纺织服装外文翻译文献
纺织工程英文作文
纺织工程英文作文英文：As a textile engineer, my job is to design and develop new fabrics and textiles for various applications. This involves a lot of research and testing to ensure that the materials are durable, comfortable, and functional.One of the most important aspects of textile engineering is understanding the properties of different fibers and fabrics. For example, cotton is a popular choice for clothing because it is breathable and comfortable, but it may not be the best choice for outdoor gear because it does not wick moisture away from the body. On the other hand, synthetic fibers like polyester and nylon are often used for athletic wear because they are moisture-wicking and quick-drying.Another important aspect of textile engineering is developing new manufacturing techniques to improveefficiency and reduce waste. For example, we may use computer-aided design (CAD) software to create patterns and designs, or we may use 3D printing to create prototypes before starting production.In addition to technical skills, communication and collaboration are also important in textile engineering. We often work with designers, manufacturers, and other engineers to ensure that our products meet the needs of our customers. This may involve presenting our research and ideas to a team, or working with suppliers to source materials.Overall, textile engineering is a challenging and rewarding field that requires a combination of technical skills, creativity, and collaboration.中文：作为一名纺织工程师，我的工作是设计和开发各种应用的新织物和纺织品。
服装设计创意外文翻译文献
服装设计创意外文翻译文献AbstractThe purpose of this research is to XXX in the process of clothing design。
It aims to analyze the XXX and the design process。
how to collect sources of n。
and XXX.Research methods: Currently。
many scholars have conducted empirical research on ready-to-wear clothing design。
field ns。
semi-structured interviews。
and constrained and semi-driven design tasks。
This empirical research method can be XXX insufficient。
XXX industry is needed。
such as the n industry。
not just empirical research on individual people or companies。
but as many cases as possible should be studied.Research results: XXX n for each source。
Recognize that these sources of n can help designers XXX。
XXX stage of the design process and in the early XXX.XXX: XXX.Keywords: XXX。
clothing。
creative thinking。
design arrangement。
design managementXXX design that includes visual and tactile senses。
纺织服装国际贸易中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Export Competitiveness of Indian Textile and Garment IndustryINTRODUCTIONThe international trade in textile and clothing sectors has been a egregious exception to the most favoured nation principle of GATT and, since the early 1960s, has been a case of managed trade through forced consensus. However, the WTO Agreement on Textile and Clothing (ATC) marked a significant turnaround. According to the ATC,beginning 1st January 1995, all textiles and clothing products that had been hitherto subjected to MFA-quota, are scheduled to be integrated into WTO over a period of ten years. “The dismantling of the quota regime represents both an opportunity as well as a threat. An opportunity because markets will no longer be restricted; a threat because markets will no longer be guaranteed by quotas, and even the domestic market will be open to competition”. From 1st January 2005, therefore, all textile and clothing products would be traded internationally withoutquota-restrictions. And this impending reality brings the issue of competitiveness to the fore for all firms in the textile and clothing sectors,including those in India. It is imperative to understand the true competitiveness of Indian textile and clothing firms in order to make an assessment of what lies ahead in 2005 and beyond.Owing to its significant contribution, the Indian textile and clothing industry occupies a unique place in the Indian economy. It contributes about 4% of GDP and 14% of industrial output. Second largest employer after agriculture, the industry provides direct employment to 35 million people including substantial segments of weaker sections of society. With a very low import-intensity of about 1.5% only, it is the largest net foreign exchange earner in India, earning almost 35% of foreign exchange. This is the only industry that is self-sufficient and complete in cotton value chain- producing everything from fibres to the highest value added finished product of garments. Its growth and vitality therefore has critical bearings on the Indian economy at large.What Is Competitiveness?Competitiveness is about productivity, which in turn is a function of factors related to cost of products, as well as those related to non-price factors such as delivery schedules, reliability of producers, and such intangible factors like image of the country/company and brand equity. Together, they define the competitive sinews of a product to compete under conditions of free market.However, in order to translate industry competitiveness into sales (greater export share in world market), another set of issues- in addition to productivity- need to be examined. These relate to market access conditions. Indeed, industry competitiveness of restrained exporters such as India was not much of an issue during the last almost four decades, ever since the Short Term Arrangement (STA) of 1961. And the reason lay not in price and non-price factors, but in the …managed‟ conditions under which global trade in textile and clothing products took place. In fact, it was precisely because of the price competitiveness of some Asian exporters in the 1950s and the 1960s that the “generally and solemnly agreed rules of post-war policy conduct-including the keystone of the system, the non-discrimination rules- were formally set aside for reasons regarded as pragmatic”. This system of managed trade, however, will come to an end on 31st December 2004.For the purpose of this study, industry has been defined as a group of firms manufacturing products that directly or indirectly competes with each other. It is implied that no nation can be competitive in manufacturing all goods and services. Hence, industry competitiveness of an entire nation is not quite meaningful. Instead, since it is the firms who compete in international markets, the entire framework of competitiveness would revolve around the study of the firm. “…industrial success was founded on behaviour of firms, not on the decisions of governments”. The list of products (industries) identified is in Appendix A.Objective & Scope Of The StudyThe objective of the project is to evaluate the export competitiveness of Indian textile and clothing sectors. Because Indian textile and clothing sector is predominantly cotton based, this study would focus mainly on the cotton textile and apparel, and look at the entire value chain from fibre to garment and retail distribution.With the aforementioned objective in mind, this study has first identified the products in Indian export basket which have shown a promising growth in value, or in unit value and have a considerable weight in the Indian export basket on the basis of recent performance of Indian exports of textile and clothing sectors in the US and EU markets.Research MethodologyIn order to evaluate the demand-side of Indian textile and clothing exports, the study has analysed the competitive performance of Indian exports of the …identified‟products in the US and EU markets. It has also been used to highlight the role of emerging trade policy environment- specifically, the role of discriminatoryrules of origin in Regional Trading Arrangements [RTAs], tariff peaks and environmental and labour standards- as market access issues relevant to textile and clothing exporting countries.To assess the supply-side factors of export competitiveness, a preliminary interview was conducted with a few exporters. The interview sought their views and opinions chiefly in respect of the supply-side