model lets the interest rate fluctuate and determines the combination of output demanded and the interest rate for a fixed price level. It should be noted that while the upward-sloping AD-curve in Chapter 9 (the [C+I+G+NX]-line in the Keynesian cross diagram) assumed that interest rates and prices were fixed, the downward-sloping AD-curve that is derived at the end of Chapter 10 from the IS-LM model lets the price level fluctuate and describes all combinations of the price level and the level of output demanded at which the goods and money sector simultaneously are in equilibrium. 2.a. If the expenditure multiplier (α) becomes larger, the increase in equilibrium income caused by a unitchange in intended spending also becomes larger. Assume investment spending increases due to a change in the interest rate. If the multiplier α becomes larger, any increase in spending will cause a larger increase in equilibrium income. This means that the IS-curve will become flatter as the size of the expenditure multiplier becomes larger.If aggregate demand becomes more sensitive to interest rates, any change in the interest rate causes the [C+I+G+NX]-line to shift up by a larger amount and, given a certain size of the expenditure multiplier α, this will increase equilibrium income by a larger amount. As a result, the IS-curve will become flatter.2.b. Monetary policy changes affect interest rates and this leads to a change in intended spending, whichis reflected in a change in income. In 2.a. it was explained that a steep IS-curve means either that the multiplier α is small or that desired spending is not very interest sensitive. Therefore, an increase in money supply will reduce interest rates. However, this does not result in a large increase in aggregate demand if spending is very interest insensitive. Similarly, if the multiplier is small, then any change in spending will not affect output significantly. Therefore, the steeper the IS-curve, the weaker the effect of monetary policy changes on equilibrium output.3. Assume that money supply is fixed. Any increase in income will increase money demand and theresulting excess demand for money will drive the interest rate up. This, in turn, will reduce the quantity of money balances demanded to bring the money sector back to equilibrium. But if money demand is very interest insensitive, then a larger increase in the interest rate is needed to reach a new equilibrium in the money sector. As a result, the LM-curve becomes steeper.Along the LM-curve, an increase in the interest rate is always associated with an increase in income. This means that an increase in money demand (due to an increase in income) has to be offset by a decrease in the quantity of money demanded (due to an increase in the interest rate) to keep the money sector in equilibrium. But if money demand becomes more income sensitive, a smaller change in income is required for any specific change in the interest rate to keep the money sector in equilibrium. Therefore, the LM-curve becomes steeper as money demand becomes more income sensitive.4.a. A horizontal LM-curve implies that the public is willing to hold whatever money is supplied at anygiven interest rate. Therefore, changes in income will not affect the equilibrium interest rate in the money sector. But if the interest rate is fixed, we are back to the analysis of the simple Keynesian model used in Chapter 9. In other words, there is no offsetting effect (or crowding-out effect) to fiscal policy.14.b. A horizontal LM-curve implies that changes in income do not affect interest rates in the money sector.Therefore, if expansionary fiscal policy is implemented, the IS-curve shifts to the right, but the level of investment spending is no longer negatively affected by rising interest rates, that is, there is no crowding-out effect. In terms of Figure 10-3, the interest rate not longer serves as the link between the goods and assets markets.4.c. A horizontal LM-curve results if the public is willing to hold whatever money balances are suppliedat a given interest rate. This situation is called the liquidity trap. Similarly, if the Fed is prepared to peg the interest rate at a certain level, then any change in income will be accompanied by an appropriate change in money supply. This will lead to continuous shifts in the LM-curve, which is equivalent to having a horizontal LM-curve, since the interest rate will never change.5. From the material presented in the text we know that when intended spending becomes more interestsensitive, then the IS-curve becomes flatter. Now assume that an increase in the interest rate stimulates saving and therefore reduces the level of consumption. This means that now not only investment spending but also consumption is negatively affected by an increase in the interest rate. In other words, the [C+I+G+NX]-line in the Keynesian cross diagram will now shift down further than previously and the level of equilibrium income will decrease more than before. In other words, the IS-curve has become flatter.This can also be shown algebraically, since we can now write the consumption function as follows:C = C* + cYD - giIn a simple model of the expenditure sector without income taxes, the equation for aggregate demand will now beAD = A o + cY - (b + g)i.From Y = AD ==> Y = [1/(1 - c)][A o - (b + g)i] ==>i = [1/(b + g)]A o - [(1 - c)/(b + g)]YTherefore, the slope of the IS-curve has been reduced from (1 - c)/b to (1 - c)/(b + g).6. In the IS-LM model, a simultaneous decline in interest rates and income can only be caused by a shiftof the IS-curve to the left. This shift in the IS-curve could have been caused by a decrease in private spending due to negative business expectations or a decline in consumer confidence. In 1991, the economy was in a recession and firms did not want to invest in new machinery and, since consumer confidence was very low, people were not expected to increase their level of spending. In the IS-LM diagram the adjustment process can be described as follows:I o↓ ==> Y ↓ (the IS-curve shifts left) ==> m d↓ ==> i ↓ ==> I ↑ ==> Y ↑. Effect: Y ↓ and i ↓ .2ii1i221Technical Problems:1.a. Each point on the IS-curve represents an equilibrium in the expenditure sector. Therefore the IS-curvecan be derived by settingY = C + I + G = (0.8)[1 - (0.25)]Y + 900 - 50i + 800 = 1,700 + (0.6)Y - 50i ==>(0.4)Y = 1,700 - 50i ==> Y = (2.5)(1,700 - 50i) ==> Y = 4,250 - 125i.1.b. The IS-curve shows all combinations of the interest rate and the level of output such that theexpenditure sector (the goods market) is in equilibrium, that is, intended spending is equal to actual output. A decrease in the interest rate stimulates investment spending, making intended spending greater than actual output. The resulting unintended inventory decrease leads firms to increase their production to the point where actual output is again equal to intended spending. This means that the IS-curve is downward sloping.1.c. Each point on the LM-curve represents an equilibrium in the money sector. Therefore the LM-curvecan be derived by setting real money supply equal to real money demand, that is,M/P = L ==> 500 = (0.25)Y - 62.5i ==> Y = 4(500 + 62.5i) ==> Y = 2,000 + 250i.1.d. The LM-curve shows all combinations of the interest rate and level of output such that the moneysector is in equilibrium, that is, the demand for real money balances is equal to the supply of real money balances. An increase in income will increase the demand for real money balances. Given a fixed real money supply, this will lead to an increase in interest rates, which will then reduce the quantity of real money balances demanded until the money market clears. In other words, the LM-curve is upward sloping.1.e. The level of income (Y) and the interest rate (i) at the equilibrium are determined by the intersectionof the IS-curve with the LM-curve. At this point, the expenditure sector and the money sector are both in equilibrium simultaneously.From IS = LM ==> 4,250 - 125i = 2,000 + 250i ==> 2,250 = 375I ==> i = 6==> Y = 4,250 - 125*6 = 4,250 - 750 ==> Y = 3,500Check: Y = 2,000 + 250*6 = 2,000 + 1,500 = 3,5003i125 ISLM62,000 3,500 4,250 Y2.a. As we have seen in 1.a., the value of the expenditure multiplier is α= 2.5. This multiplier αisderived in the same way as in Chapter 9. But now intended spending also depends on the interest rate, so we no longer have Y = αA o, but ratherY = α(A o - bi) = (1/[1 - c + ct])(A o - bi) ==> Y = (2.5)(1,700 - 50i) = 4,250 - 125i.2.b.This can be answered most easily with a numerical example. Assume that government purchasesincrease by ∆G = 300. The IS-curve shifts parallel to the right by==> ∆IS = (2.5)(300) = 750.Therefore IS': Y = 5,000 - 125iFrom IS' = LM ==> 5,000 - 125i = 2,000 + 250i ==> 375i = 3,000 ==> i = 8==> Y = 2,000 + 250*8 ==> Y = 4,000 ==> ∆Y = 500When interest rates are assumed to be constant, the size of the multiplier is equal to α = 2.5, that is, (∆Y)/(∆G) = 750/300 = 2.5. But when interest rates are allowed to vary, the size of the multiplier is reduced to α1 = (∆Y)/(∆G) = 500/300 = 1.67.2.c. Since