语言学教程[第十一章语言学与语言教学]山东大学期末考试知识点复习-推荐下载

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语言学概论知识梳理(期末重点)

语言学概论知识梳理一、导言1、中国、印度、希腊-罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。

2、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出，存在于语言社团中每个人头脑中的共同的语言形式结构是语言学研究的真正对象。

3、运用语言进行交际的过程大体可以分为“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”五个阶段。

三、第二章语言是符号系统1、语言是符号系统。

2、符号是具体事物的标记或代号，是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，其作用是指称现实现象二、第一章语言的功能1、语言的功能：社会功能（信息传递、人际互动）、思维功能。

2、所谓“社会”，指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。

3、语言社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。

这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。

4、语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。

5、语言的社会功能的另一个重要的方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这可以称为语言的人际互动功能。

6、大脑的左半球管右半身的动作，还控制着语言功能以及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能，掌管抽象的、概括的思维。

7、大脑的右半球管左半身的动作，还在音乐等艺术感知、人的面貌识别、立体图形的识别、整体把握能力、内在想象力等方面起着主要作用，掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

8、儿童语言的学习与心智的发展是同步的，并且有所谓的“临界期”：人出生之后过了一定的期限，如果没有后天的正常的社会环境，其语言习得与心智发展的潜能就失去了。

9、聋哑人也是能思维的。

①和常人一样，生活在人类社会中，有健全的大脑和发音器官。

只是因听不见别人说话而学不会语言。

②聋哑人不能运用听觉符号传递信息表达思想，但可以通过别的感觉器官得到补偿（视觉符号，手语，动觉，触觉）。

10、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性与语言的性质密切相关。

语言的普遍性质是语言的最根本的性质。

3、符号包括形式和意义两方面，二者不可分离，相结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式。

语言学概论期末复习重点

语言学概论期末复习提纲导言部分一、语言的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊－罗马五、根据研究对象的不同把语言学分为专语语言学和普通语言学。

五、1共时语言学：以同时的静态分析的方法、研究语言相对静止的状态。

描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，时从横的方面研究语言。

（如现代汉语、当代英语）五、2历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵的方面研究语言的历史。

（如汉语史）五、3专语语言学：又称具体语言学、个别语言学，是以一种或几种有联系的语言为研究对象，研究某一语言的结构。

五、4普通语言学：以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言研究成果而建立起来的。

五、5现代语言学之父：瑞士索绪尔代表作《普通语言学教程》六、语言学流派：历史比较语言学，为后来的结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件，它在19世纪进入了系统的研究，是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

结构语言学的分支：布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。

美国描写语言学代表人物：布龙菲尔德代表作《语言论》第一章语言的功能第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是音义结合的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。

一、1语言的作用：语言是人类社会的交际工具，每个社会无论经济发达还是落后，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离布开语言这个交际工具。

语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一。

语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，没有语言，人类无法交际，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会崩溃，不复存在。