bottlenecks that they are facing in India. The supply-side framework is based more on opinions than on data/ numbers. The inferences about the supply-side factors are therefore based on the opinions expressed by exporters of identified products.GLOBAL TRADE IN TEXTILE AND CLOTHING: INDIA’S C OMPETITIVE PERFORMANCEDuring the MFA period, the textile exporters from industrial countries and those from developing countries merely changed shares between themselves during the 24 years period. The share of industrial countries declined by almost as much (19.2%) as was the gain in the share of developing countries (18.8%). Clothing exporters.however, exhibit significant changes, with the share of top 13 exporters having declined by 13.8%. New entrants have come in as well as some old ones have been knocked out. Of these new entrants, most- if not all- are from developing countries, since the share of industrial countries has declined during the period, and that of developing countries has increased. The countries that are gaining share in clothing exports are the ones whose industries are integrated to one or the other advanced country through some policy-induced preferential arrangements. Mexico, Caribbean region, East European countries and Mediterranean countries are capturing much of the space vacated. There has been a much deeper globalisation in clothing than in textiles. Indeed, that has been one of the principal reasons for the developed countries agreeing to an eventual phase-out of MFA quota in the UR of negotiations.During the MFA period, (between 1973 to 1997, to be precise), while in textiles, there was an inexorable shift away from developed countries and to developing countries at large, in clothing the shift away from developed countries is increasinglybeing grabbed by …preferred‟ develo ping countries.Thus, in clothing, the non-preferred group of developing countries is fighting amongst themselves for a pie that is increasingly declining. One should expect a much higher level of intra-industry and intra-firm trade in clothing than in textiles. This is entirely compatible with the fact that it is the trade in clothing that is growing faster than that in textiles. And this trend is likely to deepen, as clothing retailers consolidate, and Outward Processing Trade (OPT) traffic increases. The opportunity clearly lies much more in clothing, though the caveat is that the exporting country would have to achieve the …preferred‟ status, and integrate its manufacturing with that of an importing country in order to continue exporting to the restricted markets. The pressure to export would intensify in the years to come since 80% of additional output during 1995-2005 is expected to be located in developing countries. On the other hand, only 50% of the additional fibre consumption would originate in developing countries.India’s Competitive Performance in the US1.Of the eight cotton apparels, India‟s market share (in 2000) in US import market exceeded 10% in cotton dresses (336), W&G woven shirts (341), and cotton skirts (342). Market share grew in 336 and 341.In 336, India exported higher quantity at reduced prices, while in 341, India moved up the value chain. But the US import market grew strongly in 341 and 342, and not as much in 336. However, in 341, the size of quota is close to the size of US home market, whereas in 336, about 43% of US home market would be opened only on 1st January 2005. Therefore, not much growth should be expected in 341 in terms of US market size. Besides, there are no current threats from …preferred‟ developing countries i n 341 yet. Hence this is one category where India should very clearly focus, since the competitor countries are essentially Asian. The one big threat, would be China. Currently, China exports at an appreciably higher uvr compared to India. The evidence from 1995-2000 indicate that China has upgraded its 341 faster than India has. If China continues on that path, India may not worry too much, since the gap between Indian and Chinese prices would be quite significant. But then, if India also upgrades its product, as it has donein 341, competitiveness based only on price will be extremely risky.2.In descending order of uvr, Indian exports of the chosen cotton apparels belong to between 40 and 50 percentile, among all supplier countries for a given MFA product category. Which means India operates in the low value segment in most cotton apparels in the US. However, it is interesting to note that there are three cotton apparels whose uvr have been between percentiles 55 and 60. They are knit shirts (cat 338) and trousers for M&B (cat 347) and for W&G (cat 348). Incidentally, US imports of these products is growing fastest among all cotton apparel categories. However, India has lost market share in all except 347 during 1995-2000. In 347, its unit prices have grown fastest among top ten suppliers. And almost 70% of US market remain to become quota-free only on 1st January 2005. India must build up its strength in this product category quickly to capture the huge market that would suddenly open in 2005. Quite apart from …preferred‟ group of developing countries, Pakistan is one country which has done exceedingly well in 347, and has been building its domestic manufacturing facilities very fast. But Pakistan is not yet as much of a threat since its unit value is considerably lower than India. China, however, is likely to emerge as a big threat to India in 347 since their uvr is closer to India‟s and they too are upgrading their product rapidly. Their market share declined due wholly to quota constraint. But they seem to be producing less numbers, and better quality of 347 for US export market. They would pose a big challenge to India.3.In cotton apparels, the competitor countries- aside from …preferred‟ developing countries- are Indonesia, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. From among these, Bangladesh is the lowest cost supplier in almost all categories. In view of the threat from …preferred‟ developing countries, India must move away from competing only on the basis of price, since the share of this segment is any case declining with the …preferred‟ countries growing rapidly in this segment. And when India upgrades its value, it would have to contend with strong Asian competitors like Hong Kong, China and South Korea, whose performance has been constrained due to quota ceilings. But once the quotas are removed, India may find itself again losing in this upgraded market segment due to sheer size of these countries‟ exports. The important lesson for India therefore is that it must not onlyupgrade its values, but also begin to find ways of competing increasingly on non-price factors.译文：印度服装纺织行业的出口竞争力一、简介20世纪60年代初以来，纺织和服装部门的国际贸易一直是在关贸总协定和最惠国待遇原则之外的，一直都是通过强迫达成的共识。
服装设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