an increase in government purchases by ∆G = 300 causes a change in the interest rate of 2percentage points, government spending has to change by ∆G = 150 to increase the interest rate by 1 percentage point.2.d. The simple multiplier α in 2.a. shows the magnitude of the horizontal shift in the IS-curve, given achange in autonomous spending by one unit. But an increase in income increases money demand and the interest rate. The increase in the interest rate crowds out some investment spending and this has a dampening effect on income. The multiplier effect in 2.b. is therefore smaller than the multiplier effect in 2.a.3.a. An increase in the income tax rate (t) will reduce the size of the expenditure multiplier (α). But as themultiplier becomes smaller, the IS-curve becomes steeper. As we can see from the equation for the IS-curve, this is not a parallel shift but rather a rotation around the vertical intercept.Y = α(A o - bi) = [1/(1 - c + ct)](A o - bi) ==> i = (1/b)A o - (α/b)Y = (1/b)A o - (1/b)[1 - c + ct]Y 3.b. If the IS-curve shifts to the left and becomes steeper, the equilibrium income level will decrease. Ahigher tax rate reduces private spending and this will lower national income.3.c. When the income tax rate is increased, the equilibrium interest rate will also decrease. The adjustmentto the new equilibrium can be expressed as follows (see graph on the next page):t up ==> C down ==> Y down ==> m d down ==> i down ==> I up ==> Y up. Effect: Y ↓ and i ↓45i 1i 2214.a. If money demand is less interest sensitive, then the LM-curve is steeper and monetary policy changesaffect equilibrium income to a larger degree. If money supply is assumed to be fixed, the adjustment to a new equilibrium in the money sector has to come solely through changes in money demand. If money demand is less interest sensitive, any increase in money supply requires a larger increase in income and a larger decrease in the interest rate in order to bring the money sector into a new equilibrium.i ii 1 i 1 2 2i 20 120 12The adjustment process in each of the two diagrams is the same; however, in the case of a more interest-sensitive money demand (a flatter LM-curve), the change in Y and i will be smaller.(M/P) up ==> i down ==> I up ==> Y up ==> m d up ==> i up Effect: Y ↑ and i ↓Section 10-5 derives the equation for the LM-curve and the equation for the monetary policy multiplier asi = (1/h)[kY - (M/P)] and (∆Y)/∆(M/P) = (b/h)γrespectively. If money demand becomes more interest sensitive, the value of h becomes larger and the slope of the LM-curve becomes flatter, while the size of the monetary policy multiplier becomes smaller.4.b. An increase in money supply drives interest rates down. This decrease in interest rates will stimulateintended spending and thus income. If money demand becomes less interest sensitive, a larger increase in income is required to bring the money sector into equilibrium. But this implies that the overall decrease in the interest rate has to be larger, given that the interest sensitivity of spending has not changed.5. The price adjustment, that is, the movement along the AD-curve, can be explained in the followingway: With nominal money supply (M) fixed, real money balances (M/P) will decrease as the price level (P) increases. There is an excess demand for money and interest rates will rise. This will lead toa decrease in investment spending and thus the level of output demanded will decrease. In otherwords, the LM-curve will shift to the left as real money balances decrease.6. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical. Therefore, any increase in aggregate demand due toexpansionary monetary policy will, in the long run, not lead to any increase in output but simply lead to an increase in the price level. An increase in money supply will first shift the LM-curve to the right.This implies a shift of the AD-curve to the right. Therefore we have excess demand for goods and services and prices will begin to rise. But as the price level rises, real money balances will begin to fall again, eventually returning to their original level. Therefore, the shift of the LM-curve to the right due to the expansionary monetary policy and the resulting shift of the AD-curve will be exactly offset by a shift of the LM-curve to the left and a movement along the AD-curve to the new long-run equilibrium due to the price adjustment. At this new long-run equilibrium, the level of output and interest rates will not have changed while the price level will have changed proportionally to the nominal money supply, leaving real money balances unchanged. In other words, money is neutral in the long run (the classical case).7.a. An increase in the demand for money will shift the LM-curve to the left, raising the interest rate andlowering the level of output demanded. As a result, the AD-curve will also shift to the left. In the Keynesian case, the price level is assumed to be fixed, that is, the AS-curve is horizontal. In this case, the decrease in income in the AD-AS diagram is equivalent to the decrease in income in the IS-LM diagram, since there is no price adjustment, that is, the real balance effect does not come into play. 7.b. An increase in the demand for money will shift the LM-curve to the left, raising the interest rate andlowering the level of output demanded. As a result, the AD-curve will also shift to the left. In the classical case, the level of output will not change, since the AS-curve is vertical. In this case, the shift in the AD-curve will simply be reflected in a price decrease, but the level of output will remain unchanged. The real balance effect causes the LM-curve to shift back to its original level, since the price decrease causes an increase in real money balances.Additional Problems:1. True or false? Explain your answer.“A decrease in the marginal propensity to save implies tha t the IS-curve will become steeper.”False A decrease in the marginal propensity to save (s = 1 - c) is equivalent to an increase in the marginal propensity to consume (c), which, in turn, implies an increase in the expenditure multiplier ( ). But with a larger expenditure multiplier, any increase in investment spending due to a decrease in the interest rate will lead to a larger increase in income. Therefore the IS-curve will become flatter and not steeper.2. True or false? Explain your answer.“If the c entral bank keeps the supply of money constant, then the money supply curve is vertical, which implies a vertical LM-curve.”6False. Equilibrium in the money sector implies that real money supply is equal to real money demand, that is,m s = M/P = m d(i,Y).This implies that any increase in income (Y) will increase the demand for money. To bring the money sector back into equilibrium, interest rates (i) have to rise simultaneously to bring the quantity of money demanded back to the original level (equal to the fixed supply of money). Therefore, to keep the money sector in equilibrium, an increase in income must always be associated with an increase in the interest rate and the LM-curve must be upward sloping.3. "Restrictive monetary policy reduces consumption and investment." Comment on thisstatement.A reduction in money supply raises interest rates, which will, in turn, have a negative effect on the level of investment spending. The level of consumption may also decrease as it becomes more costly to finance expenditures by borrowing money. But even if it is assumed that consumption is not affected by changes in the interest rate, consumption will still decrease since restrictive monetary policy will reduce national income and therefore private spending.4. "If government spending is increased, money demand will increase." Comment.A change in government spending directly affects the expenditure sector and therefore the IS-curve. But in an IS-LM framework, the money sector is also affected indirectly. An increase in the level of government spending will shift the IS-curve to the right, leading to an increase in income. But the increase in income will lead to an increase in money demand, so the interest rate will have to increase in order to lower the quantity of money demanded and to bring the money sector back into equilibrium. Overall no change in money demand can occur, since equilibrium in the money sector requires that m s = M/P = m d, that is, money supply has to be equal to money demand, and money supply is assumed to be fixed.5. "An increase in autonomous investment reduces the interest rate and therefore the moneysector will no longer be in equilibrium." Comment on this statement.An increase in autonomous investment shifts the IS-curve to the right. The increase in income leads to an increase in the demand for money, which means that interest rates increase. The increase in interest rates then reduces the quantity of money demanded again to bring the money market back to equilibrium.6. "A monetary expansion leaves the budget surplus unaffected." Comment on this statement. Expansionary monetary policy, that is, an increase in money supply, will lower interest rates (the LM-curve will shift to the right). Lower interest rates will lead to an increase in investment spending and the economy will therefore be stimulated. But a higher level of national income increases the government’s tax revenues and therefore the budget surplus will increase.7. "Restrictive monetary policy implies lower tax revenues and therefore to an increase in thebudget deficit." Comment on this statement.A decrease in money supply will shift the LM-curve to the left. This will lead to an increase in the interest rate, which will lead to a reduction in spending and thus national income. But as income decreases, so does income tax revenue. Therefore, the budget deficit will increase because of the change in its cyclical component.78. “If the demand for money becomes more sensitive to changes in income, then the LM-curvebecome s flatter.” Comment on this statement.Along the LM-curve, an increase in the interest rate is always associated with an increase in income. This means that an increase in money demand (due to an increase in income) has to be offset by a decrease in the quantity of money demanded (due to an increase in the interest rate) to keep the money sector in equilibrium. But if money demand becomes more income sensitive, a smaller change in income is required for any specific change in the interest rate to keep the money sector in equilibrium. Therefore, the LM-curve becomes steeper (and not flatter) as money demand becomes more sensitive to changes in income.9. “A decrease in the income tax rate will increase the demand for money, shifting the LM-curveto the righ t.” Comment on this statement.A decrease in the income tax rate (t) will increase the expenditure multiplier (α). But with a larger expenditure multiplier, any increase in investment spending due to a decrease in the interest rate will lead to a larger increase in income. Since fiscal policy affects the expenditure sector, the IS-curve (not the LM-curve) will shift. The IS-curve will become flatter and shift to the right. This will lead to a new equilibrium at a higher level of income (Y) and a higher interest rate (i). But money supply is fixed and the LM-curve remains unaffected by fiscal policy. Therefore, at the new equilibrium (the intersection of the new IS-curve with the old LM-curve) the demand for money will not have changed, since the money sector has to be in an equilibrium at m s = m d(i,Y).10. “If the demand for money becomes more insensitive to changes in the interest rate, equilibriumin the money sector will have to be restored mostly through changes in income. This implies a flat LM-curve.” Comment on this statement.Any increase in income will increase money demand and this will drive the interest rate up. Therefore, the quantity of money balances demanded will decline again until the money sector is back in equilibrium. But if money demand is very interest insensitive, then a larger increase in the interest rate is needed to reach a new equilibrium in the money sector. This means that the LM-curve is steep and not flat.11. Assume the following IS-LM model:Expenditure Sector Money SectorSp = C + I + G + NX M = 700C = 100 + (4/5)YD P = 2YD = Y - TA m d = (1/3)Y + 200 - 10iTA = (1/4)YI = 300 - 20iG = 120NX = -20(a) Derive the equilibrium values of consumption (C) and money demand (m d).(b) How much of investment (I) will be crowded out if the government increases its purchasesby ∆G = 160 and nominal money supply (M) remains unchanged?(c) By how much will the equilibrium level of income (Y) and the interest rate (i) change, ifnominal money supply is also increased to M' = 1,100?a. Sp = 100 + (4/5)[Y - (1/4)Y] + 300 - 20i + 120 - 20 = 500 + (4/5)(3/4)Y – 20i = 500 + (3/5)Y - 20iFrom Y = Sp ==> Y = 500 + (3/5)Y - 20i ==> (2/5)Y = 500 - 20i==> Y = (2.5)(500 - 20i) ==> Y = 1,250 - 50i IS-curveFrom M/P = m d ==> 700/2 = (1/3)Y + 200 - 10i ==> (1/3)Y = 150 + 10i==> Y = 3(150 + 10i) ==> Y = 450 + 30i LM-curve89IS = LM ==> 1,250 - 50i = 450 + 30i ==> 800 = 80i ==> i = 10==> Y = 1,250 - 50*10 ==> Y = 750C = 100 + (4/5)(3/4)750 = 100 + (3/5)750 ==> C = 550m s = M/P = 700/2 = 350 = m dCheck: m d = (1/3)750 + 200 - 10*10 = 350i25 IS o LM o10450 750 1,250 Yb. ∆IS = (2.5)160 = 400 ==> IS' = 1,650 - 50iIS' = LM ==> 1,650 - 50i = 450 + 30i ==> 1,200 = 80i ==> i = 15==> Y = 1,650 - 50*15 ==> Y = 900Since ∆i = + 5 ==> ∆I = - 20*5 ==> ∆I = - 100Check: ∆ 331510450 750 900 1,250 1,650 Yc. From M'/P = m d ==> 1,100/2 = (1/3)Y + 200 - 20i==> (1/3)Y = 350 - 20i ==> Y = 3(350 - 20i) ==> Y = 1,050 + 30iIS 1 = LM 1 ==> 1,650 - 50i = 1,050 + 30i ==> 600 = 80i ==> i = 7.5==> Y = 1,650 - 50(7.5) = 1,275.==> ∆i = - 7.5 and ∆Y = 375 as compared to (b).i1107.512. Assume the money sector can be described by these equations: M/P = 400 and m d = (1/4)Y - 10i.In the expenditure sector only investment spending (I) is affected by the interest rate (i), and the equation of the IS-curve is: Y = 2,000 - 40i.(a) If the size of the expenditure multiplier is α= 2, show the effect of an increase ingovernment purchases by ∆G = 200 on income and the interest rate.(b) Can you determine how much of investment is crowded out as a result of this increase ingovernment spending?(c)If the money demand equation were changed to m d = (1/4)Y, how would your answers in (a)and (b) change?a. From M/P = m d ==> 400 = (1/4)Y - 10i ==> Y = 1,600 + 40i LM-curveFrom IS = LM ==> 2,000 - 40i = 1,600 + 40i ==> 80i = 400 ==> i = 5==> Y = 2,000 - 40*5 ==> Y = 1,800∆IS = 2*200 = 400 ==> IS' = 2,400 - 40iIS' = LM ==> 2,400 - 40i = 1,600 + 40i ==> 80i = 800 ==> i = 10==> Y = 1,600 + 40*10 ==> Y = 2,000Therefore ∆i = + 5 and ∆Y = + 200b.Since the size of the expenditure multiplier is α = 2 but income only goes up by αY = 200, the fiscalpolicy multiplier in the IS-LM model is α1= 1. But this means that the level of investment has been reduced by 100, that is, ∆I = -100. This can be seen by restating the IS-curve as follows:Y = 2,000 - 40i = Y = 2(1,000 - 20i)Since government purchases are changed by ∆G = 200 ==> Y = 2(1,200 - 20i), which means that the IS-curve shifts by ∆IS = 2*200 = 400. But the increase in income is actually only ∆Y = 200. This implies that investment changes by ∆I = -100. Investment is of the form I = I o– 20i; however, since the interest rate went up by ∆i = 5, investment changes by ∆I = - 20*5 = - 100.From ∆Y = α(∆Sp) ==> 200 = 2(∆Sp) ==> ∆Sp = 100But since ∆Sp =∆ G + ∆I ==> 100 = 200 + ∆I ==> ∆I = - 100c. If m d= (1/4)Y, then we have the classical case, that is, a vertical LM-curve. In this case, fiscalexpansion will not change income at all. This occurs since the increase in G will be offset by a decrease in I of equal magnitude due to an increase in the interest rate.(M/P) = m d ==> 400 = (1/4)Y ==> Y = 1,600 LM-curveIS = LM ==> 2,000 - 40i = 1,600 ==> 40i = 400 ==> i = 10 ==> Y = 1,600IS' = LM ==> 2,400 - 40i = 1,600 ==> 40i = 800==> i = 20 ==> Y = 1,600 ==> ∆I = - 2001013. Assume money demand (md) and money supply (ms) are defined as: md = (1/4)Y + 400 - 15iand ms = 600, and intended spending is of the form: Sp = C + I + G + NX = 400 + (3/4)Y - 10i.Calculate the equilibrium levels of Y and i, and indicate by how much the Fed would have to change money supply to keep interest rates constant if the government increased its spending by ∆G = 50. Show your solutions graphically and mathematically.ms = md ==> 600 = (1/4)Y + 400 - 15i ==> (1/4)Y = 200 + 15i==> Y = 4(200 + 15i) ==> Y = 800 + 60i LM-curveY = C + I + G + NX ==> Y = 400 + (3/4)Y - 10i ==>(1/4)Y = 400 - 10i ==> Y = 4(400 - 10i) ==> Y = 1,600 - 40i IS-curveFrom IS = LM ==> 1,600 - 40i = 800 + 60i ==> 100i = 800 ==> i = 8 ==> Y = 1,280If government spending is increased by ∆G = 50, the IS-curve will shift to the right) by (∆IS) = 4*50 = 200. If the Fed wants to keep the interest rate constant, money supply has to be increased in a way that shifts the LM-curve to the right by exactly the same amount as the IS-curve, that is, (∆LM) = 200.From Y = 2(200 + 15i) ==> (∆Y) = 2(∆ms) ==> 200 = 2(∆ms)==> (∆ms) = 100, so money supply has to be increased by 100.Check: IS' = LM": 1,800 - 40i = 1,000 + 60i ==> 800 = 100i4018800 1000 1280 1480 1600 1800 Y14. Assume the equation for the IS-curve is Y = 1,200 – 40i, and the equation for the LM-curve isY = 400 + 40i.(a) Determine the equilibrium value of Y and i.(b) If this is a simple model without income taxes, by how much will these values change if thegovernment increases its expenditures by ∆G = 400, financed by an equal increase in lump sum taxes (∆TA o = 400)?a. From IS = LM ==> 1,200 - 40i = 400 + 40i ==>800 = 80i ==> i = 10 ==> Y = 400 + 40*10 ==> Y = 800b. According to the balanced budget theorem, the IS-curve will shift horizontally by the increase ingovernment purchases, that is, ∆IS = ∆G = ∆TA o = 400.Thus the new IS-curve is of the form: Y = 1,600 - 40i.From IS' = LM ==> 1,600 - 40i = 400 + 40i ==>1,200 = 80i ==> i = 15 ==> Y = 400 + 40*15 ==> Y = 1,00015. Assume you have the following information about a macro model:Expenditure sector: Money sector:11。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案05