语言又是思维工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维，也无法把思维表达出来。

（如普通话是汉民族用来交流思想传递感情的工具）一、2语言同社会的联系：语言与人类社会息息相关，人类社会以外无所谓语言，不同民族、不同地域都有不同语言。

同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响。

语言学教程课后答案定义归纳

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第三版）---------课后习题单词定义归纳Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.功能function:the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).共时的synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‗point‘ in time.历时的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.规定式prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.二层式duality:the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker‘s immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元语言metalanguage:a language used for talking about language.宏观语言学macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语言能力competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.语言运用performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.语言langue:the language system shared by a ―speech community‖.言语parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语音学phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.发音语音学articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.音系学phonology:the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.发音器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.带声器官voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅音consonant:a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元音vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.发音方式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.发音部位place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元音Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元音semi-vowel:segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].滑元音vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.协同发音coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.音位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.音位变体allophone:variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, theyare said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象assimilation:a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.剩余位置条件Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.音节syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最大节首原则Maximal Onset Principle:a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重音stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable.语调intonation:the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.声调tone:a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. Define the following terms语素morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take for example, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning ―per son who does something), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the ―free‖ category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the ―content‖ of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the ―bound‖ category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of adifferent grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that part of a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds (e.g. daybreak), V erb compounds (e.g. brainwash), Adjective compounds (e.g. dutyfree) and Preposition compounds (e.g. throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a V erb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折变化inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes in a language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word (e.g. un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word (e.g. –ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly common in some other languages. As the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Absogoddamlutely! And Unfuckingbelievable! In fact, all affixes are bound morphemes.派生词derivation:is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. For example: mis +represent àmisrepresent, joy+ ful à joyful, sad + ness à sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, e.g. dis + card à discard (changed) and dis + obey à disobey (unchanged). It is worth mentioning that word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dictionary, such as preamble, pre-arrange, precaution, precede, precedent, precept, precinct, precognition, precondition, precursor, among many others词根root:refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be fu rtherclassified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -tain in retain, contain, and maintain; -cur in incur, recur, and occur, etc. Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. For instance, sleep (/sli?p/) and child (/t?aild/) are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.语素变体allomorph:A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as ―dog‖ ―bark‖ etc. In other instances there may be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /?z/, the diphthong /a?/ found in the irregular form of /ma?s/, the nasal sound /n/ in /??ksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /ti?θ/ and the zero form /i?/ of /?i?p/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.词干stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.黏着语素bound morpheme:refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall into the ―bound‖ category: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree.自由语素free morpheme:refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. In English cats, cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore necessarily consti tute mono-morphemic words. So all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compound words may consist wholly of free morphemes, and English aircraft, godfather and housewife. As for its subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the ―content‖ of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The latter consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it.词位lexeme:in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, ―write‖ is thelexeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.词汇lexicon:refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.语法词grammatical word:refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words.词汇词lexical word:refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.封闭类closed-class:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.开放类open-class:is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.混成法blending:is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, telephone + exchange à telex; transfer + resister à transistor.借词loanword:The borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. For ins tance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup d'etat and others from French, al fresco (in the open air) from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin (a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.混合借词Loan blend:is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words coconut and China-town came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin.转移借词Loan shift: is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means ―bridge‖ in the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.缩略词acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. For example, WTO stands for World Trade Organization. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields, e.g. Aids—acquired immune deficiency syndrome, COBOL—common business oriented language.脱落loss:the loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. Take the sound /x/ in O.E. (old English) again for example. Apart from having changed into /f/ or /k/ in some words as mentioned above, this velar fricative was simply lost between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Sounds lost may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. For example, temperature /'temp?r?t??/ à/'tempr?t??/.逆构词法Back formation:refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word television appeared before televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.同化assimilation:refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called ―contact‖ or ―contiguous‖ assimilation. The assimilation processes at work could be explained by the ―theory of least effort‖; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expressions such as immobile, irrevocable, impolite, illegal, the negative prefixes im-, il-, or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not too far separated. For instance, discussing shortly (/s/ becomes /?/) and confound it (/?/ becomes /a?/). This is called ―non-contiguous‖ or ―distant‖ assi milation. 异化dissimilation:refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. For example, grammar (O.E.) àglamor (M.E.) peregrinus (Latin) àpilgrim marbre (French) àmarble ，In all these examples, one of the phonemes, /r/, dissimilates to /l/ in the course of time, which has changed the morpheme in question.俗词源folk etymology:refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. For example, the word sparrowgrass in English was derived from asparagus and the Spanish cucaracha was changed into English cockroach.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Define the following terms:句法syntax:the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.共现co-occurrence:It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.结构体construction:it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, tog ether with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determ ine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP (―the boy‖), VP (―kicked‖) and NP (―the ball‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.向心结构endocentric:Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.成分constituent:Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constit uent A(―S‖, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.离心结构exocentric:Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head" inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.从属关系subordination:Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.范畴category:The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.并列关系coordination:A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping togethe r two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.一致关系agreement:Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--Whose is this pen?--Oh, it‘s the one I lost.嵌入embedding:Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. E.g., I saw the man who had visited you last year.递归性recursiveness:it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, ―I met a man who had a son whose w ife soldcookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.衔接cohesion:Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive device is ―Reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: He couldn't open the door. It was locked tight.语法主语和逻辑主语grammatical subject & logical subject:Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object nou n (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms:概念意义conceptual meaning:This is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also uses ―sense‖ as a briefer term for his conceptual m eaning. As a result, Leech‘s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.外延denotation:In the philosophers‘ usage, denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary.内涵connotation:In the philosophers‘ usage, connotation, opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the c onnotation of human is ―biped‖, ―featherless‖, ―rational‖, etc.指称reference:Reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.涵义sense:In contrast to reference, sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.同义关系synonymy:Synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.互补反义关系complementary antonymy:Complementary antonymy is the sense relation between two antonyms which are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. Not only He is alive means ―He is not dead‖, He is not alive also means ―He is dead‖.等级反义关系gradable antonymy:Gradable antonomy is the sense relation between two antonyms which differ in terms of degree. There is an intermediate ground between the two. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. Something。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》章节题库(语言学与语言教学)【圣才出品】

第11章语言学与语言教学I. Fill in the blanks.1. ______ is a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. 【答案】Grammar-translation Method【解析】语法翻译法即在外语教学中主要运用翻译和语法学习为教学活动的方法。

2. ______ is formed when the leaner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither.【答案】Interlanguage【解析】当学习者学习一种新语言时，就产生了中介语。

中介语具有第一语言和第二语言的特征，但中介语是一个动态的语言系统，我们不能把中介语看成是母语和二语的过渡阶段或者是二者的简单混合。

3. Hymes’theory leads to nation/function-based syllables, and a step further, ______ syllabuses.【答案】communicative【解析】海姆斯提出的交际教学大纲以功能—意念大纲为基础，它教授表达和理解不同语言功能时所需要的语言，并且强调交际的过程。

