英语语言学 3.4章总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modernlinguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N.Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge.lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标 diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for easeof articulation(清晰发音) e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed 3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional… -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functionsin a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating thearrangement of elements that make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to theleft of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g.open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstractcategory encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train ____ arrive?NP VPDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structure wh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and alsoabstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, whichare related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:”The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning)polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. female relational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE)Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication (meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austinin late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果)John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believesto be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Willyou close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee. Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy. The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other.The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequateevidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be briefand orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词), Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词 e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday =holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the past semantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English, influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.)causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changesand needs, the way children acquire language, grammarsimplification, elaboration & complication, etc. No singlecauseChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation betweenlanguage andsociety, between the uses of language and the social structures in whichthe users of language live. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by the educational background,the occupation, the gender, the age , of the ethnic affiliation of its members. speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect(characteristic of a particular social class---different social conditions),language and gender (female speech is less assertive and thus sounds morepolite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like using oldwords more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect ofa language cutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varietiespossessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation):field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono.& gramm. features),tenor of discourse (语旨 who the participants are and therelationship between them determines the formality and thelevel of technicality),mode of discourse(语式 the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing)Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu.institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech ofpolitical or commercial centers, for official purposes or any formal occasions) Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang. of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidginas native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together. Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.)Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is andaffects a culture’s way of thinking. Language is to culture what part isto whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talkingSapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are boundwith cultural encodings or associations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers,words and cultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbsand metaphorsCulture contact--- acculturation(文化移入 political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收 immigration), amalgamation (合并 ethnical mix / synthesisrather than the elimination or absorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展 e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguisticnationalismChap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively andaccording to their own understanding of the sounds or patterns, which is basedon what the children have already known instead of what is “available” inthe environment. This theory fails to explain how they acquire more complexgrammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. It is said to contain principles that are universal to allhuman languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical system Children ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter and simpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways: First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, their language development also helps in the formation andenhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for languageacquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisition Stages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of theenvironment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it.likely to occur laterGrammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering (口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquiresa secondlanguage subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreign language (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreignlanguage in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and comparethe two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels—phonological, lexical…),intralingual errors (语内错误 result from faulty or partial learning of theTL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situations Cross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化 a processoccurring from time to time in which incorrectlinguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks or writes a language.fossilized pronunciation leads to accent)Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning:acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious efforts Learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personality motivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish to identify with the target culture),resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsic motivation(for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略 involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitivestrategies (元认知策略 the techniques in planning, monitoring andevaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native ornon-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干 shared by all animals to keep the body aliveby maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑 differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstem neuron神经元 Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层 the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissureThe cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse”of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the main connection between which is a bundle of nerve fibers called corpus callosumEach hemisphere has its own substructures called lobes:the frontal ~, parietal ~, temporal ~, occipital ~Investigative techniques for the study of the brain:Autopsy studies(尸体解剖): to find the relationship between the area of brain damage and the type of disorder the patient displayed while alive.investigation of the brain itself: SAT, CT scanning, PET, MRI, fMRI“Sodium(钠) Amytal” Test (SAT)--riskyComputerized Axial Tomography (CT scanning): X-ray to create brainimages—static(静态) images。
新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication andit makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学第四章要点英语整理
语言学第四章要点(2011-10-11 21:15:48)说明：本章要点参考了多本教材，其中的X-bar theory, Universal Grammar, merger and move等部分仅供考研的同学参考。
其他同学不做要求。
第四章Syntax句法学1.Syntax定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句 contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. Theyare subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence的特征：Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories:句法类型1.lexical categories词类 (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs whena constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operationof which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)（generate）―――D-structure (deep structure) ―――Movement Rules （ transform）―――― S-structure (Surface structure) A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 Moreα-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate tha t only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary。
英语语言学总结
英语语言学总结第一章All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。
Language is a means of verbal communication.Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征Design Features:Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。
Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结构的方法。
3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性Duality（二层性）:is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed ofelements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
英语语言学语言学知识点课件
4. scope of linguistics
(语言学的研究范围)
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)
defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别: • 联想: mathematics, physics, mechanics
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phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强
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•
geology, sociology, astrology
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phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.
• Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版
Chapter 4syntactic（句法的）relationspositional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential（有序的）arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relationsWord order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的）relations or in Hjemslev’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.grammatical construction and its constituentsGrammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）immediate constituents(直接成分）Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: SNP VPDe t VDe t NThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本身的（A）the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl))((ate)((the) (apple))))Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.and Exocentric Constructions（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”or “Head”inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属）refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:. Syntactic（句法）FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject”and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in（范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voiceNumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.(or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories)., Clause and SentencePrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SVA Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.(递归性）Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotacticand paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication. coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句子即并列（嵌入）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。
英语语言学笔记第三章
当人们在统计一篇文章或一段话中的频率时，看到一组名词如boy、boys或一组动词如check、checks、checked、checking，会分别把它们当作两个词、四个词计算。可是，在词典里它们各自被看作一个词，如这两个名词形式共用词根"boy"，四个动词形式全都共用词根"check"。因此，词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
为了减少"词"这一术语的含糊性，词位（lexeme）被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。例如，"write"和"fat"分别是例3－3中两组词的词位。
例3－3
write fat
writes fatter
wrote fattest
writing
written
ⅱ.助动词
以前习惯于把助动词（auxiliary）看作动词。因为其特有的性质，很难让人们将它们看作动词，现在语言学家倾向于把它们当作一个单独的词类。下面我们比较一下助动词和其他普通动词的用法：
例3－10
否定I（can't）come.
* I（wantn't）come.
倒置（Is he）coming?
*（Keeps he）coming?
（4）词类
上面所说的类别似乎是普遍的。要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似性来给词分组。在传统语法中词类（part of speech）是封闭的。基于拉丁语法的传统，一般建立八个或九个词类，如"名词"、"代词"、"形容词"、"动词"、"副词"、"介词"、"连词"、"感叹词"和"冠词"。
语言学期中备考(考点及前四章小结)
Chapter One: Language and Linguistics1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.What are the design features of languageArbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission3.What are the functions of language?Informative:By the use of Declarative SentencesInterpersonal :(Dear Professor, yours, Johhny)Performative: change the status of people, (为孩子祈福), the cursing of enemies. （长命百岁，万寿无疆，岁岁平安）Emotive: “ God, My, Damn it, Wow, etc”Phatic: Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weatherRecreational: poetryMetalingual:the use of language to talk about language itself.4.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. (It does not study particular language, but it studies languages in general)5.What are the main branches of linguistics?Sound: phonetics语音学, phonology 音位学Structure: morphology词法, syntax句法Meaning: semantics语义学, pragmatics语用学6.Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThey represent different types of linguistic study:If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptiveIf the linguistic stu dy aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e, to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.petence and PerformanceA language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situationsChapter Two: Speech Sounds1.The diagram of speech organs. (发音器官图)2.What is phonetics and what is phonology?Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds and how speech sounds are produced, classified, transmitted and perceived.Phonology: It is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It also studies how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Phoneme 音位/slash/:Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is a phoneme. /p/Phone音素[square bracket]:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. [p h](as in pit),[p](as in spit)Allophone 音位变体:The different phones of the same phoneme produced in actual speech are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位才能区别意思，音素不行5.Minimal pairs.Minimal pairs: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.e.g. fan—van; bet—bat; site—side; bet—bat; sink—zinc 只看读音，不管字母Chapter Three: Morphology1.Definitions: morpheme and morphology.Morpheme:词素Morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical. It is the smallest linguistic unit of meaning. If further divided, it loses its meaning.Morphology:词法Morphology is the scientific study of the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed.2.Types of morphemesTwo main types of morpheme1，Free morphemes:(单独成词的)①Lexical morphemes 实意（n. adj. v. adv. Etc.）②Functional morphemes 功能（conj. prep. article.etc.）2，Bound morphemes:（不能单独使用）①Derivational: (review, preview)②Inflectional: (sisters, laughing) 看是否改变意思，词性等来判断3.Word formation processes①Coinage/invention造词i.e zipper, Xerox②Borrowing借词i.e Kungfu, tycoon③Compounding合成词i.e bookstore, boyfriend④Blending混合词i.e smog, brunch⑤Abbreviation缩略词i.e ad, bike⑥backformation逆构词i.e n.→v. begger-beg, option-opt⑦Conversion转换词i.e rebel(n./v.), ally(n./v.)⑧Acronyms(Initialism)首字母i.e CD⑨Derivation 派生i.e adding affix-prefix(submerge),suffix(reality),infix （absofuckinglutely口语）Chapter Four: Syntax1.Definitions: syntax; IC analysis; phrase structure rules; XP rule; deep structure; surfacestructure;Syntax: Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language.IC analysis: IC Analysis is to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.E.g. Poor John ran away. →(1) (((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)))Phrase structure rule: A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates theDet.The,a,this,those…Deg.程度词Quite,mainly,very…Qual.修饰词Often,always,seldom…XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement), X stands for head N, V, A or PDeep structure: Deep Structures may be defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its objectSurface structure: The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.2.Analyze sentences with tree diagrams.3.What is transformational grammar?。
