最新英语语言学超强总结
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
(完整版)英语语言学超强总结
语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的差异性特色：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality指语言由两层结构组成创立性creativity指语言能够被创立移位性displacement指语言能够代表时间和空间上不能及的物体、时间、见解2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、流传、接受过程，观察人类语言中的声音音位学phonology研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics不但关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要差异规定式和描述式：规定式：prescriptive 说明事情应该是怎么样的描述式： descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特准时期语言历时： diachronic研究语言发展规律语言和语言：语言：langue 指语言系统的整体语言： parole 指详尽实质运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky 提出 )能力： competence 用语言的人的语言知识储备运用： performance 真实的语言使用者在实质中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学声学语言学听觉语音学articulatory phonetics 研究语言的产生acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA （国际音标）是由daniel Jones 琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对峙体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3音位变体allophones4互补分布 complementary distribution5自由变体 free variation6差异特色 distinctive features7超音段特色 suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音 stress 语调 tone 声调 intonation四形态学1词的组成语素 morpheme 自由语素 free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化 lexical change proper新创词语 invention 混拼词 blending 缩写词 abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym逆构词汇 back-formation 例： editor— edit类推构词 analogiacal creation 例： work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1范围 category 数 number性 gender 格 case 时 tense 体 aspect一致关系 concord支配关系 govenrment2结构主义学派 the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation 词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 拥有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents : 句子不但是线性结构liner structure 还是层级结构hierarchical structure(句子或短语被称为结构体，而组成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分解析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，获取下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能够再分4向心结构和离心结构 endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为 man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语语言学知识点
英语语言学知识点英语语言学是英语语言文学专业培养计划中的一门基础必修课，接下来店铺为你整理了英语语言学知识点，一起来看看吧。
英语语言学知识点：定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCo mpetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
英语语言学 总结
英语语言学总结简介英语语言学是对英语语言进行科学研究的学科领域。
它涉及语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面，对于了解英语的起源、演变以及语言结构和功能都具有重要意义。
本文将对英语语言学进行一些总结和概述，介绍其中一些重要的概念和理论。
语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，它主要关注语音的产生、传播和听觉等方面。
在英语语言学中，语音学起着重要的作用，它帮助我们了解英语中不同音素（phoneme）的发音规律和特征。
在语音学中，音位（phoneme）是指语音的最小功能单位，而音素（phone）则是对特定发音的描述。
通过了解音位和音素的差异，我们可以更好地理解英语中的发音规则和口音变化。
语法学语法学研究语言的句法结构和规则，包括句子成分、词法、语序等。
英语语法学主要关注英语句子的结构和语法规则。
通过学习英语语法，我们可以了解英语句子构成的基本规则和语言运用中的一些常见现象。
常见的语法概念包括主谓宾结构、时态、语态等。
语义学语义学研究语言的意义和词义，包括词汇的意义、句子的意义以及语言的歧义等。
在英语语义学中，我们探讨英语词汇的意义差异、词义的转化和词汇搭配等。
通过学习英语语义学，我们可以更准确地理解英语中的词汇和句子的意义，并避免产生理解上的困惑。
语用学语用学研究语言的交际功能和使用情境，包括言语行为、话语的指称和暗示、对话结构等。
在英语语用学中，我们研究英语中的礼貌用语、委婉语、修辞手法等。
通过学习英语语用学，我们可以更好地理解英语中的社交规则和交际方式，提高我们的语言运用能力。
英语语言学的意义英语语言学的研究对于我们了解和使用英语具有重要的意义。
它帮助我们理解英语的起源、发展和演变，揭示了英语语言结构和功能的本质。
通过学习英语语言学，我们可以更好地掌握英语的发音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的知识，提高我们的英语语言能力。
此外，英语语言学还对翻译、教学、翻译和语言政策等领域有着重要的影响。
结论通过对英语语言学的总结，我们对英语语言的研究有了更深刻的认识。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义1.语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4. 识别特征 Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of humanlanguage that distinguishit from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴a rbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵P roductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶D ualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets ofstructures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸C ultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to betaught and learned the details of any language system. this showedthat language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5. 语言能力 CompetenceCompetenceis the ideal user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6. 语言运用 performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编简明英语语言学学习重点的总结
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and itmakes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语学习总结（精选25篇）
英语学习总结（精选25篇）紧张又充实的学习生活又告一段落了，想必我们吸收了许多新的思想，不能光会埋头苦干哦，写一份学习总结吧。
但很多人说起写学习总结都是毫无头绪的吧！以下是小编收集整理的英语学习总结，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。
英语学习总结篇1第一：词汇问题。
问题分析：词汇是基础，也是英语学习中最简单也最艰难的一关。
这里所说的词汇并不是简单的指词汇量的问题，还涉及到词汇的长期记忆、词汇的理解、词汇的运用以及词汇的扩展。
很多英语学习者目前遇到的问题是费了九牛二虎之力背下了一本厚厚的词汇书，却发现里面的单词离开了词汇书出现在另外的文章中的时候就完全不认识了，又或者是知道单词的意思，可是却对它的句型和搭配词汇一概不知。
平时用出来的还是那几个单词，大多数单词还是处在认识不会使用的阶段。
解决方法：想要扩充词汇量，记忆是必须的。
但是怎么去记才能更高效更持久？在这里给大家推荐词汇记忆三部曲：首先把词汇写在小纸条上正面英文反面中文；然后打乱顺序开始随便抽，看到中文想英文看到英文想中文，直到所有的单词都过关；最后随机抽取几个单词通过查字典了解其用法，然后当场造句。
如此反复的记忆，能够让这个单词深深嵌入你的脑海。
第二：文章主旨难把握。
问题分析：由于文化差异，西方人的思维方式与中国人迥然不同。
英语文章，尤其是议论文，说明文，逻辑性很强，如果不能够理解文章的主题，抓住文章发展的线路并且清晰段落之间的逻辑关系，即使能够正确翻译出文章里的每一句话，也未必能够透彻了解文章。
解决方法：扩大阅读范围，增大阅读量：大力提倡泛读；阅读范围越广泛知识涉猎面越宽，背景知识和生活阅历越丰富，阅读就越显容易；在扩大阅读的同时要适当积累词汇，如常见词、热门词等都要记录下来、查阅字典并随时记忆；熟悉各种体裁，不拘泥于手中的阅读资料，留心习语和俚语。
有的学生一见到科普文章便头疼，一见到新体裁就心慌。
所以，平时一定要走出成题，走入各种报刊、杂志等英语读物，除了领略内容，熟悉其语言特点，还要对新体裁有一定的了解。
英语语言学总结
英语语言学总结第一章All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。