服装设计中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)College men’s fashionA brief review of the literature on the social psychology of clothing reveals that young women are more frequently research participants than men . This may be because women far outnumber men in majoring in clothing design and apparel merchandising and thus are more easily accessible as research participants than men. Regardless of why clothing research includes more women as research participants, this focus on women has resulted in a dearth of research on young men. In support of this, Reilly and Rudd (2007) report that research has investigated men’s clothing preferences and habits to a lesser extent than women’s. men’s ideas about fashion and its importance in their lives have been overlooked. Despite the limited research on young men, consumer groups comprisedof college men are important to commercial marketers in terms of expenditure in men’s apparel and accessories. According to Statista, in 2012 the expenditure on men’s clothing goods in the United States was $22.2 billion. Men purchased footwear the most, followed by shirts and suits. Prior research has also shown that men’s interest in fashion is on the rise, leading to an increase in men’s apparel sales .Historically, women have been much more conscious about their appearance than men, but in recent times there appears to have been a change in this level of focus on appearance among men. Specifically, young men in Generation Y who have been socialized by mass media and marketing activities have become appearance conscious, which leads to apparel consumption (Kacen 2000; Patterson and Elliot 2002). Young men usually use dress to communicate their identities (Shete 2012), and their aspirations toward communicating this may influence their apparel consumption (Kang et al. 2011). Understanding the relationship between college-aged men’s identities and their clothing choices provides apparel marketers with useful information to develop effective strategies to produce and market clothes in accordance with the common values with which this group strives to identify.According to Hogg and Banister (2001), individuals can either have a positive reference point (i.e., desired end state) or a negative reference point (i.e., undesired end state) that they use to achieve their desiredidentities. So far, much research has been conducted on the positive aspects of consumers’ consumption choice. A lack of research into the negative aspects of consumption choice motivated us to question their impact on consumer behavior. Consumers’ avoidance behavior allows them to create further distance between themselves and their undesired identities (Hogg and Banister 2001), staying within the threshold of their desired identities. Thus, this research focuses on the clothing and style that college men avoid. An exploratory study was conducted on men attending a major midwestern university. On the basis of the results of the exploratory study, research interview questions for any further studies will be modified to address the research problem appropriately.The purpose of the exploratory study was to investigate what clothing college men prefer, what identities they achieve through their clothing, and what they want to avoid in their clothing choices. Our research questions were as follows: (1) Does college-aged men’s clothing reflect their identities and what do they want to express through their clothing choices? and (2) What undesired identities (related to aspects of an avoided self) do college-aged men avoid in their clothing choices? Literature reviewSocial identity theorySocial identity theory as conceptualized by Tajfel and Turner (1979) refers to perceived identity of the groups to which people belong(Tajfel 1982). Social identity theory posits that a person’s self-concept is based on his or her group membership. This theory consists of two dimensions: social identity and personal identity (Howard 2000;Tajfel 1982). Social identity reflects membership in various social groups (e.g., clubs, social class), and personal identity represents the unique attributes that differentiate one person from another (Howard 2000; Tajfel 1982). In complex social environments, young people can use their identification with in-groups (i.e., their own group) versus out-groups (i.e., other groups) (Ogilvie 1987) to align their appearance (i.e., the total and composite image created by clothing) with a desired social group and to differentiate themselves from the undesired, or avoidance, reference group (Banister and Hogg 2004). Thus, social identities provide status to young men and enhance their self-esteem.Research has used social identity theory to investigate the effects of men’s identities on the use of dress (i.e., all material objects added to body). For example, Kang et al. (2011) used social identity theory as a theoretical framework to investigate the relationship between young professional men’s perceptions of work identity and their use of dress. They found that the young men who felt incomplete in their work identity used dress as a symbol to construct their identities. Thus, in this study, we used social identity theory as a theoretical foundation to examine the relationship between college men’s identities and their clothing choices.Men’s identities with fashionAccording to Kratz and Reimer (1998), fashion is filled with meanings and symbols, through which people can visually communicate with one another in a rapid and direct manner. Fashion enables people to express their views about themselves and their identities through the use of clothing; it allows them to visually communicate who they are, who they want to be, what type of social group they want to belong to, and whom they do not want to be associated with the most (Shete 2012). Furthermore, Bennett (2005) states that fashion is one of the channels through which people can most readily give voice to their identities. Beyond words, people can convey themselves through dress and fashion, thus creating their social identity. Fashion’s essential role in providing people with means to build, shape, and communicate their identities is especially prominent in larger metropolitan cities where they “mingle with crowds of strangers and have only fleeting moments to impress them” (Bennett 2005, p 96).Men identify themselves through various ways. For example, some men may identify themselves through their body appearance, while others may show their identities by the way they dress; Hathcote and Kim (2008) note that men represent themselves through how they dress. Moreover, many men care about what they wear and how they wear it on a daily basis and also care about how others perceive them. As part of campussociety, college students also spend time on how they dress. Some male students prefer wearing sweatpants or baggy basketball shorts at school, while others prefer wearing polo shirts and casual pants. The way male college students choose their outfits for school represents their different personalities and identities. For example, some male students wear athletic clothing to show off their masculinity. This is consistent with Lunceford (2010, p. 66), who argues that “male students choose a specific article of clothing because of how it makes them feel or because it downplays what they consider to be unattractive aspects of their bodies while accentuating their best features.”Researchers have conducted studies related to the importance of clothing and fashion for identity creation and communication. For example, Piacentini and Mailer (2004) found that young people in the United Kingdom tended to use clothing to show similarity between themselves and the groups they wished to be identified with, and as a channel to establish potential friendships. Schofield and Schmidt (2005) examined the importance of clothes used in constructing and communicating gay men’s personal a nd group identities with a sample of Manchester-based respondents. They shaped individual gay identity through different levels (i.e., community level, neo-tribal level, and situational level) and found that gay identity emerged through clothing choices. In their study, gay identity is shared on a gay community level toexpress “gayness” to others; on a neo-tribal level to show “belonging” to a social gay cohort with shared experience and emotions; and on a situational level to make themselves blend in with wherever they are (Schofield and Schmidt 2005).As mentioned previously, young people in complex social environments can use their identification with in-groups versusout-groups (Ogilvie 1987) to align their appearance with a desired social group, and to differentiate themselves from the undesired, or avoidance, reference group (Banister and Hogg 2004). In their study of a sample of British consumers, Banister and Hogg (2004) found that many consumers wore safe clothing items (e.g., simple clothes, which would be interpreted positively) to avoid censure rather than risky items. If such fears