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for,A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denial, and in some case even verified.e.g: The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动)context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communion code-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintainsocial relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situationin which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with allthe sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)Three branches Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsLongest historylung airglottisVocal cords2.2.3 orthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowInternational phonetic alphabet:letter→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit] h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in]2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds2.2.4.1 classification of English consonant（流音）Glides（滑音）VD w j2.2.4.2 classification of English vowelsMonophthongs：front central back close I: I U: u Semi-close e e:Semi-open e C: open ae a ^D a:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phoneticsP h o n o l o g y v s p h o n e t i c sSpeech soundsForm patters & convey meaning Produced features & classified2.3.5 suprasegmental features(phonemic features that occur above the level of segments)Stress : N & vTone：四声Intonation： different may convey different meaning even the sentences unchanged3.MorphologyGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structureWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseRoot: believeStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,留下词根和派生成份)Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of words Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismJ.R Firth。
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结
speech categories which reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational and ethnic background, as well as their sex and age.•语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。
社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。
导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。
e) Stylistic variation 文体变异•There are differences associated with the speech situation: who is speaking to whom about under what circumstances for what purpose.•有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异：言语情景即在什么情况下，为了什么目的，谁与谁讲什么。
•Stylistic variation in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation. Style can also refer to a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times, or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time, e.g., Dickens’ style, Hemingway’s style.•根据交际情景的类型，一个人的口头语和书面语的文体会发生变化，变异区间是从随便文体或口语体到正式文体或文雅文体。
语言学 chapter 3 总结
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。
语言学一至三章重点
语言学一至三章重点Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.1 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2 What are the design features of language?The features that refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication can be called design features.1]ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There are different levels of arbitrariness.2] Duality aBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structure that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. We call sounds here primary units as opposed to such secondary units as words, since the primary units are meaningless and the secondary units have distinct and identifiable meaning.3] CreativityCreativity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.4] DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent at the moment of communication.1.3 What are the functions of language?1] Informative functionIt is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.2] Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.3] Performative functionThe perfomative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons.4] Emotive functionIt is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against some or something. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.5] Phatic functionThe phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or marinating social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas. It refers to the social interaction of language.7] Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking.1.4 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of science which takes language as its object of investigation.1.5 What is the difference between descriptive study and prescriptive study?A linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on high written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It believes that whatever occurs in natural speech should be describe in the analysis.1.6What is the difference between synchronic description and diachronic description?The description of a language at some point of time is a synchrony study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.1.7 What are langue and parole? What is the difference between them?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizes language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints.For F. de Saussure parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instancesof parole, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.8 What are competence and performance? What is the difference between them?According to N. Chom sky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sound2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected.2.2 What is IPA?On the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time, the International Phonetic Association devised the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in 1888.2.3 What’s the difference between broad and narrow transcriptions?Narrow transcription is meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades, while broad transcription is intended to indicate only those sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.2.4 The description of English consonantConsonant Description = voice/voiceless + places of articulation + manners of articulation[p] voiceless bilabial stop2.5 What is phonology?