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Unit 10 Exposition
The list of such examples is numerous. The above instances drive us to a natural conclusion that … To illustrate/As another instance If one more example is needed, I could mention… Given the examples I just outlined, I can only say that…
Unit 10
Exposition
1. warm-up
Likes and dislikes in campus life
• Since you have been in college for some time, you must meet a lot of new things in adapting yourself to college campus life. • What are your likes and dislikes? 1. Go over the list and tick the things you dislike most. 2. Write down your comments, complaints and suggestions about one or two things that you dislike most. 3. Share your ideas with your classmates and decide on the most serious problems. Write a letter to your dean to express your views….
说明文exposition
说明文exposition这一类文章的性质和目的是在解释，提供知识，和表明观念；“exposition”这个字的意思就是“explanation”(解释)，既然如此，这类文章最大的要求是清晰；作者可以使用任何方法和技巧，以期能达到清晰明确的境地。
依一般分类，说明文有下列六种：(1)定义法(Definition) (2)例说法(Example) (3)分类法(Classification)(4)分析法(Analysis) (5)类比法(Analogy) (6)比较法或对比法(Comparison Or Contrast)[注]说明文中亦可穿插以描写文与叙述文的写作方法。
说明文是写作最常用到的体裁，其最常用的方法就是将事物加以解说。
例如，说明事物的过程，说明事物的因果，说明事物的状态等等。
对人物来说，说明该人物的处境，说明该人物的想法，说明该人物的背景等等。
如果要将描述文与说明文作一严格区分的话，那就是描述文重官能的观察与感受，而说明文重头脑的分析与理性的研判。
对事物的体验是一同事，而对事物的彻底了解又是另一同事。
体验是官能的，而了解却是观念上的问题。
闻到花是香的，乃是官能上的，而花为什么是香的，却是知识性的观念上的问题。
前者是描述文的范围，后者则是说明文的范围。
知识性的东西我们可从百科全书，字典辞源，各科手册，以及语言的文法修辞等书籍来获得。
但这些仅是资料而已，要将资料变成一篇文章还需要文字的组织能力。
我们可以这样说，说明文是一种实用的写作方法，将人类的知识系统化，这可以说是一种其功至伟的写作方法。
说明文最简单的方法就是例证法：将详细资料表列，一一举证，以说明什么是什么，怎样发生，结果怎样。
另外两种较复杂的说明文是分析法与定义法：其方法必用到归类法与等级法。
例如，要说明一件机器的操作，就必须把这件机器加以归类，引述其功能目的。
又如，要了解一条鲸鱼，首先要将其归为哺乳类，因为它是胎生动物而非卵生鱼类。
exposition
a. In long essays b. Many aspects are mentioned c. Release the burden on readers’ memory.
Transitions
In comparison: both, each, at the same time, similarly, like, likewise, as, too, also, compared with.
Illustration is the use of examples to illustrate a point.
A successful illustration paper depends on
a) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are typical, interesting and relevant;
Division & Classification
They are two ways of sorting. Division is used to deal with one thing.
Purpose: to separate a thing into parts Stress: on distinction; deal with whole Classification is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Purpose: group things systematically Stress: on similarities; deal with parts
Point-by-point pattern
In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared/contrasted.
Transitions
In comparison: both, each, at the same time, similarly, like, likewise, as, too, also, compared with.
Illustration is the use of examples to illustrate a point.
A successful illustration paper depends on
a) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are typical, interesting and relevant;
Division & Classification
They are two ways of sorting. Division is used to deal with one thing.
Purpose: to separate a thing into parts Stress: on distinction; deal with whole Classification is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Purpose: group things systematically Stress: on similarities; deal with parts
Point-by-point pattern
In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared/contrasted.
英文解释说明文Exposition
说明方法
举例子、作引用、分类别、 列数字、作比较、列图表、 下定义、作诠释、打比方、 摹状貌
1、 Illustration
• Illustration is the use of detailed and concrete （明确的） examples to explain an abstract point, and to persuade or convince the reader.