of folly and negative attention are present in male consumers, certain commonalities among them can be identified. Eisler and Skidmore (1987) proposed that men’s gender-role expectations contributed to fears about lack of athleticism, emotional intimacy, intimacy with other men (or homophobia), and failure. If the feminine, unathletic, impotent man is representative of perceived undesirability among men, symbolic identifiers of those traits can be indicative of young men’s labeling of avoidance reference groups and the “avoided self.” Thus, men’s fashion conservatism (i.e., dressing in a masculine way according to social norms) could be partially attributed to the generalized fear of appearing“feminine” (Kimmel 1994).Aversion to alternative stylesThe aversion to alternative styles was accompanied by several rationales. One respondent said he avoided skinny jeans (often associated with “skater” and “emo” culture) simply “for comfort.” Another respondent avoided dark and alternative styles to “avoid negative stigmas” and possible associations with low intelli gence related to group think. However, the majority of the respondents who said they avoid alternative styles were unable to explain their aversion. Mentions of dislike of alternative clothing were often supplied first and with little hesitation, suggesting that this is a somewhat automatic and marked dislike for those respondents.One respondent said he avoids wearing black and looking gothic because his friends do not wear those styles, suggesting a fear of ostracism when wearing alternative clothing. In a similar vein, one respondent included that he “doesn’t want to lead people to believe he is dark.” A 23-year-old Caucasian respondent, when asked if he avoided any styles of clothing, said: “Gothic stuff for sure, dark clothing or Hot Topic stuff. I don’t want to be associated with them and I hate the people that wear that stuff, like spiked belts.” This type of sentiment occurred almost exclusively among Caucasian respondents from middle- andupper-middle-class backgrounds. The fear of social scrutiny andostracism, along with a general stigma regarding alternative andcounter-culture, appears to be the most common motivation for avoiding alternative styles.Aversion to gangster stylesGangster styles were mentioned often, and responses often indicated social and racial prejudices, in addition to the fear of social judgment. Many respondents associated “big” and “baggy” clothing with gangster style. Race emerged as a definite component of this aversion. All but one of the respondents who listed gangster style as an avoided style identified as Caucasian. One respondent directly indicted his aversion to wearing clothes “a black person would wear,” suggesting that affiliation with the African American culture would be undesirable. Other variants included an av ersion to “swag gear” and “thug style.” Another respondent even used a variant of a racial slur to express his avoidance ofgangster-inflected styles. The respondents supplied little additional justification for avoiding this style, and when asked to expound on their preference, three claimed that they were unable to provide further information.Aversion to gay stylesThree respondents expressed avoiding clothing that could be regarded as “gay.” The wearing of skinny jeans, jean shorts, V-neck shirts, or cardigans was perceived as indicative of homosexuality, according tothe interview data. The inclusion of these items of clothing specifically indicates an association of form-fitting clothing and low necklines with effeminacy and gay culture. Respondents expressed a desire to represent themselves accurately, and those who claimed to avoid gay-inflected clothing suggested that it was undesirable on the grounds that (1) they disliked gay culture, (2) they wanted to express their heterosexuality, and (3) they wanted to avoid speculation from others that they were homosexual. In this regard, homophobic sentiments, a desire for accurate self-representation, and a fear of social judgment all seemed to be components of these respondents’ desire to avoid clothing per ceived as being worn by gay men. Another respondent said that he refused to wear any clothing from the “women’s section,” and though this does not necessary relate to the avoidance of gay style, it does represent anoften-related fear of gender-role deviation. Thus, an avoided self and avoidance behavior were important factors in clothing choice, supporting earlier findings from Hogg and Banister’s (2001) study in which dislikes and distastes of college men were associated with negative symbolic consumption. This sentiment is demonstrated by another respondent’s notion that said, “you know that there are certain things that you don’t want to buy because you don’t want to project yourself in a negative way.” They proposed that a greater understanding of the impact of negative symbolic consumption on consumers product rejection couldhelp the development of companies marketing communication strategies.Cultural background and the avoided selfDemographics indicated different trends in responses among respondents. The four Chinese men who participated were largely unable to produce responses regarding avoided clothing and styles. One of these respondents said he only avoids clothing that is “too colorful or fashionable” because “it is not his style.” Another said he only avoids “hip-hop clothing” because it does not match his serious personality. The other two respondents said that there were no types of clothing or styles they avoided. These sentiments contrast greatly with the responses from American students, all but one of whom listed one or several types of avoided clothing and styles.Furthermore, the brief elaborations the Chinese students supplied regarding the reason they avoid clothing related to issues of personal identity, with no mention of social or cultural motivations for doing so. This indicates that the avoidance of styles due to fears of social castigation and negative group associations could hold as a phenomenon more prevalent in the United States than in China.The college-aged men in this study expressed a desire for clothing that is comfortable, gives them confidence, and meets the expectations of their surroundings. These men recognized that their clothing was onerepresentation of their identities. Thus, the results suggest that college men are driven largely by a desire for comfort and to meet normative expectations. These findings are supported by the supposition that “men dress for fit and comfort rather than for style”, made by Craik (1994) and confirmed by Bakewell et al. (2006). These attributes for college men’s clothing choice seem to be quite different from those for young women, who largely make their choices based on brand (fit, look, and style) (Taylor and Cosenza 2002). The driving force for college men’s clothing choice is seemingly functional rather than decorative (Kacen 2000), even if they have become more appearance-conscious. Overall, the positive connection between young men’s individual identities and their clothing choices parallels previous research on the relationship between young professional men’s perceptions of work identity and their dress choices (Kang et al. 2011), and on the link between young peopl e’s clothing choices and the identity of the groups to which they belong (Piacentini and Mailer 2004).A minority of respondents avoided certain types of clothing because they felt it was incongruent with their styles. Their aversion to clothing that appears to belong to alternative, gangster, or gay styles suggests that these men strived to avoid clothing that implied identities viewed as non-conformist, non-professional, and unusual. These men indicated that their clothing choices were perhaps motivated by a desire to fit in withothers. Their aversion to clothing styles that communicated incongruent identities implies that deviations from cultural, class, race, andgender-related norms were undesirable.翻译：大学男装时尚简要回顾服装社会心理学的文献显示,年轻女性比男性更多的成为研究参与者。