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.2.6 What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are supposed to form a minimal pair for example, pill and bill, pill and till, till and dill, till and kill.2.7 What are phone, phoneme and allophone?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is unit that is ofdistinctive value.The phones representing a phoneme are called its allophones. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is morpheme?Morpheme: it is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?A free morpheme is one that ma y constitute a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree” and “sing”.A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “-al” in “national”.3.3 What are compound word and derivation word?It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.According to semantic criteria, compounds fall into two classes:The first class is called endocentric compounds comprising words like armchair (a kind of chair) and houseparty (a kind of party). In each, one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.The second class is exocentric compounds, consisting ofwords like redskin and birdbrain, in which there is no focal element and the whole refers to something else rather than what either the constituents. Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.3.4 What are lexical changes? Explain them respectively.(1) InventionPeople can create new word coping with the new entities appeared during the social and economic development.(2) BlendingIt is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(3) AbbreviationA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial and final parts.(4) AcronymIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified head word.(5) Back-formationBack-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is,a prefix or suffix) is removed from a word to create a new one.(6) Analogical creationIt can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.(7) Borrowingi. loanwords: ii. loanblend：iii. loanshif：iv. loan translation：。
英语专业考研-语言学各章节常考知识点
《英语语⾔学》是⽬前各⾼校的英语专业考研必考的科⽬之⼀，由于各⾼校的语⾔学考试所指定的参考书⽬种类数⽬繁多、难易繁简程度不⼀，给考⽣们的复习带来了许多不便。
不少考⽣觉得语⾔学晦涩难懂，不知从何下⼿。
北京环球时代学校根据历年英语专业考研语⾔学专业试卷进⾏汇总，归纳出语⾔学各章节常考的知识点，希望备考2008年英语专业考研的学⽣抓住重要考点，顺利通过英研考试。
⼀、语⾔学部分：什么是语⾔学；语⾔学研究的基本⽅法；语⾔学的学科结构。
⼆、语⾔部分：语⾔的定义；语⾔本⾝的特点；语⾔的功能
三、语⾳学部分：语⾳学的分类；发⾳语⾳学中对元⾳与辅⾳的划分；研究⽅法（宽式标⾳；严式标⾳）
四、⾳位学部分：概念；与语⾳学的区别；什么叫⾳位；⾳位理论有哪些；超⾳段⾳位学
五、形态学部分：语素的定义与分类；构词法（要会运⽤）
六、句法学部分：语法范畴（定义；分类）；语法关系有哪些；⽣成语⾔学（TG）；结构主义语⾔学是如何研究句⼦的；功能语⾔学是如何研究句⼦的
七、语义学部分：意义的分类有哪些；词义关系的分类及其定义；句义关系；语义学研究的两种⽅法（成分分析法；述谓分析法）
⼋、语⽤学：什么叫语⽤学；语⽤学与语义学的区别；⾔语⾏为理论；会话含义理论（要会运⽤）
另外，语⾔学主要出题形式有：名词解释、选择题、填空题、正误判断题和问答题。
希望同学们能借此了解语⾔学最精要的框架，把握英语专业考研语⾔学的脉络，最终考取理想院校。
（王进）。
语言学概论-第三单元-语法3
语言学概论General Linguistics 第三单元语法3.4句法分析之中心词分析法语言学概论General Linguistics例句：这份报告我写不好.计算机通过词库分词：这份报告我写不好计算机进行词性标注：r q n r v d a为什么要句法分析●句子成分分析法（中心词分析法）直接成分分析法（层次分析法）变换分析法常见句子分析方法●句子成分分析法也叫做中心词分析法。
句子成分分析法的总的特点是：认定语法分析就是分析一个句子（单句）的句子成分分析的过程是：(1)先看清全句的主要成分，哪个是主语，哪个是谓语；(2)再看充当谓语的动词是不是及物动词，以决定后面是否有连带成分宾语；(3)最后指出附加在主语、宾语之前、谓语之后的所有附加成分。
（一）中心词分析法●一、中心词分析法（句子成分分析法）1．中心词分析法的内涵2．中心词分析法图解方法⑴划线分析法比较通用的符号是：主语＝谓语—兼语~~~宾语~~~补语<>定语()状语[]（淘气的）弟弟[已经]做<完了>(今天的)作业~~~一、中心词分析法（句子成分分析法）●⑵关系式图解法我把他给打了。
他被我打了一顿。
我把钢笔弄坏了。
这个问题我不知道。
有关句法成分的问题●中心词分析法可以快速提取句子主干，去除无用信息，在快速阅读，把握段落大意，还有病句判断中作用很大1.为了班集体，做了很多好事2.少先队员们积极响应学习雷锋中心词分析法与语文教学●思考这张照片放大了一点儿谢谢观看有缘学习更多＋谓ｙｇｄ３０７６考证资料。
英语语言学1-6章 笔记
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Why study language?▪ A tool for communication▪An integral part of our life and humanity▪If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.1.2 What is language?▪Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System: Elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned (×); bkli (×).Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Vocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. Communication-----A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. ―Language Acquisition Device‖ (LAD)1.3 Design features of language▪Charles Hockett (1958) American linguistArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacement▪arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house”部屋(Japanese)房子(Chinese)▪Duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.▪the higher level ----words which are meaningful▪The lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.▪Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (novel utterances are continually being created.) ▪Non-human signals, on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.E.g.: an experiment of bee communication:▪Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.1.4 Origin of language▪Granted by God▪Created by human beings in their social life▪The whole earth had one language and was of one speech. As they migrated from the east, it happened that they found a plain in the land of Shinar, and they settled there. They said one to another, 'Come, let's make bricks, and bake them thoroughly.' (Genesis 11:1-3 ) 1.5 Functions of language▪Informative▪Interpersonal function▪Performative▪Emotive function▪Phatic communion▪Recreational function▪Metalingual function1.6 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generallyDefined as the scientificStudy of language.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.1.7 Main branches of linguistics▪Phonetics▪Phonology▪Morphology▪Syntax▪Semantics▪Pragmatics1.8 Macro linguistics▪Psycholinguistics▪Sociolinguistics▪Anthropological linguistics▪Computational linguistics1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics▪Descriptive vs. prescriptive▪Synchronic vs. diachronic▪Langue & parole▪Competence & performance▪Traditional linguistics & modern linguisticsDescriptive vs. prescriptive▪They represent two different types of linguistic study.▪If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic▪The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study。
语言学第四章总结