Chapter 5Solutions to the Problems in the TextbookConceptual Problems:1. The aggregate supply curve shows the quantity of real total output that firms arewilling to supply at each price level. The aggregate demand curve shows all combinations of real total output and the price level at which the goods and the money sectors are simultaneously in equilibrium. Along the AD-curve nominal money supply is assumed to be constant and no fiscal policy change takes place.2. The classical aggregate supply curve is vertical, since the classical model assumes thatnominal wages adjust very quickly to changes in the price level. This implies that the labor market is always in equilibrium and output is always at the full-employment level.If the AD-curve shifts to the right, firms try to increase output by hiring more workers, who they try to attract by offering higher nominal wages. But since we are already at full employment, no more workers can be hired and firms merely bid up nominal wages. The nominal wage increase is passed on in the form of higher product prices. In the end, the level of wages and prices will have increased proportionally, while the real wage rate and the levels of employment and output will remain unchanged.If there is a decrease in demand, then firms try to lay off workers. Workers, in turn, are willing to accept lower wages to stay employed. Lower wage costs enable firms to lower their product prices. In the end, nominal wages and prices will decrease proportionally but the real wage rate and the level of employment and output will remain the same.3. There is no single theory of the aggregate supply curve, which shows the relationshipbetween firms' output and the price level. A number of competing explanations exist for the fact that firms have a tendency to increase their output level as the price level increases. The Keynesian model of a horizontal aggregate supply curve supposedly describes the very short run (over a period of a few months or less), while the classical model of a vertical aggregate supply curve is supposed to hold true for the long run (a period of more than 10 years). The medium-run aggregate supply curve is most useful for periods of several quarters or a few years. This upward-sloping aggregate supply curve results from the fact that wage and price adjustments are slow and uncoordinated. Chapter6 offers several explanations for the fact that labor markets do not adjust quickly. Theseinclude the imperfect information market-clearing model, the existence of wage contracts or coordination problems, and the fact that firms pay efficiency wages and price changes tend to be costly.4. The Keynesian aggregate supply curve is horizontal since the price level is assumed to befixed. It is most appropriate for the very short run (a period of a few months or less). The classical aggregate supply curve is vertical and output is assumed to be fixed at its potential level. It is most appropriate for the long run (a period of more than 10 years) when prices are able to fully adjust to all shocks.5. The aggregate supply and aggregate demand model used in macroeconomics is notvery similar to the market demand and market supply model used in microeconomics.While the workings of both models (the distinction between shifts of the curves versus movement along the curves) are similar, these models are really unrelated. The "P" in the microeconomic model stands for the relative price of a good (or the ratio at which two goods are traded), whereas the "P" in the macroeconomic model stands for the average price level of all goods and services produced in this country, measured in money terms.Technical Problems:1.a. As Figure 5-9 in the text shows, a decrease in income taxes will shift both the AD-curveand the AS-curve to the right. The shift in the AD-curve tends to be fairly large and, in the short run (when prices are fixed), leads to a significant increase in output without a change in prices. In the long run, the AS-curve will also shift to the right--since lower income tax rates provide an incentive to work more--but only by a fairly small amount.Therefore we see a slightly higher real GDP with a large increase in the price level in the long run.1.b. Supply-side economics is any policy measure that will increase potential GDP by shiftingthe long-run (vertical) AS-curve to the right. In the early 1980s, supply-side economists put forth the view that a cut in income tax rates would increase the incentive to work, save and invest. This would increase aggregate supply so much that the inflation and unemployment rates would simultaneously decrease. The resulting high economic growth might then even lead to an increase in tax revenues, despite lower tax rates. However, these predictions did not become reality. As seen in the answer to 2.a., the long-run effect of a tax cut on output is not very large, although it can increase long-term output to some degree.2.a. According to the balanced budget theorem, a simultaneous and equal increase ingovernment purchases and taxes will shift the AD-curve to the right. But if the AS-curve is upward sloping, then the balanced budget multiplier will be less than one, that is, the increase in output will be less than the increase in government expenditures. This occurs, since part of the increase in government spending will be crowded out due a higher price level, lower real money balances, and a resulting rise in interest rates.P ADP oPo12.b. In the Keynesian case, the AS-curve is horizontal and the price level remains unchanged. There is no real balance effect and therefore income will increase more than in3.a. However, the interest rate will still increase and therefore the balanced budget multiplier will be less than one (but greater than zero).PP o0 Y o Y1Y2.c. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical and the output level remains unchanged. Inthis case, a shift in the AD-curve leads to a price increase and real money balances decline. Therefore interest rates increase further than in 3.b., leading to full crowding out of investment. Hence the balanced budget multiplier is zero.PP1P0Additional Problems1. Briefly explain why the AS-curve is upward sloping in the intermediate run?An upward-sloping AS-curve assumes that wage and price adjustments are slow and uncoordinated. This can be explained most easily by the existence of wage contracts and imperfect competition. Because of wage contracts, wages cannot be changed easily and, since the contracts tend to be staggered, they cannot be changed all at once. In an imperfectly competitive market structure, firms are reluctant to change their prices since they cannot accurately predict the reactions of their competitors. Therefore, wages and prices will adjust only slowly. (Chapter 6 provides more elaborate explanations for this.)2. Briefly discuss in words why the AD-curve is downward sloping.In the AD-AS framework, we assume that nominal money supply (M) is constant unless it ischanged by the Fed's monetary policy (which would result in a shift in the AD-curve). Therefore, if the price level increases, then real money (M/P) decreases, driving interest rates (i) up and lowering the level of investment spending (I). This means that total output demanded (Y) will decrease.A more elaborate answer may include that lower real money balances (M/P) result in less real wealth, leading to a lower level of consumption (C) due to the wealth effect. This means that total output demanded (Y) will decrease. A higher domestic price level (P) also means that domestic goods will become less competitive in world markets. This will stimulate imports while reducing exports, leading to a reduction in net exports (NX), and a decrease in total output demanded (Y).3. "In the classical aggregate supply curve model, the economy is always at thefull-employment level of output and the unemployment rate is always zero."Comment on this statement.The classical aggregate supply curve model implies a vertical AS-curve at the full-employment level of output. However, this does not mean that the unemployment rate is zero. There is always some friction in the labor market, which means that there is always some (frictional) unemployment as workers switch jobs. The (positive) amount of unemployment at the full-employment level of output is called the natural rate of unemployment and is estimated to be roughly 5.5 percent for the United States; however, an exact value for this natural rate has not been established.4. Assume a technological advance leads to lower production costs. Show the effect ofsuch an event on national income, unemployment, inflation, and interest rates with the help of an AD-AS diagram, assuming completely flexible wage rates.A decrease in production costs shifts the AS-curve to the right. The price level decreases, leading to a higher level of income and lower interest rates. Since wages are completely flexible, the AS-curve is vertical and we are always at full-employment (this is the classical case). This implies that the unemployment rate stays at the natural rate, but output goes up since workers are now more productive.1.→2. Cost of prod.↑== > AS →Ex.S. == > P↓real ms ↑i ↓I↑Y↑Effect: Y↑UR ↓P ↓i↓0 Y o FE Y1FE Y5. "Monetary expansion will not change interest rates in the classicalAS-curve model." Comment on this statement.An increase in the nominal money supply will shift the AD-curve to the right. There will be excess demand for goods and services, which will force the price level up. In the classical AS-curve model, a new equilibrium will be established at the same level of output but at a higher price level. Real money balances will be reduced to their original level and interest rates will not be affected in the long run (the classical case).6. "Expansionary fiscal policy does not affect the level of real output or real moneybalances in the classical AS-curve case." Comment on this statement.Expansionary fiscal policy will shift the AD-curve to the right, causing excess demand for goods and services at the existing price level. This forces the price level up, reducing real money balances. Interest rates increase, which results in a lower level of investment spending. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical, so the level of output will not change. In other words, the increase in the level of prices and interest rates continues until private spending is reduced again to the original full-employment level.7. "In the classical AS-curve case, a reduction in government spending will lowerinterest rates and the real money stock." Comment on this statement.A decrease in government spending will shift the AD-curve to the left, causing excess supply of goods and services at the original price level. As the price level decreases to restore equilibrium, real money balances increase and interest rates fall. This will increase the level of investment spending until a new equilibrium is reached at the original level of output but at lower prices and interest rates. Thus, real money balances will rise, but interest rates fall.8. "In the Keynesian aggregate supply curve model, the Fed, through restrictivemonetary policy, can easily lower inflation without creating unemployment."Comment on this statement.This statement is wrong. In the Keynesian aggregate supply curve model, the AS-curve is horizontal, since prices are assumed to be fixed. Restrictive monetary policy will shift the AD-curve to the left. This will reduce the level of output without any change in the price level.But a lower level of output implies a higher rate of unemployment.9. True or false? Why?"Monetary policy does not affect real output in the Keynesian supply curve model."False. An increase in money supply will shift the AD-curve to the right, leading to a higher level of income. In the Keynesian supply curve model, the price level is fixed, hence real balances will not fall as they would in the classical supply curve model. We will reach a new equilibrium at a higher level of output, at a lower interest rate, but at the same price level. In this case monetary policy is not neutral.10. Explain why there is so much interest in finding ways to shift the AS-curve to the right.Shifting the AS-curve to the right seems to be the only way to offset the effects of an adverse supply shock without negative side effects. An adverse supply shock, such as an increase in oil prices, causes a simultaneous increase in unemployment and inflation, and policy makers have only two options for demand-management policies. Expansionary fiscal or monetary policy will help to achieve full employment faster but will raise the price level, while restrictive fiscal or monetary policy will reduce inflationary pressure but increase unemployment. Therefore, any policy that would shift the short-run AS-curve back to the right seems preferable, since it might bring the economy back to the original equilibrium by simultaneously lowering inflation and unemployment.11. "Restrictive fiscal policy will always lower output, prices, and interest rates."Comment.This statement is true in the intermediate run when the AS-curve is upward sloping. Restrictive fiscal policy will shift the AD-curve to the left. In the Keynesian case, the AS-curve is horizontal and prices remain constant, while both output and interest rates decrease. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical and the decrease in the price level will increase real money balances and interest rates. Prices will fall until spending is again consistent with the full-employment level of output. Thus in the long run, prices and interest rates will decline, while output will remain the same. Only in the intermediate run (when the AS-curve is upward sloping due to slowly adjusting wages and prices) will output, prices, and the interest rate all go down.12. "The real impact of demand management policy is largely determined by theflexibility of wages and prices." Comment on this statement.If wages and prices are completely flexible, then the economy will always be at the full-employment level of output, independent of the price level. In other words, we have the classical case of a vertical (long-run) AS-curve. In this case, a shift in the AD-curve will affect only the price level but not the level of output. However, if wages and prices are completely inflexible, then we have the (horizontal) Keynesian aggregate supply curve. In this case, any shift of the AD-curve will have a large effect on the level of output but will not affect the price level. Only in the intermediate run, when we have an upward-sloping AS-curve, will the level of output and the price level both be affected by a shift in theAD-curve. More flexibility in wages and prices implies a steeper the AS-curve. Therefore the effect of a shift in the AD-curve will be smaller on output and larger on the price level.13."An increase in the income tax rate will lower the level of output and increase theprice level." Comment on this statement.Supply siders argue that a decrease in income taxes will shift both the AD-curve and the AS-curve to the right (as shown in Figure 5-10). Conversely, an increase in the income tax rate will shift the AD-curve and the AS-curve to the left. The shift in the AD-curve will be fairly large and, in the medium run, will lead to a significant decrease in output without a (significant) change in the price level. However, in the long run, the AS-curve will also shift to the left, since higher income tax rates provide a disincentive to work. Since the AS-curve will shift only by a fairly small amount, we will see a slightly lower real GDP with a large decrease in the price level.。