服装设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
服装设计中英文对照外文翻译文献文献信息：文文献献标标题题：：Proactive Fashion Design for Sustainable Consumption（可持续消费的具有前瞻性的服装设计）国外作者：Kirsi Niinimki文献出处：《Nordic Textile Journal》，2021，1:60-69.字数统计：英文3104 单词，17881 字符；中文5737 汉字外文文献：Proactive Fashion Design for Sustainable ConsumptionAbstractThis article presents a study that investigates product satisfaction in the context of clothing. The paper furthermore presents suggestions on how this knowledge can be used to create proactive fashion design for sustainable consumption. One of the main challenges in todays consumer society is how to design products that encourage consumers to engage in more environmentally responsible behaviour, sustainableconsumption. This paper opens the discussion on how to change current unsustainable consumption behaviour related to clothing through a visionary, far- sighted design approach. Designers can create future-oriented sustainable designs that can transform consumption patterns towards more sustainable ones. Design for sustainability can thus be a redirective practice that aims for sustainable consumption, and the ways in which fashion design can be a proactive process with this aim will be described. Keywords: proactive design, sustainable design, sustainable consumption, emotional satisfaction, PSS.IntroductionProducts configure consumer needs and use patterns; hence, design can be said to be practice-oriented, creating certain everyday practices and consumptionbehaviour (Shove et al. 2007, 134136). Current industrial design and mass- manufacturing systems stimulate consumerism and the production of disposable products (Walker 2007, 51). Fast changing trends lead to consumers unsustainable consumption behaviour. To create a new, sustainable balance between design, manufacturing and consumption, alternative ways to create products are required to drive more sustainable consumption behaviour. Therefore, designers should evaluate how each design decision affects a consumers consumption patterns. Understood in this way, sustainable design can be a redirectiveor a proactive practice that aims for sustainable practices in consumption (Fry 2009, 53). Higher production volumes and simultaneous growing consumption have caused an increase in material consumption (Throne-Holst et al. 2007). Ever-changing fashion trends, affordable product prices and low-quality products cause consumers to engage in unsustainable consumption behaviour, such as impulse purchases, overconsumption, short use time and premature disposal of products. The increase in the purchase of short-lifespan products results in a notable increase in waste. Currently, approximately 70 percent of disposed clothing and textiles end up in landfills, and in many Western countries clothing and textile waste is estimated to be the fastest growing waste stream (Fletcher 2008, 98). Consumers discard gaments not only because they are worn out but also because they actively seek novelty. Nevertheless, product durability and longterm use are prerequisites for sustainable consumption: i.e. extending the life span of products is essential when the goal is sustainable consumption (Cooper 2005). Importantly, however, consumers associate durability with high quality and not with environmental impact. Emotions lie at the centre of human life, and they influence most of our behaviours, motivations and thought processes (Desmet 2009, 379). Emotions alsoplay a strong role in consumption. The interplay between wants, needs, values, attitudes and experiences is emotionally meaningful for acontemporary consumer. Clothing and fashion items belong to the category of self-expressive products, and with such products, consumption-related emotions are important to the consumer. As Richins (2009) argued, these consumption emotions are important elements in contemporary society and especially after the purchase event. The purchase situation becomes a strong positive experience for a consumer, but it is very short term in nature and has no connection to the experience of deeper satisfaction or person product attachment (ibid). Through a new purchase event, the consumer can again experience excitement, enjoyment, joy and pleasure, at least momentarily. From an environmental point of view, studying consumption patterns and themeanings of consumption is important when sustained positive emotions in person product relationships are desired or solutions are sought to replace materialistic consumption with other positive emotional states. The design process should focus on sustainable consumer satisfaction with a product or with the personproduct attachment process. Moreover, a new kind of product service system (PSS) should be developed that aims to prolong the enjoyable use time of the product. A PSS strategy can also offer the consumer new emotional experiences, which can postpone the disposal of the product; PSS thinking can thereby aim to avoid a new garment purchase, which isan opportunity to decrease materialistic consumption.Sustainable Satisfaction with ClothingIf current unsustainable consumption patterns are to be transformed into more sustainable ones, the ways in which design can offer sustainable satisfaction must be investigated. To gain a deeper understanding of the opportunities to deliver satisfaction by design and how the enjoyable use of garments can be extended, the satisfaction process must first be explained.According to Swan and Combs (1976), the performance of clothing can be separatedintoinstrumentalperformance(physicalproperties)andexpressive performance. Expressive performance is linked to a consumers psychological response to the garment, such as the experience of beauty. Instrumental requirements (e.g. quality expectations) must be satisfied first. Nevertheless, only fulfilling instrumental requirements will not result in satisfaction. Therefore clothing mustalso meet consumers emotional needs if it is to deliver satisfaction (Swan and Combs 1976). Hence good intrinsic quality is optimal for ensuring consumer satisfaction and to guarantee the longevity of clothing. High quality means durable materials and high manufacturing quality. The ageing process of a pleasant, aesthetic garment requires not only maintaining high intrinsic quality but also the design of a more classical style and use of durable materials. Some textile materials look old after a short use time. The material might experience pilling or may look old after a few washes. Garments needing frequent washing may look old rather quickly; therefore, recognising materials that age in a more aesthetically pleasing manner is important. Studies have shown (Niinimki 2021) that consumers experience e.g. wool and real leather to age in an aesthetically pleasant way. Consumers report that with high quality wool the ageing process does not show as obviously and in leather the ageing process is experienced as an attractive temporal dimension (ibid.). Consumers respect aesthetic attributes in the long-term use of clothing, and aesthetic attributes correspond to expressive performance in clothing satisfaction. Accordingly, expressive performance affects the psychological response to clothing. The aesthetic attributes that correlate to the longevity of clothing are good fit, personal cut, nice colours and comfortable materials,as well as a classic look (see Table 1). Garment tactility is important to the wearer anda pleasant tactile experience during the use situation is one attribute for enjoyable long-term use of clothing. Table I: Attributes that enable longevity in clothingThe attributes that enable longevity in clothing are the following: Quality: Durable materials Durability in use Durability in laundering High manufacturing qualityFunctionality: Easy maintenance Suitability in the use situation (physiological and psychological