Language is a means of verbal communication.Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征Design Features:Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。
Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结构的方法。
3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性Duality（二层性）:is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed ofelements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
语言学知识总结
TEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds andmeaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5. 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6. 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结Prepared on 22 November 2020一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
教资英语语言学知识整理总结
教资英语语言学知识整理总结Linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure and function of language. It has been an integral part of my English teaching curriculum, helping students understand the complexity of communication.The study of phonetics and phonology has been pivotal in teaching pronunciation. By understanding the sounds of language and the patterns they form, students can improve their spoken English significantly.Morphology, the study of word structure, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial for building a solid foundation in grammar. These concepts help students construct sentences that are both meaningful and grammatically correct.Semantics, the study of meaning, and pragmatics, which explores how context influences meaning, are essential for understanding the subtleties of language. They allow students to interpret and convey messages accurately.Discourse analysis, examining language beyond the sentence level, has been instrumental in teaching students how to construct coherent paragraphs and essays. It helps them organize their thoughts logically and effectively.The sociolinguistic perspective, which looks at howlanguage varies with different social groups, has broadened students' understanding of language diversity and its impact on communication.Psycholinguistics, the study of language processing in the mind, has been a valuable tool in teaching reading comprehension and language acquisition strategies.Finally, the application of linguistics in teaching English as a second language has been transformative. It has provided a scientific basis for teaching methods, ensuring that instruction is both effective and efficient.In conclusion, the integration of linguistic knowledge into English teaching has enriched the learning experience, equipping students with a deeper understanding of the language and enhancing their communicative skills.。
英语语言学知识点整理
英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么？语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。
2、语言学是什么？语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学，是社会科学的一门重要学科。
3、语言学的分支学科有哪些？语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。
二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么？语音学是研究语音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。
2、音系学是什么？音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科，它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。
3、语音和音系的关系是什么？语音是音系的具体表现形式，而音系则是语音的基础和框架。
语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响，而音系则是一种抽象的概念，它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。
三、句法学1、句法学是什么？句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。
它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。
2、句法学的核心概念有哪些？句法学的核心概念包括：词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。
3、常见的句法结构有哪些？常见的句法结构包括：简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。
四、语义学1、语义学是什么？语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。
2、语义的分类有哪些？语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。
词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义，语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律，语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。
3、语义关系有哪些？语义关系包括：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。
同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系，反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系，上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。
语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科，涉及语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。
以下是一些常见的语言学知识点：1、语言与言语：语言是指一种符号系统，是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。
(最新版)新编英语语言学复习知识点整理
第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology 形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics 应用语言学Phonetics语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。
英语语言学总结与体会
英语语言学总结与体会英语语言学是研究英语语言的结构、历史、语义、语法及其使用的学科。
在学习英语语言学的过程中，我从中获得了许多收获和体会。
首先，在学习英语语言学的过程中，我深刻理解了语言是一种复杂的系统，它不仅仅是为了交流而存在，还是反映文化、思维方式和社会结构的工具。
通过研究英语的音韵、形态、句法和语义等方面，我认识到语言的规则和结构是如何构成一个完整的系统的。
这使我对语言的使用更加有逻辑性和系统性的认识。
其次，学习英语语言学也使我对英语的历史和变化有了更深入的了解。
通过研究英语的发展历程，我意识到语言是一个活跃的、不断变化的实体。
英语的发展历程中经历了许多变化，从古英语到中古英语再到现代英语，每个阶段都有其独特的语法和词汇特点。
这使我明白了语言是如何受到历史、文化和社会变迁的影响的。
此外，学习英语语言学还让我对语言的语用学有了更深入的理解。
语用学研究的是语言在特定情境下的使用。
通过学习语言在不同语境中的意义和功能，我开始更加注重语境对语言理解和交际的影响。
我认识到语言的意义不仅仅取决于词汇和语法规则，还取决于上下文和语用因素。
最后，学习英语语言学还让我对语言学研究的方法和技巧有了更深刻的认识。
通过学习语言学的研究方法和技巧，我学会了如何进行语言数据的收集和分析，如何运用统计方法进行语言研究。
这些技能和知识使我能够更好地理解和解读语言现象，提高自己的语言分析和研究能力。
总而言之，学习英语语言学是一次丰富的学习体验。
通过学习英语语言学，我不仅提高了对英语语言的理解和运用能力，也增长了对语言和文化的认识。
这将对我未来的学习和工作产生积极的影响。
最新英语语言学复习总结