(NEW)多恩布什《宏观经济学》(第12版)课后习题详解

目　录第1章　导　论第2章　国民收入核算第3章　增长与积累第4章　增长与政策第5章　总供给与总需求第6章　总供给和菲利普斯曲线第7章　失　业第8章　通货膨胀第9章　政策预览第10章　收入与支出第11章　货币、利息与收入第12章　货币政策与财政政策第13章　国际联系第14章　消费与储蓄第15章　投资支出第16章　货币需求第17章　联邦储备、货币与信用第18章　政　策第19章　金融市场与资产价格第20章　国家债务第21章　衰退与萧条第22章　通货膨胀与恶性通货膨胀第23章　国际调整与相互依存第24章　前沿课题第1章　导　论说明：在许多中文译本中，Key Terms、Conceptual和Technical一般译为“关键词或关键术语”、“概念题”和“技术题”，不看习题的具体内容，相信大多数人难以理解其含义，为了更好地符合中国人的考试习惯，下面采用在研究生入学考试试题中常用的分类：概念题、简答题和分析题。

其他章节不再说明。

一、概念题1总需求曲线（aggregate demand curve）答：总需求曲线表示产品市场和货币市场同时达到均衡时价格水平与国民收入间的依存关系的曲线。

总需求指整个经济社会在每一个价格水平下对产品和劳务的需求总量，它由消费需求、投资需求、政府支出和国外需求构成。

在其他条件不变的情况下，当价格水平提高时，国民需求水平就下降；当价格水平下降时，国民需求水平就上升。

总需求曲线向下倾斜，其机制在于：当价格水平上升时，将会同时打破产品市场和货币市场上的均衡。

在货币市场上，价格水平上升导致实际货币供给下降，从而使曲线向左移动，均衡利率水平上升，国民收入水平下降。

在产品市场上，一方面由于利率水平上升造成投资需求下降（即利率效应），总需求随之下降；另一方面，价格水平的上升还导致人们的财富和实际收入水平下降以及本国出口产品相对价格的提高从而使人们的消费需求下降，本国的出口也会减少，进口增加。

这样，随着价格水平的上升，总需求水平就会下降。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案04

CHAPTER 4GROWTH AND POLICYSolutions to the Problems in the TextbookConceptual Problems:1. Endogenous or self-sustained growth supposedly can be achieved by policies that affect anation's savings rate and therefore the proportion of GDP that goes towards investment.The neoclassical growth model of Chapter 3 predicted that long-term growth can only be achieved through technological progress and that changes in the savings rate have only transitory effects. The endogenous growth model, however, predicts that countries with a higher savings rate can achieve higher long-term growth and that a nation's government can affect the long-term growth rate by implementing policies that affect the savings rate.2. A simple model with constant returns to scale to capital alone implies increasingreturns to scale to all factors taken together, which could cause a single large firm to dominate the economy. However, such a model ignores the possibility that external returns to capital exist, in addition to the internal (private) returns. In other words, more investment not only leads to a higher and more efficient capital stock but also to new ideas and new ways of doing things, which can then be copied by others. Therefore, a single firm does not necessarily reap all of the benefits of increased output.3.In the neoclassical growth model, an increase in the savings rate does not increase thelong-term growth rate of output. However, because of the short-run adjustment process, there is some transitional gain that will lead to a higher level of output per capita. In the endogenous growth model, however, the savings rate does affect the long-term growth rate of output.4.a. Chapter 4 suggests that the key to long-term economic growth is investment in humanand physical capital with particular emphasis on research and development.4.b. (i) Investment tax credits may potentially affect economic growth in the long run byachieving a higher rate of technological progress.(ii) R&D subsidies and grants lead to technological advances that will have private andsocial returns. They are very effective in stimulating long-term economic growth.(iii) According to the endogenous growth model, policies designed to increase thesavings rate will increase the long-term growth rate of output. However, empiricalevidence does not lend much support to that notion.(iv) Increased funding for primary education has large private and social returns andis therefore an excellent means to stimulate long-term growth, even though it may take along time until these policies have their full effect.5. The notion of absolute convergence states that economies with the same savings rate andrate of population growth will reach the same steady-state equilibrium if they have access to the same technology. The notion of conditional convergence states that economies that have access to the same technology and the same rate of population growth but different savings rates will reach steady-state equilibria at a different level of output but the same economic growth rate. There is empirical evidence to support the notion of conditional convergence across countries.6. Endogenous growth theory assumes that the steady-state growth rate of output isaffected by the rate at which the factors of production are accumulated. Therefore, an increase in the savings rate would increase the rate at which the capital stock is accumulated and this would increase the growth rate of output. While this notion may be important in explaining the growth rates of highly developed countries at the leading edge of technology, it cannot explain the differences in growth rates across poorer countries.For these countries, the notion of conditional convergence seems to hold.7. Investing in physical capital will lead to a higher capital stock and to a higher level ofoutput in the short run, but often to the detriment of long-term growth unless there are significant external returns to capital. Therefore, investing in human capital is a better strategy, since it has high returns and leads to an increase in long-term growth.8.a. A country that is able to choose its rate of population growth through population controlpolicies can shift the investment requirement down, thereby increasing the level of steady-state output. With a lower rate of population growth it is possible to achieve a higher level of income per capita with a lower level of investment spending. Therefore, implementing population control policies may be an effective way to escape the so-called poverty trap.8.b. In an endogenous growth model, a lower population growth rate (n) will increase anation's long-term growth rate (∆y/y). We can see this since, in the second optional section, the per-capita growth rate was derived, as follows:∆y/y = sa - (n + d).9. The Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan) experienced a highrate of economic growth between 1966 and 1990 by concentrating on improving the education of the population and increasing the savings rate, as suggested by the endogenous growth model. However, increases in the labor forces of these countries suggested by the neoclassical growth model, were also at work.10. The decline in living standards experienced by Eastern European countries in transitionfrom centrally planned economies to free market economies cannot easily be explained by neoclassical or endogenous growth theory. The decline in GDP in these countries was largely due to disorganized markets that lacked properly assigned property rights or liability rules and an insufficiently developed banking system. In addition, the need for large-scale replacement of outdated production technology caused further disruption.11. In is unclear whether countries can actually experience indefinite increases in theirgrowth potential. However, if technological advances occur continuously and if intelligent resource management is practiced, it is conceivable that economic growth will continue for a very, very long time.Technical Problems:1.a. A production function that displays both a diminishing and a constant marginal product ofcapital can be displayed by drawing a curved line (as in an exogenous growth model), followed by a upward-sloping line (as in an endogenous growth model). Such a graph is depicted below.1.b. The first equilibrium (Point A in the graph below) is a stable low-income steady-stateequilibrium. Any deviation from that point will cause the economy to eventually adjust again at the same steady-state income level (and capital-output ratio). The second equilibrium (Point B) is an unstable high-income steady-state equilibrium. Any deviation from that point will lead to either a lower income steady-state equilibrium (if the capital-labor ratio declines) or ongoing growth (if the capital-labor ratio increases).yy = f(k)y BsyB (n+ d)ky AAk A k B k1.c. A model like the one in this question can be used to explain how some countries can findthemselves in a situation with no growth and low income while others have ongoing growth and a high level of income. In the first case, a country may have invested in physical capital, leading to some short-term growth at the expense of long-term growth, whereas in the second case, a country may have invested heavily in human capital, reaping significant social returns.2.a. If population growth is endogenous, that is, if a country can influence the rate of population growth through government policies, then the investment requirement is no longer a straight line. Instead it is curved as depicted below.yy C y = f(k)y B[n(y) + d]]kC sf(k)y A BAk A k B k C k2.b. The first equilibrium (Point A) is a stable steady-state equilibrium. It is a situation of lowincome and high population growth, indicating that the country is in a poverty trap. The second equilibrium (Point B) is an unstable steady-state equilibrium. It is a situation of medium income and low population growth. The third equilibrium (Point C) is a stable steady-state equilibrium. It is a situation of high income and low population growth. None of these three equilibria have ongoing growth.2.c. To escape the poverty trap (Point A), a country has several possibilities: First, it cansomehow find the means to increase the capital-labor ratio above a level consistent with Point B (perhaps by borrowing funds or seeking direct foreign investment). Second, it can increase the savings rate such that the savings function no longer intersects the investment requirement curve at either Point A or Point B. Third, it can decrease the rate of population growth through specifically designed policies, such that the investment requirement shifts down and no longer intersects with the savings function at Point A or Point B.3.a. If we incorporate endogenous population growth into a two-sector model in Problem 2,then we get a curved line for the investment requirement line and a production function with first a diminishing and then a constant marginal product of capital as depicted below.(Note that the savings function has the same shape as the production function.)yy = f(k)y Dsf(k)D [n+d)]ky Cy By A CBAk A k B k C k D k3.b. There should be four intersections of the savings function and the investment requirement.The first equilibrium (at Point A) is a stable low-income steady-state equilibrium. Any deviation from that point will cause the economy to eventually adjust again at the same steady-state income level (and capital-output ratio). The second equilibrium (at Point B) is an unstable low-income equilibrium. Any deviation from that point will lead to either a lower income steady-state equilibrium at Point A (if the capital-labor ratio declines) or a higher income steady-state equilibrium at Point C (if the capital-labor ratio increases).Point D is again an unstable equilibrium but at a high level of income. Any deviation from that point will lead to either a lower income steady-state equilibrium at Point C (if the capital-labor ratio declines) or ongoing growth (if the capital-labor ratio increases). 3.c. This model is more inclusive than either of the two models discussed previously, andtherefore has greater explanatory power. But now the graphical analysis is far more complicated. It may not be worth the effort to introduce such complications.4.a. The production function is of the formY = K1/2(AN)1/2 = K1/2(4[K/N]N)1/2= K1/2(4K)1/2= 2K4.b. Since a = y/k = 2, it follows that the growth rate of output isg = sa - (n + d) = (0.1)2 - (0.02 + 0.03) = 0.15 = 15%.4.c. The term "a" in the equation above stands for the marginal product of capital. If weassume that the level of labor-augmenting technology (A) is proportional to the capital-labor ratio (k), we imply that the level of technology depends on the amount of capital per worker that we have, which may not be realistic.4.d. In this model, we have a constant marginal product of capital, and therefore we have anendogenous growth model.5.a. The production function is of the formY = K1/2N1/2==> Y/N = (K/N)1/2 ==> y = k1/2.From k = sy/(n + d) = sk1/2/(n +d) ==> k1/2 = s/(n + d)==> y* = s/(n + d) = (0.1)/(0.02 + 0.03) = 2==> k* = sy*/(n + d) = (0.1)(2)/(0.02 + 0.03) = 45.b. Steady-state consumption equals steady-state income minus steady-state investment, thatis,c* = f(k*) - (n + d)k* .The golden rule capital stock corresponds to the highest permanently sustainable level of consumption. Steady-state consumption is maximized when the marginal increase in capital produces just enough extra output to cover the increased investment requirement.From c = k1/2 - (n + d)k ==> (∆c/∆k) = (1/2)k-1/2 - (n + d) = 0==> k-1/2 = 2(n + d) = 2(.02 + .03) = .1==> k1/2 = 10 ==> k = 100Since k*= 4 < 100, we have less capital at the steady state than the golden rule suggests.5.c. From k = sy/(n + d) = sk1/2/(n + d) ==> s = k1/2(n + d) = 10(0.05) = .55.d. If we have more capital than the golden rule suggests, then we are saving too much andwe do not have the optimal amount of consumption.。