suitability)Satisfying use experienceBeauty, style, colour, fit Aesthetic Expressive beauty above average attributes: Tactile experienceComfortable materials Values: Products values have to meet consumers personal values Not only quality, functionality and aesthetics are important attributes; the values behind the product are also important to consumer satisfaction. Clothing choices must connect strongly with the wearers self-image, identity and values. Wang and Wallendorf (2006) have argued that consumers with high materialistic values seek novelty and evaluate their possessions more often than consumers with lower materialistic values. They also highlight that materialistic consumers have less appreciation for deeper personproduct relationships that develop during longer use situations. Consumers materialistic values may also connect with social status-related elementsin garments and possessions. Consumers with lower materialistic values may have greater appreciation for the personal meanings attributable to the product that emerge during long-term use (Wang Wallendorf 2006). Consumers with high environmental and ethical interests place high importance on being able to find environmental value behind a product. These consumers respect credence quality attributes local and ethical production, eco-materials and long garment life spans and they want to see these attributes and environmental values in the products they purchase. The value aspect is most important and consumers value expectationsshould be fulfilled to create deep product satisfaction (Niinimki 2021). Fashion Design for Sustainable SatisfactionHow can a designer offer sustainable satisfaction to the consumer and how can s/he propose a prolonged use time of the product to the consumer? Firstly identifying the attributes associated with satisfaction and including them in the design is the most important strategy. Secondly identifying the determinants that lead to dissatisfaction helps the designer to avoid these elements in design and concentrate on design for sustainable satisfaction. The previous section described the satisfaction elements in clothing: -good intrinsic quality;-good functionality;-aesthetics;-values in the product, in manufacturing or the companys values.The easiest way to offer product satisfaction is to increase the products intrinsic quality and inform the consumer accordingly. However the clothing satisfaction process is complex and not easy for a designer to control. Table 2 presents the temporal dimensions in clothing satisfaction, combining those elements and attributes that enable satisfaction to emerge or even create person-product attachments in the field of clothing. These are the elements that a designer should try to embed in design if s/ he is aiming for proactive fashion, deep product satisfaction and extended use time of the products. Table 2: Elements of proactive sustainable fashion designPAST PRESENT FUTUREMeaningful memoriesMeaningful associations, which create person-product attachments Good functionality Aesthetical dimensionsEnjoyable experiences during use Continuing satisfaction with the product Product or service fulfils consumers changing needs High intrinsic quality New elements in designProduct utility New experiences with the productConnection to self, identityThe following section presents several design approaches to deeper person- product satisfaction in the field of clothing. With these designstrategies the designer can aim to achieve proactive and sustainable design.Fashion Design with Meaningful UniquenessProducts carry symbolic meaning, which consumers use to construct their own personality and identity. Consumers use products to express themselves and want association with the characteristics, uniqueness or values symbolised by a product (Norman 2005). If products are easily personalised, the opportunity exists to connect the product more deeply with consumers identity construction and to create deeper product satisfaction and an emotional attachment through the personproduct relationship (Chapman 2009). This opportunity enables the product to be more meaningful to the wearer, making possible an extension of the products lifetime. Design services are one opportunity to address consumer satisfaction by deeply connecting the design outcome with a consumers personal needs. By using digital technologies that enable individual design or measurements, meaningful uniqueness can be designed. Furthermore, unique design and made-to-measure services offer improved product satisfaction by meeting a consumers individual needs and preferences better than mass-manufactured garments. The company NOMO Jeans offers computer-assisted made-to-measure jeans by using a 3D scanner (Nomo Jeans). Jeans are made individually according to each customers measurements. The customer can alsochoose the cut, colour, effects and details of his/her jeans.An enterprise can also base its function only on consumer orders. The designer can create their own collections, produce a couple of sample collections and enable consumers to specify all orders and measurements on an individual basis. Garments can then be created based on each wearers measurements, thus enabling him/her to experience greater satisfaction. This design and manufacturing strategy may also help producers avoid the problem of overproduction. Small enterprises could offer their collections in small shops carrying a sample collection and obtain orders directly from consumers, allowing them to avoid extra production. Designer Anna Ruohonen creates long lasting and high quality fashion (Anna Ruohonen). She has created a timeless collection called Black Classic, where the designs are permanent but it is possible to order them in seasonal colours. Garments are manufactured only according to customers order and according to each customers individual measurements. This strategy helps to avoid overproduction. Moreover the good fit of the clothing helps ensure deeper garment satisfaction.Co-creationOne possibility for creating deeper personproduct attachment is through a consumers own efforts during the design or realisation process. A sense of personal achievement is strongly connected to apositive sense of self (Norman 2005) and allows the product to begin to be more important to the wearer. The consumers own achievement through a made by me approach to design creates positive experiences through the sense of effort and the opportunity to realise her/his own creative skills. If the user builds the product herself/himself, s/he acquires a deeper knowledge of the product and, therefore, has the ability to repair the product (Papanek 1995). Kit-based design and halfway products give the consumer a more active role in the realisation process. One option for including the consumer in the design or manufacturing process isto offer her/him an opportunity to make decisions during the process. Consumers have shown an interest in taking part in the design or manufacturing process by using the Internet (Niinimki 2021). If the design is based on a modular structure and the consumer is allowed to make her/his own choices even from a limited selection in creating a unique style, this process gives consumers new power and a more active role. Opening fashion field is one way to offer the consumer more active role. Lastwear is a company that offers ready-made garments, halfway clothing (kit-based) and patterns of their fashion designs (Lastwear clothing company). They also invest in quality and offer a guarantee on their garments, which is a good way to ensure product satisfaction. Giving consumers more power is also possible by offeringenvironmentally- related options. Consumers may be allowed to select a manufacturing location and different materials and be provided with corresponding prices enabling them to express their values through their choices. For example, many consumers, especially those who consider themselves ethical