4. Error is the grammatically incorrect form; ______ appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.【答案】mistake【解析】错误通常指由于学习者不知道正确的形式或者不能正确地使用语言而出现的错误。

语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)

题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。

导论1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。

2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。

3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。

4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。

5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。

第一章语言的功能1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。

2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。

3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。

相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。

4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。

5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。

6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。

十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。

第二章语言是符号系统1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。

（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。

形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。

意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。

）2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。

3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

《胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)笔记和考研真题详解》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载

08 第8章语言的使用
09 第9章语言与文学
010
第10章语言和计算机
011
第11章第二语言和与流派
作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。 2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。 3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。相对于第三版或第四版，对于在第五版新增加的知识点用“▼”标明，以便于使用不同版本教材的读者使用。
《胡壮麟《语言学最新版读书笔记，下载可以直接修改教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解》
思维导图PPT模板
目录
01 第1章语言学导论
02 第2章语音
03 第3章词和形态学
04
第4章句法：从语词到篇章
05 第5章意义
06 第6章语言与认知
目录

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第十一章Linguistics_and_foreign_language_teaching

4

The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play. The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense.

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2. Linguistics and Language Teaching

Linguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching.

Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specific language items they teach.
Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching
1

Applied linguistics definition.(P.353) firstly: Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. secondly, applied linguistics state the insights and implications that linguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology.

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第10-11章

Chapter 10 Language and Computer1. 计算机语言学计算机语言学可以看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。

计算机语言包括：对语言数据的分析，建立一个序列，通过它，语言学习者可以获得各种语法规律或某一特定词项的出现频率；人工语言的电子生成和人类语言的自动识别；它也包括不同自然语言之间的自动翻译和语篇处理；人与计算机的交流。

2. CAI, CAL & CALL. CAI：计算机辅助教学，就是在教学过程中使用计算机。

. CAL：计算机辅助学习，强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，通过学生自己的推理和和实践，帮助学习者达到教学目标。

. CALL：计算机辅助语言学习，如果说CAI,和CAL是处理一般的教和学，那么CALL是用来处理语言教学的。

它特别是指将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。

3. 机器翻译&人工翻译. 定义机器翻译是指使用机器将语篇从一种自然语言翻译至另一种自然语言。

机器翻译可分为两类：不需要辅助的和需要辅助的。

. 机器翻译&人工翻译在新世纪之初，很明显，机器翻译和人工翻译能够且将会相对协调地同时存在。

我们仍旧需要那些人工翻译者所作出的贡献。

当翻译不得不讲究“可发行”质量时，机器翻译和人工翻译都具有各自的作用。

对语篇翻译来说，在对输出的质量要求不高的地方，机器翻译是一种理想的解决方法。

对信息的一对一交换而言，人工翻译家可能总是会有作用的。

至于口语翻译，一定会是人工翻译者的市场。

4. 计算机语料库. 语料库(corpus)A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as atranscription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language--- for example, to determine how the application of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.语料库是一个语言数据的集合，可以有书面文本构成，也可以由录音言语的转写本构成。

《语言学教程》重点笔记(2020年)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。

(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a/buk/，一支钢笔读作a/pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

语言学期末复习资料整理版

语言学期末复习资料整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第10-11章

Chapter 10 Language and Computer1. 计算机语言学计算机语言学可以看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。

2. CAI, CAL & CALL2.1. CAI：计算机辅助教学，就是在教学过程中使用计算机。

2.2. CAL：计算机辅助学习，强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，通过学生自己的推理和和实践，帮助学习者达到教学目标。

2.3. CALL：计算机辅助语言学习，如果说CAI,和CAL是处理一般的教和学，那么CALL是用来处理语言教学的。

它特别是指将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。

3. 机器翻译&人工翻译3.1. 定义机器翻译是指使用机器将语篇从一种自然语言翻译至另一种自然语言。

机器翻译可分为两类：不需要辅助的和需要辅助的。

3.2. 机器翻译&人工翻译在新世纪之初，很明显，机器翻译和人工翻译能够且将会相对协调地同时存在。

我们仍旧需要那些人工翻译者所作出的贡献。

当翻译不得不讲究“可发行”质量时，机器翻译和人工翻译都具有各自的作用。

对语篇翻译来说，在对输出的质量要求不高的地方，机器翻译是一种理想的解决方法。

对信息的一对一交换而言，人工翻译家可能总是会有作用的。

至于口语翻译，一定会是人工翻译者的市场。

4. 计算机语料库4.1. 语料库(corpus)A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language--- for example, to determine how the application of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.语料库是一个语言数据的集合，可以有书面文本构成，也可以由录音言语的转写本构成。

语言学笔记重点

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。