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案09

多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案09CHAPTER 9INCOME AND SPENDINGSolutions to the Problems in the Textbook:Conceptual Problems:1. In the Keynesian model, the price level is assumed to be fixed, that is, the AS-curve is horizontal andthe level of output is determined solely by aggregate demand. The classical model, on the other hand, assumes that prices always fully adjust to maintain a full-employment level of output, that is, the AS-curve is vertical. Since the model of income determination in this chapter assumes that the price level is fixed, it is a Keynesian model.2. An autonomous variable’s value is determined outside ofa given model. In this chapter the followingcomponents of aggregate demand have been specified as being autonomous: autonomous consumption (C*) autonomous investment (I o), government purchases (G o), lump sum taxes (TA o), transfer payments (TR o), and net exports (NX o).3.Since it often takes a long time for policy makers to agree on a specific fiscal policy measure, it isquite possible that economic conditions may drastically change before a fiscal policy measure is implemented. In these circumstances a policy measure can actually be destabilizing. Maybe the economy has already begun to move out of a recession before policy makers have agreed to implement a tax cut. If the tax cut is enacted at a time when the economy is already beginning to experience strong growth, inflationary pressure can be created.While such internal lags are absent with automatic stabilizers (income taxes, unemployment benefits, welfare), these automatic stabilizers are not sufficient to replace active fiscal policy when the economy enters a deep recession.4. Income taxes, unemployment benefits, and the welfare system are often called automatic stabilizerssince they automatically reduce the amount by which output changes as a result of a change in aggregate demand. These stabilizers are a part of the economic mechanism and therefore work without any case-by-case government intervention. For example, when output declines and unemployment increases, there may be an increase in the number of people who fall below the poverty line. If we had no welfare system or unemployment benefits, then consumption would drop significantly. But since unemployed workers get unemployment compensation and people living in poverty are eligible for welfare payments, consumption will not decrease as much. Therefore, aggregate demand may not be reduced by as much as it would have without these automatic stabilizers.5. The full-employment budget surplus is the budget surplus that would exist if the economy were at thefull-employment level of output, given the current spending or tax structure. Since the size of the full-employment budget surplus does not depend on the position in the business cycle and only changes when the government implements a fiscal policy change, the full-employment budget surplus can be used as a measure of fiscal policy. Other names for the full-employment budget surplus are the structural budget surplus, the cyclically adjusted surplus, the high-employment surplus, and the standardized employment surplus. These names may bepreferable, since they do not suggest that there is a specific full-employment level of output that we were unable to maintain.Technical Problems:1.a. AD = C + I = 100 + (0.8)Y + 50 = 150 + (0.8)YThe equilibrium condition is Y = AD ==>12 Y = 150 + (0.8)Y ==> (0.2)Y = 150 ==> Y = 5*150 = 750.1.b. Since TA = TR = 0, it follows that S = YD - C = Y - C. ThereforeS = Y - [100 + (0.8)Y] = - 100 + (0.2)Y ==> S = - 100 +(0.2)750 = - 100 + 150 = 50.1.c. If the level of output is Y = 800, then AD = 150 + (0.8)800 = 150 + 640 = 790.Therefore the amount of involuntary inventory accumulation is UI = Y - AD = 800 - 790 = 10.1.d. AD' = C + I' = 100 + (0.8)Y + 100 = 200 + (0.8)YFrom Y = AD' ==> Y = 200 + (0.8)Y ==> (0.2)Y = 200 ==> Y = 5*200 = 1,000Note: This result can also be achieved by using the multiplier formula:Y = (multiplier)(?Sp) = (multiplier)(?I) ==> ?Y = 5*50 = 250, that is, output increases from Y o = 750 to Y 1 = 1,000.1.e. From 1.a. and 1.d. we can see that the multiplier is 5.1.f. Sp2001500 750 1,000 Y2.a. Since the mpc has increased from 0.8 to 0.9, the size of the multiplier is now larger and we shouldtherefore expect a higher equilibrium income level than in 1.a.AD = C + I = 100 + (0.9)Y + 50 = 150 + (0.9)Y ==>Y = AD ==> Y = 150 + (0.9)Y ==> (0.1)Y = 150 ==> Y = 10*150 = 1,500.2.b. From ?Y = (multiplier)(?I) = 10*50 = 500 ==> Y 1 = Y o + ?Y = 1,500 + 500 = 2,000.2.c. Since the size of the multiplier has doubled from 5 to 10, the change in output (Y) that results from achange in investment (I) now has also doubled from 250 to 500.2001503.a. AD = C + I + G + NX = 50 + (0.8)YD + 70 + 200 = 320 + (0.8)[Y - (0.2)Y + 100]= 400 + (0.8)(0.8)Y = 400 + (0.64)YFrom Y = AD ==> Y = 400 + (0.64)Y ==> (0.36)Y = 400==> Y = (1/0.36)400 = (2.78)400 = 1,111.11The size of the multiplier is (1/0.36) = 2.78.3.b. BS = tY - TR - G = (0.2)(1,111.11) - 100 - 200 = 222.22 - 300 = - 77.783.c. AD' = 320 + (0.8)[Y - (0.25)Y + 100] = 400 + (0.8)(0.75)Y = 400 + (0.6)YFrom Y = AD' ==> Y = 400 + (0.6)Y ==> (0.4)Y = 400 ==> Y = (2.5)400 = 1,000The size of the multiplier is now reduced to 2.5.3.d. BS' = (0.25)(1,000) - 100 - 200 = - 50BS' - BS = - 50 - (-77.78) = + 27.78The size of the multiplier and equilibrium output will both increase with an increase in the marginal propensity to consume.Therefore income tax revenue will also go up and the budget surplus should increase.3.e. If the income tax rate is t = 1, then all income is taxed. There is no induced spending and equilibriumincome only increases by the change in autonomous spending, that is, the size of the multiplier is 1.From Y = C + I + G ==> Y = C o + c(Y - 1Y + TR o) + I o + G o==> Y = C o + cTR o + I o + G o = A o4. In Problem 3.d. we had a situation where the following was given:Y = 1,000, t = 0.25, G = 200 and BS = - 50.Assume now that t = 0.3 and G = 250 ==>AD' = 50 + (0.8)[Y - (0.3)Y + 100] + 70 + 250 = 370 + (0.8)(0.7)Y + 80 = 450 + (0.56)Y.From Y = AD' ==> Y = 450 + (0.56)Y ==> (0.44)Y = 450==> Y = (1/0.44)450 = 1,022.73BS' = (0.3)(1,022.73) - 100 - 250 = 306.82 - 350 = - 43.18BS' - BS = -43.18 - (-50) = + 6.82The budget surplus has increased, since the increase in tax revenue is larger than the increase in government purchases.5.a. While an increase in government purchases by ?G = 10 will change intended spending by ?Sp = 10,a decrease in government transfers by ?TR = -10 will change intended spending by a smaller amount,that is, by only ?Sp = c(?TR) = c(-10). The change in intended spending equals ?Sp = (1 - c)(10) and equilibrium income should therefore increase byY = (multiplier)(1 - c)10.5.b. If c = 0.8 and t = 0.25, then the size of the multiplier isα = 1/[1 - c(1 - t)] = 1/[1 - (0.8)(1 - 0.25)] = 1/[1 - (0.6)] = 1/(0.4) = 2.5.The change in equilibrium income isY = α(?A o) = α[?G + c(?TR)] = (2.5)[10 + (0.8)(-10)] = (2.5)2 = 55.c. ?BS = t(?Y) - ?TR - ?G = (0.25)(5) - (-10) - 10 = 1.25Additional Problems:1. "An increase in the marginal propensity to save increases the impact of one additional dollar inincome on consumption." Comment on this statement. In your answer discuss the effect of sucha change in the mps on the size of the expenditure multiplier.The fact that the marginal propensity to save (1 - c) has risen implies that the marginal propensity to consume (c) has fallen. This means that now one extra dollar in income earned will affect consumption by3less than before the reduction in the mpc. When the mpc is high, one extra dollar in income raises consumption by more than when the mpc is low. If the mps is larger, then the expenditure multiplier will be larger, since the expenditure multiplier is defined as 1/(1-c).2. Using a simple model of the expenditure sector without any government involvement, explainthe paradox of thrift that asserts that a desire to save may not lead to an increase in actual saving.The paradox of thrift occurs because the desire to increase saving leads to a lower consumption level. But a lower level of spending sends the economy into a recession and we get a new equilibrium at a lower level of output. In the end, the increase inautonomous saving is exactly offset by the decrease in induced saving due to the lower income level. In other words, the economy is in equilibrium when S = I o. Since the level of autonomous investment (I o) has not changed, the level of saving at the new equilibrium income level must also equal I o.This can also be derived mathematically. Since an increase in desired saving is equivalent to a decrease in desired consumption, that is, ?C o = -?S o, the effect on equilibrium income