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.(2) Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurringException: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) Duality▪Lower level----sounds (meaningless)▪Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)Exception: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fish(crap), or a public place for rest and amusement(park).(4) DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read?(5) Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation(1)CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag(2) DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize(3) BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾(4) Abbreviation1)cutting the final part ( or with a slightvariation) advertisement-----ad2) cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3) cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge(5) Acronym(I)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronym(II)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税(6) Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit(7) BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, i.e.(that is) e.g.( for example) etc. (et cetera)Chinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish(8) InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rule1.XP rule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: (Specifier)X’X’à X(complement)3. XP rule :(Specifier) X (Complement*)4. XP rule:(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)Complement: (in grammar) that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:Ø one or more complements are permittedØ (eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella …)Ø words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CPØ(e.g. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplace)Ø A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.Ø(e.g. come to school; go to bed; look through it)Modifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, (represented by the capital letters), which gives rise to a verbal response(r) to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky (represented by the small letter S). This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy(同义现象)Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects （地区方言）autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,（文体风格上不同）kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning（examples in Mandarin)（情感上和评价判断上的不同）合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4) Collocational synonyms（搭配意义上的不同）A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5) Semantically different synonyms(语义不同)surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act，perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.(作业本)You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. i.e. asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect (result) of the utterance. It can be “the hearer close the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP (I)The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.（先判断在分析，先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题）Conversational implicature会话含义，言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空，definition 判断选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1)meanings of the words. 2) levels of language below the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how…. , how…Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”--------speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学；----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-------soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学----f rom the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”--------listeningClassification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: ▪The manner of articulation▪The place of articulationBroad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [l ], [ pit ]Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Semantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.Naming theory’s Limitations1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions.Conclusion on semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases); The referent refers to the object in the world of experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Relations:The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.7. Antonymy(反义现象)Antonymy: refers to the oppositeness of meaning.1. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Old-young, hot-cold, tall-short2. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Alive-dead, male-female, …3. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two itemsHusband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, employer-employee, give-receive…8. Homonymy（同形异义）Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling.tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, ball(E,F), bank, watch, scale, fast, …Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.▪“table” may mean:▪1. A piece of furniture▪2. All the people seated at a table▪3.The food that is put on a table▪4. A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.▪5. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……X entails Y(蕴含关系)▪X: John married a blond heiress.▪Y: John married a blond.▪X: Marry has been to Beijing.▪Y: Marry has been to China.▪Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.▪If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y（预射关系）▪X: His bike needs repairing.▪Y: He has a bike.▪Paul has given up smoking.