consumers, would like to buy locally manufactured garments even if they are more expensive (Niinimki 2021). Fulfilling Consumers Changing Needs Through PSSThe symbolic meanings of products are connected to psychological satisfaction through an emotional response. When the product no longer offers a positive emotional response because, for example, it falls out of fashion or the wearer becomes otherwise tired of it, the consumer experiences psychological obsolescence and easily replaces the product with a new one. Accordingly emotional and psychological obsolescence results in premature disposal of a product that may still be functional. Consumers needs and aesthetic preferences that change over time raise the question of how to avoid the psychological obsolescence of garments. The challengein extending product lifetimes is to achieve continuing satisfaction with the product. The PSS approach allows the creation of new experiences with a product or changes to a product to enable it to better suit a consumers changing needs. Positive ways that a products lifetime can be extended include upgradability services, modification servicesand exchange stocks. These strategies can postpone garment disposal by keeping the consumer satisfied longer. Modification or redesign possibilities for quality garments allow for an extension of a products life span. Many websites already advise consumers on how to modify their old garments themselves and encourage consumers to extend the use of their garments. Many small and locally functioning repair and redesign studios also already exist, where the consumer can repair a damaged garment but can also order a redesigned garment made from old ones. A design based on a modular clothing structure also offers the possibility to create services to upgrade garments. This strategy offers the opportunity to update the appearance in a sustainable way (Fletcher Grose 2021, 82). It is possible to play with the clothing elements to create unique combinations of colours or shapes to develop a new look. The consumer does not need to then buy a new garment; instead s/he can simply change some parts or elements in the garment to have the experience of newness. Garment exchange or renting services offer possibilities for consumers to make changes to their clothing in more sustainable ways. New and interesting examples of clothing membership clubs exist. By paying a monthly membership fee, a consumer can select a certain number of garments to use, giving him or her the opportunity to change the appearance in a more sustainable way. This type of business strategy has emerged e.g. in the field of childrens clothing.Consumers can rent childrens outfits and when the child outgrows a size, the parent can obtain larger-size garments from the clothing club. ConclusionsThis study investigated product satisfaction in the context of clothing and this knowledge was used to understand and define proactive fashion design for sustainable consumption. It opened views into the process of consumer satisfaction. A main issue that arises when aiming to extend the life of garments is to increase their durability and intrinsic quality. Moreover, fulfilling consumers other expectations regardingthe garments aesthetic and functional attributes is important to ensure product satisfaction. Finally the issue of value is most important with regard to deep product satisfaction: values associated with the product, the manufacturing process and behind the companies have to meet the consumers own value base so that the consumer feels completely satisfied with the product. By identifying the reasons for the short and long-term use of clothing, it is possible to find new ways to create sustainable designs that can result in a redirective practice directed towards sustainable consumption. Proactive fashion design for sustainable consumption takes these reasons into account, thus enabling clothing longevity. Satisfying consumers expectations regarding quality, functionality, aesthetics and value is a key to extending the use time of aproduct. Moreover, the emotional side of consumption must be understood to provide more sustainable ways to ensure customer satisfaction. The PSS approach provides an opportunity to extend the enjoyable use of aproduct and thus avoid psychological obsolescence and a garments premature disposal.Stimulatingasenseofmeaningfuluniquenessandachievement through design services or self-made approaches is a promising route to enhancing consumer satisfaction. If a consumer is satisfied, then strengthening the emotional bondbetweentheproductandconsumerispossible.Inturn,this meaningful attachment is the best way to postpone a products disposal. When the product or itsuse is somehow special to the consumer, s/he will take good care of it to extend its enjoyable use time. The most promising sustainable design strategy is the combination of product design with service elements: PSS strategies are therefore a future path to proactive and sustainable design.中文译文：可持续消费的具有前瞻性的服装设计摘要本文从服装的角度对产品满意度进行了研究。
纺织相关外文翻译
毕业论文（设计）外文翻译一、外文原文见附件（文件1名：Influence of Type and Weft Density on Worsted Fabric Pilling .pdf 文件2名：New Commercial Fibers Called …Bamboo Fabers‟-Their Structure andProperties . pdf）二、翻译文章编织类型和纬纱密度对精纺毛织物起毛起球的影响Farshad Lohrasbi, Jalal Mokhtari Ghahi，M. E. YazdanshenasIslamic Azad University摘要：纺织品起毛起球最显著的区域之一，被调查许多研究者，如库克。
在这项研究中，我们分析了几个样品的精纺面料的起毛起球： 55％羊毛/45％聚酯在不同的纬密和编织类型下.摩擦测试结果用马丁代尔测试获得和计数织物表面上的起球数。
结果表明，经纬纱在织物表面交织越多，起球形成越少;或一个可以得出结论，在某些情况下，少起毛起球的表面上的形式时经纱数远大于纬纱数（即经纬纱交织较少），是的经密远远大于纬密。
但在某些织物，纬密增加会使织物表面形成小球数减少。
关键词：精纺织物；编织类型；经纬密度；起毛起球。
导言:起毛起球不仅对纺织和衣服制造商还为用户都是一个重要的问题。
起毛起球的脱落过程会使面料质量的显着下降也会使用户的舒适度产生负面影响。
赛洛纺纱线在许多梭织精纺面料的性能特点方面是相当足够媲美两合股纱线的，当其生产过程中提供最佳条件。
这种织物抗起毛起球性和耐磨性几乎在同一水平形成，并有近似的的外观。
除了服装设计的种类多样性，耐用性也是一个重要因素。
因此像起毛起球这一个技术参数，这会影响耐久性，是服装行业的关键问题之一。
起毛起球是织物疵点，这是小纤维球或干预纤维与织物表面一根或更多的纤维接触而组成的。
起毛起球往往代表着在织物或服装的一个严重缺陷。
它不仅对织物外观和处理的产品有损害，它也有使纤维从纱线结构中转移速率加速效果，从而实质性降低使用寿命。
美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易大学毕业论文英文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式文献、资料英文题目：Trade liberalization and patterns of strategicadjustment in the US textiles and clothing industry 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14外文文献：Trade liberalization and patterns of strategic adjustment in the UStextiles and clothing industryBelay SeyoumU.S.A.International Business Review，Issue 16 ,2007Belay SeyoumNova Southeastern University, 3301 College Avenue, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA Received 2 December 2005; received in revised form 17 April 2006, 11 October 2006, 23November 2006; accepted13 December 2006.The overall environment facing the US TC industry will be one of rapidly changing market conditions and technological innovation. With the phase out of quotas and growing number of trade agreements, the US TC industry is being exposed to intense competition in export and domestic markets. This is likely to lead domestic industries/labor to demand intervention by national governments to mitigate the adverse impact of trade liberalization (Standbury & Vertinksy, 2004).In spite of the substantial job losses, the US TC industry remains technologically advanced partly due to increased productivity resulting from advances in technology and design capabilities. Textile production is capital intensive and modern technology is essential to meet the increasing for high-quality products. Over the last few years, US textiles and apparel firms have substantially increased their investment to maintain modern manufacturing facilities as well as improve production and marketing capabilities in order to maximize their inherent advantages to market proximity. In apparel, low skill production jobs have moved to low-cost locations offshore while the more skilled one shave been retained. To successfully adapt to the new environment, US TC industries need to capitalize on their sources of competitive advantage. They need to develop a more flexible