is ?Y = [1/(1 - c)](?C o) = [1/(1 - c)](-?S o).Therefore the overall effect on total saving isS = s(?Y) + ?S o = [s/(1 - c)](-?S o) + ?S o = 0, since s = 1 - c.3. "When aggregate demand falls below the current output level, an unintended inventoryaccumulation occurs and the economy is no longer in an equilibrium." Comment on this statement.If aggregate demand falls below the equilibrium output level, production exceeds desired spending. When firms see an unwanted accumulation in their inventories, they respond by reducing production. The level of output falls and eventually reaches a level at which total output equals desired spending. In other words, the economy eventually reaches a new equilibrium at a lower value of output.4. For a simple model of the expenditure sector without any government involvement, derive themultiplier in terms of the marginal propensity to save (s) rather than the marginal propensity to consume (c). Does this formula still hold when the government enters the picture and levies an income tax?In the text, the expenditure multiplier for a model without any government involvement was derived as α = 1/(1 - c).But since the marginal propensity to save is s = 1 - c, the multiplier now becomes α = 1/s = 1/(1-c).In the text, we have also seen that if the government enters the picture and levies an income tax, then the simple expenditure multiplier changes toα = 1/[1 - c(1 - t)] = 1/(1 - c').By substituting s = 1 - c, this equation can be easily manipulated, to getα’ = 1/[1 - c + ct] = 1/[s + (1 - s)t] = 1/s'.Just as s = 1 – c, we can say that s' = 1 - c', sinces' = 1 - c' = 1 - c(1 - t) = 1 - c + ct = s + (1 - s)t.This can also be derived in another way:S = YD - C = YD - (C* + cYD) = - C* + (1 - c)YD = - C* + sYD If we assume for simplicity that TR = 0 and NX = 0, thenS + TA = I + G ==> - C* + sYD + TA = I* + G* ==>s(Y - tY - TA*) + tY + TA* = C* + I* + G* ==>4[s + (1 - s)t]Y = C* + I* + G* - (1 - s)TA* = A* ==>Y = (1/[s + (1 - s)t])A* = (1/s')A*.5. The balanced budget theorem states that the government can stimulate the economy withoutincreasing the budget deficit if an increase in government purchases (G) is financed by an equivalent increase in taxes (TA). Show that this is true for a simple model of the expenditure sector without any income taxes.If taxes and government purchases are increased by the same amount, then the change in the budget surplus can be calculated asBS = ?TA o - ?G = 0, since ?TA o = ?G.The resulting change in national income isY = ?C + ?G = c(?YD) + ?G = c(?Y - ?TA o) + ?G= c(?Y) - c(?TA o) + ?G = c(?Y) + (1 - c)(?G) since ?TA o = ?G.==> (1 - c)(?Y) = (1 - c)(?G) ==> ?Y = ?GIn this case, the increase in output (Y) is exactly of the same magnitude as the increase in government purchases (G). This occurs since the decrease in the level of consumption due to the higher lump sum tax has exactly been offset by the increase in the level of consumption caused by the increase in income.6. Assume a model without income taxes and in which the only two components of aggregatedemand are consumption and investment. Show that, in this case, the two equilibrium conditions Y = C + I and S = I are equivalent.We can derive the equilibrium value of output by setting actual income equal to intended spending, that is, Y = C + I ==> Y = C* + cY + I* ==> (1 - c)Y = C* + I* ==> Y = [1/(1 - c)](C* + I*) = [1/(1 - c)]A*.But since S = YD - C = Y - [C* + cY] = - C* + (1 - c)Y,we can derive the same result fromS = I* ==> S = - C* + (1 - c)Y = I*==> (1 - c)Y = C* + I* ==> Y = [1/(1 - c)](C* + I*) = [1/(1 -c)]A* .7. In an effort to stimulate the economy in 1976, President Ford asked Congress for a $20 billiontax cut in combination with a $20 billion cut in government purchases. Do you consider this a good policy proposal? Why or why not?This is not a good policy proposal. According to the balanced budget theorem, equal decreases in government purchases and taxes will decrease rather than increase income. Therefore theintended result would not be achieved.8. Assume the following model of the expenditure sector:Sp = C + I + G + NX C = 420 + (4/5)YD YD = Y - TA + TR TA = (1/6)YTR o = 180 I o = 160 G o = 100 NX o = - 40(a) Assume the government would like to increase the equilibrium level of income (Y) to thefull-employment level Y*= 2,700. By how much should government purchases (G) be changed?(b) Assume we want to reach Y*= 2,700 by changing government transfer payments (TR)instead. By how much should TR be changed?(c) Assume you increase both government purchases (G) and taxes (TA) by the same lump sumof ?G = ?TA o= + 300. Would this change in fiscal policy be sufficient to reach the full-employment level of output at Y* = 2,700? Why or why not?(d) Briefly explain how a decrease in the marginal propensity to save would affect the size of theexpenditure multiplier.5a. Sp = C + I + G + NX = 420 + (4/5)[Y - (1/6)Y + 100] + 160 + 180 - 40= 720 + (4/5)(5/6)Y + 80 = 800 + (2/3)YFrom Y = Sp ==> Y = 800 + (2/3)Y ==> (1/3)Y = 800 ==>Y = 3*800 = 2,400==> the expenditure multiplier is α = 3From ?Y = α(?A o) ==> 300 = 3(?A o) ==> (?A o) = 100Thus government purchases should be changed by ?G = ?A o = 100.b. Since ?A o = 100 and ?A o = c(?TR o) ==>100 = (4/5)(?TR o) ==> ?TR o = 125.c. This is a model with income taxes, so the balanced budget theorem does not apply in its strictest form,which states that an increase in government purchases and taxes by a certain amount increases national income by that same amount, leaving the budget surplus unchanged. Here total tax revenue actually increases by more than 100, since taxes are initially increased by a lump sum of 100, but then income taxes also change due to the change in income. Thus income does not increase by ?Y = 300, as we can see below.Y = α(?G) + α[(-c)(αTA o) = 3*300 + 3*[-(4/5)300] = 900 - 720 = 180This change in fiscal policy will increase income by only ?Y = 180, from Y0 = 2,400 to Y1 = 2,580, and we will be unable to reach Y* = 2,700.d. If the marginal propensity to save decreases, people spend a larger portion of their additionaldisposable income, that is, the mpc and the slope of the [C+I+G+NX]-line increase. This will lead to an increase in the expenditure multiplier and equilibrium income.9. Assume a model with income taxes similar to the model in Problem 9 above. This time, however,you have only limited information about the model, that is, you only know that the marginal propensity to consume out of disposable income is c = 0.75, and that total autonomous spending is A o = 900, such that Sp = A o + c'Y = 900 + c'Y. You also know that you can reach the full-employment level of output at Y* = 3,150 by increasing government transfers by a lump sum of ?TR = 200.(a) What is your current equilibrium level?(b) Is it possible to determine the size of the expenditure multiplier with the information youhave?(c)Assume you want to change the income tax rate (t) in order to reach the full-employmentlevel of income Y* = 3,150. How would this change in the income tax rate affect the size of the expenditure multiplier?a. Since ?A = c(?TR) = (0.75)200 = 150,the new [C+I+G+NX]-line is of the form Sp1 = 1,050 + c1Y.For each model of the expenditure sector we can derive the equilibrium level of income by using the following equation: Y* = αA o = 1/(1-c’) ==> 3,150 = α1,050 ==> the expend iture multiplier is α = 3.If we now change autonomous spending by ?A = 150, then income will have to change by ?Y = α(?A) ==> ?Y = 3*150 = 450.Therefore the old equilibrium level of income must have been Y = 3,150 - 450 = 2,700.b. From our work above we can see that the size of the multiplier is α = 3.c. The new [C+I+G+NX]-line is of the form Sp2 = 900 + c2Y. This new intended spending line intersectsthe 45-degree line at Y = 3,150. Thus the slope of the new intended spending line can be derived as c2= (3,150 - 900)/(3,150) = 5/7.From Y = Sp2 ==> Y = 900 + (5/7)Y ==> (2/7)Y = 900 ==> Y = (7/2)900 = (3.5)900 = 3,150.6The new value of the multiplier is 3.5Sp3,1509002,700 3,150 Y10. Assume you have the following model of the expenditure sector:Sp = C + I + G + NX C = 400 + (0.8)YD I o = 200 G o = 300 + (0.1)(Y* - Y) YD = Y - TA + TR NX o = - 40 TA = (0.25)Y TR o =50(a) What is the size of the output gap if potential output is at Y* = 3,000?(b) By how much would investment (I) have to change to reach equilibrium at Y* = 3,000, andhow does this change affect the budget surplus?(c) From the model above you can see that government purchases (G) are counter-cyclical, thatis they are increased as national income decreases. If youcompare this specification of G with a constant level of G, how is the value of the expenditure multiplier affected?