Chapter 4 Form Word to TextSyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituen ts are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:句法关系a. Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontal relation or chain relat ionb. Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of word subst itutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same st ructure. It refers to groups of more than one word which may be joi ntly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set . It called associative relations, vertical relations, choice relations.c. Relation of cooccurrence共现关系2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called imme diate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysi s or IC analysis.3. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent. Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4. Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction. (and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic unit s so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5. Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic fo rm and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. a. Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. It incl udes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics in clude word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb. Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c. Object include direct object and indirect object6. Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense and refers to the defining properties of these general units. a. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes di splaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b. Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter.c. Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify the syntacti c relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived. Agreement (concord)7. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that expres s a compete thought.8. Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embedding one relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in t he sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic. Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjuncti on, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substituti on)9. Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a senten ce, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively s mall number of classes.Wordlevel categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and min or lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary, conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain wo rd category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, comple ment10. Phrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arr angement of elements that make up a phrase. NP----(Det) N (PP)… VP---(Qual) V (NP)… AP---(Deg) A (PP)… PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement) The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11. Phrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise the meaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are thems elves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The XP rul es (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed com plementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the constr uction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matr ix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads. The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。
语言学 chapter 3 总结
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。
语言学第三章总结
Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology▪boys = boy + -schecking = check + -ingdisappointment =dis- + appoint + -ment▪Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units withoutdestroying or drastically altering the meaning, whetherit is lexical or grammatical.▪ a minimal unit of lexical or grammatical meaning▪Morphology (形态学): The study of internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. e.g.adj.+ ify → verb: purify, amplify, electrify, falsify▪It is a systematic study of morpheme.3.1.2 Types of Morphemes▪Free morpheme and bound morpheme▪Root, affix and stem▪Inflectional affix and derivational affixFree Morpheme & bound Morpheme 自由语素和黏着语素▪In terms of their capacity of occurring alone▪Free morphemes: those which may occur alone, i.e.those which may constitute words by themselves, e.g.dog, nation, close▪All mono-morphemic words are free morphemes.▪Compounds: poly-morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds, e.g.paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower ▪Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur alone, distempered: dis-, temper, -edRoot, affix & stem 词根，词缀，词干▪Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.▪ A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without destroying its meaning.Inter-nation-al-ism▪All words contain a root morpheme.▪An affix is the collective term for the type ofmorpheme that can be used only when addedtoanother morpheme (the root or stem). Affix isnaturally bound.▪Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, prefix (前缀), suffix (后缀), and infix (中缀).▪Prefix: paragraph, miniskirt, undo▪Infix: feet abso-bloomingly-lutely▪Suffix: colonize, revolution (an affix inserted within a stem)▪ A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound.▪First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, e.g.black (black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith).▪Free root morphemes are potentially unlimited in number in a language. ▪Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, e.g. -ceive (receive, perceive, conceive); -mit (remit, permit, commit, submit); -tain (retain, contain, maintain); -cur (incur, recur, occur) ▪Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants, e.g. sleep and child slep -t and child-ren (第三版) ▪A stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix (屈折词缀) can be added, e.g. friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships.▪ The relationship among the root, affix and stem may be portrayed as follows.Inflectional affix(IA)& derivational affix(DA)屈折词缀和派生词缀▪ Inflectional affixA morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as such as number, tense,+ AffixRoot Affi + Stem Affix +Stem Stemdegree and case, e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John‟s.▪Derivational affixA morpheme that serves to derive a word of one classor meaning from a word of another class or meaning,e.g. establishment.