• Definition is a method to explain a term that may have various denotative（外延） or connotative（内涵） meanings or shades of meaning. • The term is usually abstract, ambiguous or controversial（有争议
However they often go together in an essay,
with stress on one or the other.
3、An Analysis of Cause & Effect A cause-effect essay is a piece of expository writing showing or explaining the cause / effect of something.
2、Comparison & Contrast
A comparison explains how things are
similar. A contrast explains how things are different. A paper may deal entirely with similarities or with differences.
Exposition
•
Illustrate something that is interesting, significant and meaningful.
Comparison & Contrast
A comparison explains how things are similar.
A contrast explains how things are different.
subject-by-subject pattern: 分别比较 a. In short essays b. Few aspects are considered;
c. The writer’s interest is in the whole.
Comparison & Contrast
Principles • 3.The comparison or contrast should be balanced.
Structure of Exposition
Introduction • • • Answer the question Briefly outline points Introduce thesis Note: You should not include anything in your introduction that is not addressed in the body of your composition.
Abstract 摘要 Preface 序言 Notes 注释 Guide 范例 Treaty 条约 Entry in a Dictionary 条目
•
• •
Drama Plot 剧情介绍
Review of Work 作品介绍 Forms 表格
英语说明文(exposition)
说明文是解释、说明一物、一技或一理。
说明文分人物说明文、事物说明文、事理说明文和程序说明文。
人物说明文有人物介绍和经历，事物说明文主要介绍实物是“什么样”和“怎么样”的。
事理说明文常用于介绍科学知识。
程序说明文主要用于介绍和说明某实物怎样操作，怎样使用。
说明文的主要特点，一是知识的科学性，二是行文的条理性。
写这类文章宜少用描写，要用具体详实的材料说明问题，而不要抽象空洞地讨论。
语言要简洁、准确，条理要清楚。
讨论问题时要集中，切忌面面俱到。
写作中可以应用举例、比较、对比、分类、分析、数字、图表、描写和叙述等手法。
【例1】A TreeA tree consists of three main parts: the roots, the branches and the leaves. Under the ground, the roots spread out so that the tree can stand firm. Above the ground, the roots form the trunk, which supports the branches. Near the top of the tree, the trunk divides into branches. At the top of the tree, the leaves grow out of the branches. The leaves receive sunlight to help the whole tree grow.描写一个直立物体，其写作顺序从上到下。
如描写一棵树可以分为三个部分，然后逐一描写。
这种手法还可用于描写高山、楼房等。
【例2】The Sun and The EarthThe sun shines on us. It gives us light and heat. It makes everything grow. It gives the earth life.The earth rotates on its Axis. So, we have day and night. It’s bright by day and dark by night.The earth also travels round the sun in an orbit. As it travels, we have four seasons. It is hot in summer and cold in winter. The days are long in summer and short in winter. In spring it is warm and the days are getting longer. In autumn it is cool and the days are getting shorter.本文是一篇介绍太阳和地球的说明文。
exposition说明文
Exposition，或称说明文，是一种常见的文体，主要目的是解释、说明或阐述某一主题或概念。
这种文体的主要特点是通过举例、比较、分类和定义等方式来说明事物的性质、特点、原因、结果等。
Exposition的文章通常由以下几个部分组成：
1.引言：在文章开头，作者会简要介绍主题，为读者提供背景信息，激发读者的兴趣。
2.主体：这是文章的核心部分，作者会通过各种手法（例如举例、比较、分类、定义等）来说明主题。
3.结论：在文章结尾，作者会对全文进行总结，强调文章的主要观点，有时也会提出建议或问题。
Exposition的写作要求清晰、准确、有条理，语言简洁明了。
好的exposition应该能够使读者对主题有深入的理解，同时也要能够吸引读者的注意力。
Exposition-英文说明文写作教学ppt课件
different, in contrast, alike, same as, or on the other hand.
2020/12/10
Convenient; fried chicken, chips, coca, hamburger; fork, knife, even by hand; entree
words are problem is, dilemma is, puzzle is, solve, question, and
answer.