(d) Assume the equation for net exports is changes such that NX o = - 40 is now NX1 = - 40 - mY,with 0 < m < 1. How would this affect expenditure multiplier?a. Sp = 400 + (0.8)YD + 200 + 300 + (0.1)(3,000 - Y) - 40= 1,160 + (0.8)(Y - (0.25)Y + 50) - (0.1)Y = 1,200 + [(0.8)(0.75) - (0.1)]Y = 1,200 + (0.5)Y Y = Sp ==> Y = 1,200 + (0.5)Y ==> (0.5)Y = 1,200 ==>Y = 2*1,200 = 2,400The output gap is Y* - Y = 3,000 - 2,400 = 600.b. From ?Y = (mult.)(?A) ==> 600 = 2(?I) ==> ?I = 300BuS = TA - TR - G = (0.25)(2,400) - 50 - [300 + (0.1)(600)] = 600 - 50 - 300 - 60 = 190BuS* = (0.25)(3,000) - 50 - 300 = 400, so the budget surplus increases by ?BuS = 210.c. If government purchases are used as a stabilization tool, the size of the multiplier should be lower thanif the level of government spending is fixed. In the model of the expenditure sector above, the slope of the [C+I+G+NX]-line is c' = 0.5 compared to c" = 0.6, when government purchases were defined as G = 300.d.With this change, net exports decrease as national income increases. This additional leakage impliesthat the size of the multiplier will decrease. In the model above, the slope of the [C+I+G+NX]-line decreases from c' = (0.5) to c" = (0.5) - m. Therefore the expenditure multiplier will decrease from 1/[1 - (0.5)] to 1/[1 - (0.5) + m].711. Assume you have the following model of the expenditure sector:Sp = C + I + G + NX C = C o + cYD YD = Y - TA + TR TA = TA oTR = TR o I = I o G = G o NX = NX o(a) If a decrease in income (Y) by 800 leads to a decrease in savings (S) by 160, what is the sizeof the expenditure multiplier?(b) If a decrease in taxes (TA) by 400 leads to an increase in income (Y) by 1,200, how large isthe marginal propensity to save?(c) If an increase in imports by 200 (?NX = - 200) leads to a decrease in consumption (C) by800, what is the size of the expenditure multiplier?Recall that the expenditure multiplier for such a simple model can be calculated as:α = 1/(1 - c)a. (?S)/(?Y) = 1 - c = (-160)/(-800) = .2 ==> 1/(1 - c) = 1/(.2) = 5 ==> the multiplier is α = 5.b. From (?Y) = α[-c(?TA o)] ==> (?Y)/(?TA o) = (-c)α = (-c)/(1 - c) ==>(1,200)/(-400) = - 3 = (-c)/(1 - c) ==> -3(1 - c) = -c ==> c = 3/4==> mps = 1 - c = 1/4 = 0.25.c. ?Y = ?C + ?NX = -800 + (-200) = - 1,000==> c = (?C)/(?Y) = (-800)/(-1,000) = .8 ==> multiplier = α = 1/(1 - c) = 1/(.2) = 512. Explain why income taxation, the Social Security system, and unemployment insurance areconsidered automatic stabilizers.Income taxes, unemployment benefits, and the Social Security system are often called automatic stabilizers becausethey reduce the amount by which output changes as a result of a change in aggregate demand. These stabilizers are a part of the structure of the economy and therefore work without any actual government intervention. For example, when output declines and unemployment increases. If we had no unemployment insurance, people out of work would not receive any disposable income and then consumption would drop significantly. But since unemployed workers get unemployment compensation, consumption will not decrease as much. Therefore, aggregate demand may not be reduced by as much as it would have without these automatic stabilizers.13. Assume a simple model of the expenditure sector with a positive income tax rate (t). Showmathematically how an increase in lump sum taxes (TA o ) would affect the budget surplus. From BS = TA - G - TR = tY + TA o - G – TR==> ?BS = t(?Y) + ?TA o = t(mult.)(-c)(?TA o) + ?TA o= t[1/(1 - c + ct)](-c)(?TA o) + ?TA o = ([ -(ct) + 1 - c + (ct)]/[1 - c + (ct)])(?TA o)= (1 - c) /[1 - c + (ct)])(?TA o) > 0, since c < 1In other words, a lump sum tax increase would increase the budget surplus.14. True or false? Why?"A tax cut will increase national income and will therefore always increase the budget surplus." False. Although a tax cut raises national income, not all of the increase in income is spent, nor is it completely taxed away. Income tax revenues fall and the budget deficit rises. Assume the following model of the expenditure sector:Sp = C + I + G + NX I = I oC = C o + cYD G = G oYD = Y - TA +TR NX = NX oTA = TA o + tY BS = TA - G - TRTR = TR o8From Y = Sp ==> Y = C o + c(Y - TA o - tY + TR o) + I o + G o + NX o ==>Y = C o - cTA o + cTR o + I o + G o + NX o + c(1 - t)Y = A o + c'Y ==>Y = [1/(1 - c')]A o with c' = c (1- t)Thus ?Y = [1/(1 - c')][(-c)(?TA o)]and ?BS = t(?Y) + (?TA o) = {[t(-c)]/(1 - c') + 1}(?TA o) ==> = {[-(ct) + 1 - c + (ct)]/[1 - c + (ct)]}(?TA o) = {(1 - c)/[1 - c + (ct)]}(?TA o) > 0 if ?TA > 0. Therefore, if taxes fall, that is, if ?TA < 0, the budget surplus decreases.15. Assume a simple model of the expenditure sector with a positive income tax rate (t). Showmathematically how a decrease in autonomous investment (I o ) would affect the budget surplus.A decrease in autonomous investment (I o) will have a multiplier effect and will therefore decrease national income and tax revenue. The budget surplus will decrease as shown below: ?BS = t(?Y) = tα(?I o) < 016. "An increase in government purchases will always pay for itself, as it raises national income andhence the government's tax revenues." Comment on this statement.An increase in government purchases will increase the budget deficit. If we assume a model of the expenditure sectorwith income taxes, then the multiplier equals [1/(1 - c')] with c' = c (1- t). The change in the budget surplus that arises from a change in government purchases can be calculated as ?BS = t(?Y) - ?G = t[1/(1 - c')](?G) - ?G = {[t - 1 + c - (ct)]/[1 - c + (ct)]}(?G) = - {[(1 - c)(1 - t)]/(1 - c + (ct)]}(?G) < 0, sine ?G > 0.Therefore, if government purchases are increased, the budget surplus will decrease.17. Is the size of the actual budget surplus always a good measure for determining fiscal policy?What about the size of the full-employment budget surplus?The actual budget surplus has a cyclical and a structural component. The cyclical component of the budget surplus changes with changes in the level of income whether or not any fiscal policy measure has been implemented. This implies that the actual budget surplus also changes with changes in income and is therefore not a very good measure for assessing fiscal policy. The structural (full-employment) budget surplus is calculated under the assumption that the economy is at full-employment. It therefore changes only with a change in fiscal policy and is a much better measure for fiscal policy than the actual budget surplus. One should keep in mind, however, that the balanced budget theorem implies that the government can stimulate national income by an equivalent and simultaneous increase in taxes and government purchases, thereby affecting the actual or the full-employment budget surplus.18. Assume a model of the expenditure sector with income taxes, in which people who pay taxes,have a higher marginal propensity to consume than people who receive government transfers, and the consumption function is of the following form: C = C o + c(Y - TA) + dTR, withc < d.(a) What will happen to the equilibrium level of income and the budget surplus if governmentpurchases are reduced by the same lump sum amount as taxes?(b) W hat will happen to the equilibrium level of income and the budget surplus if governmenttransfers are reduced by the same lump sum amount as taxes?a. Assume that ?TA o = ?G = - 100 ==>Y = [(-c)/(1 - c')(?TA o) + [1/(1 - c')](?G) = [(1 - c)/(1 - c')](-100) < 0 c' = c(1 - t)National income would decrease.BS = t(?Y) + ?TA o - ?G = t(?Y) < 09The budget surplus would decrease by the loss in income tax revenue.b. Assume that ?TA o = ?TR o = - 100 ==>Y = [(-c)/(1 - c')](?TA o) + [d/(1 - c')](?TR o) = [(d - c)/(1 - c')](-100) < 0 c' = c(1 - t)National income would increase.BS = t(?Y) + ?TA o - ?TR o = t(?Y) < 0The budget surplus would decrease.19. True or false? Why?"The higher the marginal propensity to import, the lower the size of the multiplier."True. Imports represent a leakage out of the income flow. An increase in autonomous spending will raise income and we will see the usual multiplier effect. However, if imports are positively related to income, this effect is reduced since higher imports reduce the level of domestic demand.Closed Economy Model Open Economy ModelSp = C + I + G Sp = C + I + G + NXC = C o + cY C = C o + cYG = G o G = G oI = I o I = I oNX = NX o - mY with m > 0From Y = Sp ==>Y = (C o + I o + G o) + cY Y = (C o + I o + G o + NX o) + (c - m)YY = A o + cY Y = A o + (c - m)YY = [1/(1 - c)]A o Y = [1/(1 - c + m)]A oTherefore the multiplier is defined as[1/(1 - c)] [1/(1 - c + m)]Clearly the open economy multiplier falls short of the closed economy multiplier. This is because leakages reduce demand. If income taxes were included in these models, they too would reduce the multipliers, as income taxes represent another leakage from the income flow.10。

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