▪First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: they very often only add aminute or delicate grammatical function to the stem,e.g. toys, walks, John‟s.▪They serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme.▪In contrast derivational affixes are very productive in making new words, e.g. cite, citation; generate,generation.▪Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. ▪Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower,flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as small-smallness, brother-brotherhood. ▪Third, whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors withinthephrase or sentence, e.g. The boy likes to navigateon the internet.▪Derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions, e.g. clever (property of clever),cleverness (the state of being clever).▪In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, e.g. drums, walks,Mary‟s.▪Derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both, e.g. suburban, depart, online, slaver, teacher,workable, international, supernational.▪Similarityboth regarding affixes▪Differences ：Productivity, Meaning change,Condition, PositionSememe, phoneme&morpheme义素，音素与语素▪Sememe: the smallest component of meaning. e.g.The morpheme -s has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than one.▪Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound▪Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar；the smallest unit of language in regard to therelationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units withoutdestroying or drastically altering the meaning3.1.3 Morphological change and Allomorph语素变体▪Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes, e.g. when the subject is thirdperson singular, the archaic form of the present tenseis -eth, such as goeth.▪The plural forms of seed and way are seeds and ways rather than *seedes and *wayes. The old forms of thesecond person thou, ye and yee are now replaced byyou, and thy by your. The …s-form existed in OldEnglish, but changed into “of-phrase” if the nouns inquestion were inhuman in Middle English, but there isa tendency to reuse the old forms such as theuniversity‟s campus. Expressions such as the Queenof England‟s crown is no longer regarded asungrammatical. However, they should be in the formof the Queen‟s crown of England at Chaucer‟s time.Changes can be seen in:Split infinitive (分裂不定式): I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it.▪Postponed prepositions (介词延后): That person is impossible to work with.▪Objective case of relative pronoun (关系代词的宾格): The girl who(m) he talk about is a violinist.▪Fusion / blending (融合法或混成法):equally good + just as good → equally as good It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use ingetting there before nine → There‟s no use gettingthere before nine.▪Broadening (词义扩大): A process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific senseto a relatively general one, e.g.holiday: holy day (religion) → day for rest▪Narrowing (缩小): The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense, e.g.hound: dog → a special kind of dog▪Meaning shift (词义转移): Its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage,e.g. bead: prayer → the prayer bead→ small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood ▪Class shift (词性变化): shift the word class (详见后) ▪Folk etymology (俗词源): A change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notionof the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken tobe analogous, e.g. wizard (神汉) → wiz (能手) → whiz (奇才)▪Loss (脱落): the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system; It may alsooccur in utterances at the expense of someunstressed vowels.▪Addition (添加): Sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.▪Metathesis (换位): It is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. It had beenoriginally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.▪Assimilation(同化): It refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.▪It could be explained by the “theory of least effort” (省力理论)▪Iesus → Jesus sate → sat Sunne → sun3.2 What is word?3.2.1 Word and Lexical Items▪Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken orwritten (第三版) a typical grammatical unit betweenMorpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check,write and fat. (第四版)▪①a physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or writing letters betweentwo pauses or blanks. [Phonological (音系上) andorthographic (拼写上)]▪Problem: When liaison and contracted forms occur It is wonderful. /ɪtɪs 'wʌndəful/It‟s wonderful. /ɪts 'wʌndəful/Identification of Words词的识别▪②both as a general term and as a specific term: (第三版); word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and lexical item a specific item (boy and boys are two lexical items) (第四版)▪③a grammatical unit▪Problem: free morphemes or words: black, bird, air, craft, town, hall▪①Stabilitythe constituent parts of a complex word cannot berearranged, e.g. chairman, *manchairWhile, to rearrange the parts or constituents in asentence is all right, e.g. John is a clever boy. A clever boy John is.▪②Relative uninterruptibilityNew elements cannot be inserted into a word evenwhen there are several parts in a word. Nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the worddisappointment:*dis(#)appoint(#)ment. Nor is one allowed to usepauses: *dis appoint ment.While, in a sentence, we can do that: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.▪③A minimum free formthe smallest unit that can constitute a completeutterance by itself, e.g.——Is Jane coming tonight?——Possibly.Articles a and the in English cannot stand bythemselves. However, advocators cite the followinginstance.——What is missing in a sen tence such as …Dog isbarking‟?——A.3.2.2 Classification of Words▪Variable vs. invariable words可变化词和非变化词Variable words: words have inflectional changes. That is, the same words may have different grammatical forms, but part of the word remains constant, e.g.follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats.Invariable words: those words such as since,when,seldom, through, hello. They do not haveinflective endings.