2020/12/10
13
Example
Advertising
• Advertising reaches people through varied forms of mass communication. These media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio and outdoor signs. Advertisers buy space in newspaper and magazine to publish their ads. They buy time on television and radio to broadcast their commercials.
A main advantage of television to advertisers is that it brings sight, sound and action directly to consumers in their home. And one advantage of advertising on radio is that people can listen to programmes while doing other things , such as driving a car or working a car or working at home.
2020/12/10
Convenient; fried chicken, chips, coca, hamburger; fork, knife, even by hand; entree
words are problem is, dilemma is, puzzle is, solve, question, and
answer.
2020/12/10
13
Example
Advertising
• Advertising reaches people through varied forms of mass communication. These media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio and outdoor signs. Advertisers buy space in newspaper and magazine to publish their ads. They buy time on television and radio to broadcast their commercials.
A main advantage of television to advertisers is that it brings sight, sound and action directly to consumers in their home. And one advantage of advertising on radio is that people can listen to programmes while doing other things , such as driving a car or working a car or working at home.
Exposition 高级英语[优质PPT]
![Exposition 高级英语[优质PPT]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/4c1b842d312b3169a551a445.png)
Types of Exposition
Dictionary 词典 Advertisement 广告 Digest 文摘 Directions 说明书 Drama Plot 剧情介绍 Review of Work 作品介绍 Forms 表格 Appraisal of a Product 检验证书
3、Division & Classification
Division is used to deal with one thing. Purpose: to separate a thing into parts Stress: on distinction（区别）; deal with whole. Classification is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Purpose: group things systematically Stress: on similarities; deal with parts.
Exposition
Definition of Exposition Types of Exposition Methods of Exposition
Definition of Exposition
• Exposition is explanation • To explain theБайду номын сангаасobjective character and
nature of things.（解释事物客观特征和本质） • To clarify the occurrence and development
of things.（阐明事情发生和发展）
英语说明文(Exposition)
整理ppt
6. 过程分析法
• 过程分析法就是把事物发展过程分为若干 步骤，然后逐一加以分析说明。这种写法 在说明文中使用得相当广泛。过程分析与 叙事和因果关系等写法有密切关系，但彼 此又有明显区别。叙事研究的对象是 “What happens”；因果关系研究的对象是 “Why it happens”，而过程分析研究的对 象是 “How it happens”。例如：
• So ,everybody should develop the good habit of early rising.
整理ppt
• 罗列法经常用下列句式展开段落，我们 可以注意模仿学习：
• There are several good reasons why we should learn a foreign language. First of all，…Secondly，…And finally，…
从英语说明文的结构可以看出要写好英语说明文的关键在于第二部分如何对文章主题进行展开说明整理pptwritingtechniques写作技巧在文章开始时提出需要说明的东西和观点然后常用firstsecond
英语说明文 （Exposition）
整理ppt
• Brief introduction of exposition • writing techniques • exercise
整理ppt
• Late risers may find it very difficult to form the habit of early rising. They ought to make special efforts to do so. As the English proverb says，“Early to bed and early to rise，makes a man healthy， wealthy and wise.”
6. 过程分析法
• 过程分析法就是把事物发展过程分为若干 步骤，然后逐一加以分析说明。这种写法 在说明文中使用得相当广泛。过程分析与 叙事和因果关系等写法有密切关系，但彼 此又有明显区别。叙事研究的对象是 “What happens”；因果关系研究的对象是 “Why it happens”，而过程分析研究的对 象是 “How it happens”。例如：
• So ,everybody should develop the good habit of early rising.
整理ppt
• 罗列法经常用下列句式展开段落，我们 可以注意模仿学习：
• There are several good reasons why we should learn a foreign language. First of all，…Secondly，…And finally，…
从英语说明文的结构可以看出要写好英语说明文的关键在于第二部分如何对文章主题进行展开说明整理pptwritingtechniques写作技巧在文章开始时提出需要说明的东西和观点然后常用firstsecond
英语说明文 （Exposition）
整理ppt
• Brief introduction of exposition • writing techniques • exercise
整理ppt
• Late risers may find it very difficult to form the habit of early rising. They ought to make special efforts to do so. As the English proverb says，“Early to bed and early to rise，makes a man healthy， wealthy and wise.”