▪Paul once smoked.▪If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.The Relatedness between Language and SocietyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships2. The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).Predication analysis(III)1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.I like you(two place)It is hot (no place)…Performatives’Features (Austin’s)“I declare the meeting open.”1. first person, singular subject2. simple present tense3. indicative mood4. active voice5. performative verbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomativesSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts (1969)（判断出是那一种）Assertives/representatives（陈述）---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…I think it is good.Directives（指令）---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!…Sit down, please.Commissives（承诺）---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, such as promise or a threat. e.g.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.If you do not stop fighting, I’ll call the police.I promise to come.Expressives（表达）----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state(feeling and attitudes) about something,such as an aplology, a complaint, to thank someone, to congratulate someone. e.g.I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…You are so wonderful!Declarations（宣告）----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…I now pronounce you man and wife.Note: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.(1)I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.e.g.(2)In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!Language changeperiods1) 449—1100: Old EnglishBeginning: English-speaking Anglo-Saxon and Jutes invaded into the British IslesThe End: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman Frenc h invadersGlæs; guma; gat----glass ---man ---goat“Beowulf”---England 8century poem,brave warrior2) 1100—1500 Middle EnglishBeginning: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersThe End:“European Renaissance Movement”Latin and French“The Canterbury Tales”----Geoffrey Chaucer (1345-1400)3) 1500—the present Modern EnglishBeginning: “European Renaissance Movement”The End: the presentDiphthongs appears: ai, au, ei, eu, ou, oiBecause of pressing industry overspreading, the spelling forms are determined/less changes.Regional dialectReason: This differentiation is accounted for the lack of communication in the old days when travel was difficult.Female Speech’s Features1. Women are usually more status-conscious than men in theEnglish-speaking world; therefore, their speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.2. The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation.3. Female speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech.Register: a Speech Variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (e.g. stamp collectors, baseball fans).In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:▪field of discourse,▪tenor of discourse,▪mode of discourseField of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)Tenor of discourse:the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)Mode of discourse:the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)Standard Variety:=standard dialect=standard language:the variety of a language which has the highest Status in a community of nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.(文化影响语言，语言影响文化)The inadequacy of behaviorist view1. What they imitate must be based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.2. They imitate words selectively and according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns.3. how children acquire complex language system.Language acquisition device: LAD the capacity to acquire one’s First language, when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechanism or apparatus.Universal Grammar: a theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. （了解一下UG）（prototype原型）It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of Parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.Motherese’s Features1. shorter utterances than speech to other adults2. grammatically simple utterances3. few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition4. clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated Intonation patterns CommentBehaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects;The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system;And the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)Vocabulary development1) Under-extension (外延缩小）2) Over-extension（外延延伸）3) Prototype theoryGrammatical development1) Telegraphic speech (2)2) Sentences of three main elements (2.5)Contrastive analysis (CA)the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. （language transfer）2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.3.Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference1970s, it declined and was replaced by Error Analysis▪Language transfer：the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur.▪* “I am here since Monday.”▪“ I have been here since Monday.”