▪②Grammatical words vs. lexical words语法词和词汇词Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings,such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns (Function words)Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (Content words)The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words) and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together. (functionwords).▪③Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed orlimited New members are not regularly added, e.g.pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: a word whose membership is in principleinfinite or unlimited, e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives,adverbs, etc.The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems, e.g.prepositions or complex preposition: regarding,throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means ofAuxililary verbs (used to be open-class word, closed in number)▪④Word class词类It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech (词类) intraditional grammar.Nine word classes are established: noun, pronoun,adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction,interjection, article.Some new categories▪Particles (助词): the infinitive marker to, the negative marker not and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs (get by过活, do up捆好, look back回忆)▪②Auxiliaries (助动词): used to be regarded as verbs.Linguists tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs. Examples can be found when used in negation, inversion, code and emphasis.▪③Pro-form (代词形式): traditionally, it refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute fora nominal group (名词词组) or a single noun.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he‟ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative (代处所词): Jame‟s hiding there, behind the door.Pro-form: refers to the items in a sentence whichsubstitute for other items or constructions.▪④Determiners (限定词): words used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine thekind of reference the noun phrase has Quirk, et al.(1985: 253): three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, threetimes, one-third, one-fifthCentral determiners: definite and indefinite articles, e.g.a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, either, neither, my, our, your, etc.Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals (基数词), ordinalnumerals (序数词), general ordinals (一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other, additional and other quantifiers (其它量词) : many, a few, several, much, little, a lot of, etc.When different sub-classes of determiners occurtogether, they follow the order of predeterminers +central determiners + postdeterminers.3.3 Word Formation(1) From Morpheme to Word▪Two fields morphology (形态学) concerns:▪The study of inflections: INFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGY 屈折形态学(bike + -s)▪The study of word formation: LEXICAL orDERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY 词汇形态学或派生形态学(view + -er)3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation▪INFLECTION: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness (有定性), aspect (体) and case (格), which do not change the grammaticalclass of the stems to which they are attached▪Number: table / tablesPerson, finiteness, aspect: talk / talks / talking / talked Case: boy / boy‟s3.3.2 The Derivational Way of Formation▪Two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound)Derivation& Class-changing▪Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. ▪un + conscious → unconscious nation + al → national national + ize → nationalize nationalize + ation →nationalization▪Derivations can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged.▪n. → v.: length + en, hospital + ize, dis + card▪n. → a.: friend + ly, delight + ful, speech + less Class-preserving▪v. → n.: work + er, employ + ee, inhabit + ant▪v. → a.: accept + able, ador(e) + able▪ a. → n.: rapid + ness, rapid + ity▪ a. → v.: deaf + en, sweet + en▪ a. → adv.: exact + ly, quick + ly▪n. → n.:non + smoker, book + let▪v. → v.:dis + obey, un + fasten▪ a. → a.:gray + ish, ir + relevantDerivation▪Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open, e.g. pre- , -able▪In English there is usually one inflectional affix per word, but multiple derivational affixes are allowed, e.g.monumental, transcendental, capability, musicality,accountancy, dependency, characterization, joyfulness, silliness, effectively, beautifully, delightfully,Americanism.bipartisan, abbreviation, bigamist, continuously,contradiction.Compound▪Compound: those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separatewords to produce a single form, e.g. icecream, sunrise,paperbag, cloakroom, cupboard, drugstore, railway▪Two or more free roots combine to make a new word. ▪In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.▪Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating,dutyfree.Preposition compounds: into, throughout▪Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound (向心复合词) and the exocentriccompound (离心复合词)▪Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckrelationship of “a kind of”; e.g. self-control: a kind ofcontrol armchair: a kind of chair▪Solid: Compounds can be written as a single word, e.g.wardrobe, bodyguard, seashore.▪Hyphenated: They can also be joined with a hyphen,e.g. wedding-ring, traffic-light, simple-minded.▪Open: Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts, e.g. washing machine, trafficisland (安全岛), counter revolutionary.