Exposition
• C) Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject; • D) Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions; • E) If possible, make the exposition interesting or moving --- an experienced writer can often instruct and move or entertain his reader at the same time.
• e.g. What is homesickness? It is the welling-up tears in your eyes, the lump in your throat, the waving hands when the train is drawing out of the station and taking you away from home…
e.g.
• Chemistry is the study of how substances act on each other to form new substances, that is to say, how chemical changes take place. When a chemical change takes place, a new substance is always formed. Steel may become rusty after a period of time because the oxygen in the air acts on it and a chemical change takes place. • 化学是研究物质间如何相互作用而形成新的物质 的，也就是说，化学变化是怎样开始的。当发生 化学变化时，一种新的质就形成了。铁过一段时 间会生锈，这是因为空气中的氧对铁产生作用， 因而发生化学变化。
Exposition
•
课文学习
Focus Your Subject
• Now start thinking about the length of your paper. Remember, your subject must be narrow enough to be handled in a given space and within a given time; do not overextend yourself. You may begin the process of narrowing the subject by eliminating ideas that are too broad or too vague from your scratch outline. This process of elimination will help you think about point of view and allow you to pose questions that give your subject more substance: What can I draw from my own reading and experience that will help me develop this topic?
课文学习
Plan Your Conclusion
• How can I restate my central idea so that it has a conclusive ( )impact on my reader? And in
what frame of mind（ 境） do I want my reader to mind（ 境） leave the essay? Jot down some ideas or a few phrases you may wish to use. They will help you summarize your major ideas and rephrase your thesis statement better in your conclusion.
exposition
1 2 3
•Definition of Exposition
•Structure of Exposition
பைடு நூலகம்
Elements of Expository Text
Definition
☆·°
Exposition is explanation
To explain the objective character and nature of things. To clarify the occurrence and development of things.
description sequence comparison cause & effect problem & solution
Elements of Expository Text
1. description The author lists characteristics, features, and examples to describe a subject.
What is the cause of something that has happened?
3. Conclusion
Induction 分总 Deduction 总分 Deduction and summary 总分总
Elements of Expository Text
There are certain elements found in expository text, each type of element makes its own demands on the reader:
Elements of Expository Text
5. problem & solution The author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the problem. Clue words are problem is, dilemma is, puzzle is, solve, question, and answer.
•Definition of Exposition
•Structure of Exposition
பைடு நூலகம்
Elements of Expository Text
Definition
☆·°
Exposition is explanation
To explain the objective character and nature of things. To clarify the occurrence and development of things.
description sequence comparison cause & effect problem & solution
Elements of Expository Text
1. description The author lists characteristics, features, and examples to describe a subject.
What is the cause of something that has happened?
3. Conclusion
Induction 分总 Deduction 总分 Deduction and summary 总分总
Elements of Expository Text
There are certain elements found in expository text, each type of element makes its own demands on the reader:
Elements of Expository Text
5. problem & solution The author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the problem. Clue words are problem is, dilemma is, puzzle is, solve, question, and answer.
exposition 翻译
exposition 翻译基本解释●exposition：常见中文释义为“阐述，说明，展览会”●音标：/ˌɛkspəˈzɪʃən/●词性：o名词(n) 意思：阐述，说明o名词(n) 意思：展览会变化形式●复数形式：expositions具体用法●●名词(n):oo意思1：阐述，说明ooo同义词：explanation, description, elucidation, interpretation, clarificationooo反义词：obfuscation, confusion, concealment, ambiguity, vaguenessooo例句：●The professor's exposition of the theory was so clear thateven those unfamiliar with the subject could understand iteasily. (教授对该理论的阐述非常清晰，即使是不熟悉该主题的人也能轻松理解。
)●Her exposition on the historical context of the novel providedvaluable insights into the author's intentions. (她对小说历史背景的阐述为理解作者的意图提供了宝贵的见解。
)●The exposition of the new scientific findings was published ina leading journal, attracting widespread attention. (新科学发现的阐述发表在一家知名期刊上，引起了广泛关注。
)●During the conference, the keynote speaker gave anexposition on the future of artificial intelligence. (在会议期间，主讲嘉宾对人工智能的未来进行了阐述。
101 Exposition
2. Is the point worth mentioning? (worth)
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
A DEFINITE POINT FOR DEFINITE READERS
3. For whom am I writing? (readers)
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
ARGUMENT
INTRODUCTION TO EXPOSITION
PROSE
EXPOSITION DESCRIPTION NARRATION
DEFINITION JUDGEMENT
ARGUMENT
INTRODUCTION TO EXPOSITION
DEFINITION
Exposition is one of the genres in prose writing. (class)
Introduction
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Conclusion
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
STATEMENTS
The paragraph of exposition contains two kinds of statements.