▪Because of the transfer of the French pattern▪Je suis ici depuis lundi▪Negative transfer,负向转移 also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an Error orinappropriate form in the Target Language. For example, a Frenchlearner of English may produce the incorrect sentence ▪“table, transport,restaurant, surprise”▪Positive transfer,正向转移 is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target languagehave the same form. For example, both French and English have theword ‘table’, which can have the same meaning in both languages.Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,a. Substitution of [t] for [W] and [d] for [T]: threeàtree,thisàdis.b. Sh ortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmitIntralingual errorsThe intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.▪Two types of errors have been well exploited:overgeneralization & cross-associationTrue or False1. In an exciting argument, the speakers could express themselves fluently?2. In an exciting argument, the speakers have grammatical expressions all the time?3. After your listening others’ speech, could you repeat it totally?4. About pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can identify the noun and verb in speaking? (“an apple” is a thing; “run” is an action)5. And also about pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you thi nk they can define the term “noun”?三、pairPrescriptive vs DescriptiveHe love that picture. We see a film yesterday.Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language(tradition grammar)“Give me that cup.” “ Could you bring me that cup?” “ Cup!”Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistics)Synchronic vs diachronicA Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespear’s EnglishSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of timeLangue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Langue is the lexical, grammatical, and phonological constitution of a language to be implanted in the native speaker’s mind (or brain) in childhood as the collective product of the speech community envisaged as a supra-individual entity in its own right. In speaking his language the speaker could only operate or perform within this langue; what he actuallyuttered was parole, and the only individual control he could exercise was when to speak and about what to speak.The aim to distinguish them is to abstract langue from parole. The reason to distinguish them is that parole is simply a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation.Langue Parole 1.abstract concrete 2all the members in actual use 3 linguistic competence of the speaker actual phenomena or data oflinguistics (utterance)4 not accessible5 social individual6 essential accidentalconclusion S ocial bond constitutes languageActive use of speakingCompetence and performance (Chomsky)Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.plementary distribution2. Phonemic contrast;3.Minimal pair.Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts. They never occur in the same context.Phonemic contrast----similar sounds, meanwhile can be used to distinguish the two phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Minimal pair----two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one Phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemekindness; international; friendlyroot & affix----- Derivational morphemes(friendlytalks; talking; talked; boy’s; applesstem & affix----- Inflectional morphemes(friends)Lexical meaning---basic notion of meaning。
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语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution5 自由变体free variation6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
例：on the shelf5生成学派the generative approach深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage6功能学派the functional approach主位与述位 theme and rheme主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about7交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度六、语义学1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物社会意义情感意义 affective meaning反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义搭配意义 collocative meaning主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义2指称论 referential theory指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论3语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出Symbol或form指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements能指thought指概念concept所指reference指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience涵义sense语言形式的意义4主要涵义关系○同义关系synonymy地域同义词dialectal synonymy风格同义词 stylistic synonyms感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬○反义关系antonymy等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。
例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy一词多义 polysemy七、语用学1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作○施为句和叙事句performative and constative施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果2会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则○四个准则four categories of maxims数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则3后格赖斯时期的发展○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出八现代语言学理论和流派1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”2 布拉格学派Prague School贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念4伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。
韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。
把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象5美国结构主义American Structuralism共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis语言相对论-语言决定论○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。
描述语言学的代表人物6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device。