▪Free variation, e.g. businessman, business-man, business man; winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle▪Usually, the right-hand member not only determines the category of the whole compound, but also decides themajor part of the sense of the compound. (“Head”)3.4 Word Formation(2) Lexical change▪Invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym,backformation, analogical creation, class shift,borrowingInvent& Blending▪Invention (新创词语): Kodak, Coke, nylon / naɪlɔn/, granola (麦片)▪Blending (混成法): a complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part ofthe first word and the final part of the second word, or byjoining the initial parts of the two words▪transfer + resister → transistor smoke + fog → smog breakfast + lunch → brunch▪teleprinter + exchange → telex modula tor +demodulator → modem situation + comedy → sitcom ▪Fusion (熔合法): crackup + breakdown → crackdown Abbreviationq& Clipping▪Abbreviation (缩写词) & Clipping (截断法): A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part,and cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly ▪Back-clippings: advertisement → ad, chimpanzee → chimp, exam → examination, television → telly▪Fore-clippings: hamburger → burger, telephone → phone, helicopter → copter▪Fore-and-aft clippings: influenza → flu, refrigerator → fridge, detective → tecLiz—Elizabeth▪Also popular in education: chem—chemistry, exam—examination, gym—gymnasium, lab—laboratory,math— mathematicsAcronym▪Acronym (缩略词): made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modifiedheadword, e.g. CIA for Central Intelligence Agency▪This process is widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology andother special fields, e.g. AIDS foracquired immunedeficiency syndrome and Radar for radio detecting andranging.Back-formation▪Back-formation (逆构词法): an abnormal type of word formation by which a shorter word is derived by deletingan imagined affix from a longer form already in thelanguagehawker → hawk enthusiasm→ enthuse laser → lasecalmative → calm free association → free-associate Analogical creation▪Analogical creation (类推构词): It can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in theconjugation of some English verbs.▪From irregular to regular: work: wrought → worked beseech: besought → beseeched slay: slew → slayed▪By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to aprocess orattribution. It is also called zeroderivation or conversion. ▪The word engineer as a noun refers to “a person trained in a branch of engineering”, but it means “to act as an engineer” or “to plan; to maneuver” when used as averb.▪Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages, e.g.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic, etc.▪French: fashion, bargain, customer, costume, etc.BorrowingLatin: prosecute, library, simile, testimony, etc.Greek: catastrophe, criterion, etc.Spanish and Portuguese: vanilla, barbecue, etc.Italian: artichoke, macaroni, spaghetti, graffiti, etc. Dutch: boss, dollar, slim, cruise, etc.Hebrew: camel, amen, etc.Arabic: alchemy, algebra, magazine, lemon, etc.Indian: ginger, jungle, yoga, etc.Chinese: kung fu, litchi3.5 Word Group and Phrase▪Nominal Groupfew, little, several, definite:pre-modifier characteristic:head relative clause or post-modifier one, two,three, …new galloping, … prepositional phrases much, preceding, … those two splendid old electric trains with pantographs functioning as material, scale and scope, appraisal items or assessment:deinterrogaindefinite:purpose or function, status andrank,(1)ative: personal attitude: hopeful, sad, safe,fearful, …ive:each, every, a, an, one, that, these, the, my, which, whichever,(2)origin, mode of operation: judgment: abnormal,extraordinary, …either, neither, both, …what,whatever, …your, our, …(3) appreciation: fascinating, logical, … …▪Other Groups▪Prepositional PhraseOn the burning deck is a prepositional phrase, in which on as a semi-verb functions as the Predicator and the object the burning deck is the Complement of thepreposition.Any expression with a preposition followed with an item is aprepositional phrase. The object may be either (i) nominal group, as in under the tree; or (ii) adjectivegroup, such as for the poor.。
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Chapter 3 MorphologyDefinition :Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.Morpheme :The smallest meaningful unit of language.The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.Types of morphemesa)Free morphemesFree morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.b)Bound morphemesBound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.Types of bound morphemesA root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivationalMorphological rules :the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.Types of compound wordsNoun + noun Adjective +noun Adjective +noun +ed Verb +nounAdverb +noun Noun +verb Verb +adverb Noun +adjective-ing form +noun Other formsFeatures of compoundsOrthographically Syntactically Semantically PhoneticallyChapter 4 SyntaxDefinition :Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Syntax as a system of :Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.The basic components of a sentence :A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.Types of sentence :The simple sentence The coordinate sentence The complex sentenceThe linear word order of a sentence :When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.The hierarchical structure of a sentence :The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence structure is hierarchical in nature.Tree diagrams of sentence structure :The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure. In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.Lexical categories:Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.Phrasal categories :Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).Grammatical relations :The structural and logical function relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb.Phrasal structure rules :The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.The recursiveness of phrase structure rules :these rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.X-bar theory :NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X means N/V/A/P.Syntactic movement and movement rulesNP movement WH movement WH Other types of movementD-structure and S-structure :What syntactic movement suggests for the study of the grammar is that a sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, and the other that occurs after movement takes place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representations are commonly termed as D-structure (the deep structure) and S-structure (the surface structure).Move α – a general movement ruleJust as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, that is, the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move Alpha. Alpha is a Greek symbol used here to represent any constituent, and what Move Alpha says is “move any constituent to any place”.Theory of universal grammarUG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles and also contains a set of parameters.。