1. Topic sentence 2. Fact sentence
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
STATEMENTS
2. Fact sentences statements of particular facts, examples, illustrations and/or supporting details to justify the topic sentences
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
A DEFINITE POINT FOR DEFINITE READERS
3. For whom am I writing? (readers)
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
ARGUMENT
INTRODUCTION TO EXPOSITION
PROSE
EXPOSITION DESCRIPTION NARRATION
DEFINITION JUDGEMENT
ARGUMENT
INTRODUCTION TO EXPOSITION
DEFINITION
Exposition is one of the genres in prose writing. (class)
Introduction
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Conclusion
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
STATEMENTS
The paragraph of exposition contains two kinds of statements.
1. Topic sentence 2. Fact sentence
EXPOSITION CONSTRUCTION
STATEMENTS
2. Fact sentences statements of particular facts, examples, illustrations and/or supporting details to justify the topic sentences
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The Advantages of Temporary Jobs
illustration
2) An expert arrangement of the examples
The Advantages of Temporary Jobs Several years ago, people were often a little surprised when they heard that a college student was doing a part-time job or a temporary job. “Why? Maybe he is short of money,” they thought. Nowadays, lots of college students are working as tutors. Some serve as tour guides or do whatever work they can find during vacations. Are they all short of money? Perhaps not. Temporary jobs can help students improve their academic studies. My own experience is an example. … Later I found my own listening comprehension improved too. Part-time job can also provide students with pocket money. One of my classmates… Young people talk a lot about independence. They are aware if one is not economically independent, one cannot enjoy true independence. Recently, a report in China Youth said that about one fifth of the country’s college students have done or are doing temporary jobs, and the number is increasing. Today, when people hear that a student is doing a temporary job, they no longer think he/she must be short of money, but look at him/her with approval.
Expository Writing, or Exposition
• When you present, completely and fairly, other people's views; • When you explore the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, or the solution of a problem; • When you present a subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument, or development; i.e., you elucidate a subject by analyzing it; • When you convey information or explain what is difficult to understand; • Finally, at work, w h e n y o u are required to produce business reports and memorandums to inform your superiors and co-workers about the occurrences that take place at other levels of the company…
Revise and Edit
• Reread your draft. • As you read, imagine you don’t know how to do your activity. Check to see if you included all the necessary steps. Are your instructions clear? • Proofread for spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and vivid word choice before you publish.
Brainstorm
• What materials are needed to do this activity? • What are the steps for doing this activity? • Use a graphic organizer to list your steps.
Description? Narration? Or exposition?
Deal with: • Appearances • Feelings • Events • Experiences • Processes • relationships
Description
narration• It is the use of example to illustrate a point. Language and Culture Example 1 --A Chinese said, “You have a very nice home.” Thank you --An American replied, “____________ .” Example 2 -- An American said, “Your English is quite fluent.” No, no. My English is poor -- A Chinese replied, “_________________________.” specific and typical, interesting and relevant examples Read “Language and Culture”
classification and division
• They are two different ways of sorting things out. • Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. For example, a composition can be divided ? into introduction, body, and conclusion. • Classification, on the other hand, is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically. For example, courses in college can be classified ? into “elective” and “required/obligatory”, or into those taught in the native language and those offered in foreign languages.
illustration
• A successful illustration depends on 1) A wise selection of sufficient examples (either personal experiences or second-hand information from reliable sources), and 2) An expert arrangement of the examples
focus
Sample
The Process of Bowling The first thing is to wait for your turn, patiently and politely. When your moment comes, you step up to the starting line with your bowling ball, and carefully bowl it. Everyone else stands back, making sounds of polite encouragement. Everyone waits until your ball has reached the end of the lane, and watches to see if it knocks down all the pins, or only some of them, or none of them. Then there's a pause, while your score is registered. After everyone is sure that you are done, the next person in line steps up to the same starting line with a ball. And there is always a suitable pause between turns. There is no rush, no impatience.
Goal
• Expository writing seeks to inform, explain, clarify, define or instruct1. • 2. Things can be explained by illustration, classification and division, comparison and contrast, an analysis of their causes and effects, or
illustration
2) An expert arrangement of the examples
The Advantages of Temporary Jobs Several years ago, people were often a little surprised when they heard that a college student was doing a part-time job or a temporary job. “Why? Maybe he is short of money,” they thought. Nowadays, lots of college students are working as tutors. Some serve as tour guides or do whatever work they can find during vacations. Are they all short of money? Perhaps not. Temporary jobs can help students improve their academic studies. My own experience is an example. … Later I found my own listening comprehension improved too. Part-time job can also provide students with pocket money. One of my classmates… Young people talk a lot about independence. They are aware if one is not economically independent, one cannot enjoy true independence. Recently, a report in China Youth said that about one fifth of the country’s college students have done or are doing temporary jobs, and the number is increasing. Today, when people hear that a student is doing a temporary job, they no longer think he/she must be short of money, but look at him/her with approval.
Expository Writing, or Exposition
• When you present, completely and fairly, other people's views; • When you explore the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, or the solution of a problem; • When you present a subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument, or development; i.e., you elucidate a subject by analyzing it; • When you convey information or explain what is difficult to understand; • Finally, at work, w h e n y o u are required to produce business reports and memorandums to inform your superiors and co-workers about the occurrences that take place at other levels of the company…
Revise and Edit
• Reread your draft. • As you read, imagine you don’t know how to do your activity. Check to see if you included all the necessary steps. Are your instructions clear? • Proofread for spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and vivid word choice before you publish.
Brainstorm
• What materials are needed to do this activity? • What are the steps for doing this activity? • Use a graphic organizer to list your steps.
Description? Narration? Or exposition?
Deal with: • Appearances • Feelings • Events • Experiences • Processes • relationships
Description
narration• It is the use of example to illustrate a point. Language and Culture Example 1 --A Chinese said, “You have a very nice home.” Thank you --An American replied, “____________ .” Example 2 -- An American said, “Your English is quite fluent.” No, no. My English is poor -- A Chinese replied, “_________________________.” specific and typical, interesting and relevant examples Read “Language and Culture”
classification and division
• They are two different ways of sorting things out. • Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. For example, a composition can be divided ? into introduction, body, and conclusion. • Classification, on the other hand, is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically. For example, courses in college can be classified ? into “elective” and “required/obligatory”, or into those taught in the native language and those offered in foreign languages.
illustration
• A successful illustration depends on 1) A wise selection of sufficient examples (either personal experiences or second-hand information from reliable sources), and 2) An expert arrangement of the examples
focus
Sample
The Process of Bowling The first thing is to wait for your turn, patiently and politely. When your moment comes, you step up to the starting line with your bowling ball, and carefully bowl it. Everyone else stands back, making sounds of polite encouragement. Everyone waits until your ball has reached the end of the lane, and watches to see if it knocks down all the pins, or only some of them, or none of them. Then there's a pause, while your score is registered. After everyone is sure that you are done, the next person in line steps up to the same starting line with a ball. And there is always a suitable pause between turns. There is no rush, no impatience.
Goal
• Expository writing seeks to inform, explain, clarify, define or instruct1. • 2. Things can be explained by illustration, classification and division, comparison and contrast, an analysis of their causes and effects, or