operational arrangement, meet high standards in product innovation and generally develop a more change-seeking business culture (Kilduff, 2005).An important survival tool for US TC firms is to expand their potential market by offering new product designs and product categories. Manufacturers must try to bring a steady stream of products to market that are in line with the taste, preferences of the consumer. They can also expand their market potential by offering new product categories. Two of the fastest growing apparel segments in the US, for example, have been the women’s plus and men’s big and tall segments (Driscoll, 2004). Plus-size apparel marketing was estimated at $47 billion in 2005 accounting for 20% of total apparel market. It is important to identify the firm’s target customers and assess whether the firm is successfully addressing their needs.US TC firms should target a narrow segment of the market that provides the best opportunity for success. In textiles, the focus should be on a few specialized segments such as carpets, nonwovens and technical textiles. Similarly, apparel producers should increase their focus on core products, reduce vertical integration to shed overhead costs, and establish alliances with other firms to consolidate resources and increase market share.Finally, in view of rising incomes and high growth rates in many developing countries such as China, Brazil, and India, there are potential export market opportunities for US textile and apparel products. US export interests may be served by seeking improved access to the retail distribution systems of developing countries. US textile firms should also be able to use Mexico to export to the European Union and other countries, taking advantage of the Mexico-EU trade agreement. Since the conclusion of NAFTA, a numberof Asian and European firms have produced certain products in Mexico in order to export to the US market.This paper suggests a demand pull model as a basis for developing a network structure in the clothing industry. In a demand pull model, consumer demand is the driver of sales unlike the supply push model whereby the manufacturer pushes goods to the retailer regardless of consumer demand.Retail companies have become powerful due to their sufficient capital and marketing expertise to build loyalty among consumers. They are the lead firm in view of their central role in the organizational network. The lead clothing retailer integrates industrial capabilities such as sourcing of textiles, design, product branding and its relations with consumers enables it to keep abreast of fashion consumption trends.The lead firm conveys its requirements to these changing trends (changes in style, material requirements) to its suppliers or subcontractors (Table 7). It also provides assistance with the purchasing of capital equipment and technology necessary to produce apparel in accordance with market demand. The fragmented webs of suppliers and subcontractors are bound together through information technology, online data sharing, joint product development, and collaborative forecasting, planning and replenishment activities. Retailers will hold less inventory as shipments become smaller and more frequent since point of sale data is directly transmitted to the manufacturer/supplier who will produce and ship garments as it is needed. This model shows the role of the retailer as an intermediary integrating the functions of design, textile sourcing, branding and as facilitator of apparel production through a web of suppliers/subcontractors. Such restructuring through technological improvements and information technology is one means of succeeding in an increasingly competitive environment. The horizontally structured, mass production methods no longer ensure future competitiveness.The lion’s s hare of the benefits from quota elimination is expected to accrue to China. Its low labor cost, high productivity, range and flexibility of services as well as efficient supplier networks will make China the supplier of choice. About 87% of apparel executives that participated in a cotton sourcing summit in Miami in February 2004, agreed that China will soon account for 50–90% of all apparel sold in the US market (National Labor Committee, 2004). This means rationalization of production and a massive consolidation of vendors. Other winners are likely to include India and Pakistan in narrow segments of the TC industry. The elimination of quotas is also likely to lead to lower prices for consumers in view of the absence of quota costs which is often a significant part of the cost of TC sold in the US market. Well-known brands may still hold market value since they are not subject to retail price deflation. It is important for TC firms to evaluate their internal capabilities such as sourcing, manufacturing, logistics, transportation etc. in order to develop an action plan for the post-quota world.Exporters from Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean are likely to lose market share to China since they largely compete on price (not quality) and lack the capability to produce high value added products. Even with the introduction of safeguards on a range of products that are of export interest to these countries,their US market share has declined since the phase out of quotas. With the complete removal of quotas in 2008, it is difficult for these countries to compete on price. Since the US government lifted quotas in 2002 on 29 categories, for example, China’s market share (in these categories) jumped from just 9% (2002) to 65% (2003) while prices paid by US retailers (for apparel from China) dropped by 48% (National Labor Committee, 2004). In cotton dressing gowns (quotas removed) China’s share in 2003 jumped from 25% to 39% while that of Caribbean countries fell from 13% to a mere 3%. In the first 12 months after the phase out of quotas, China’s market share in apparel rose by 59% in value while that of many Central and South American countries showed a sharp decline.What are the implications for TC firms in countries that are vulnerable to competition from China? First, they should capitalize on their proximity to the US market. Their ability to offer lower transport cost, lower lead times as well as duty free entry to the US market may attract the fashion-oriented segment of the US industry. This will depend on access to good local transport infrastructure to get goods to market as well as advanced telecommunications systems to link suppliers and customers. Local firms and governments need to collaborate in creating a climate which is conducive to business and to develop infrastructure to attract and retain TC industries that are so vital in generating exports and employment.Secondly, low wages do not necessarily provide a comparative advantage with respect to China. Firms should develop new capabilities in areas in which China does not have a comparative advantage (yarn, and silk non-apparel). This requires, inter alia, investment in modern production methods and development of competitive sources of local raw materials. Even in product areas in which China is expanding its exports, developing country suppliers that enhance their skills, technology, supply chains and marketing capabilities (through joint ventures, licensing arrangements) faster than China can still maintain their shares to the US market.Thirdly, an important strategic consideration that limits the competitive impact of China is the need on the part of multinationals to diversify their risk portfolios. US manufacturers and retailers are likely to adopt a diversified risk adjusted sourcing strategy that balances cost, speed to market as well as political and economic stability. They may not be prepared to rely on China for critical inputs beyond a certain threshold of risk. Furthermore, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean could be attractive options for US companies in some fashion sensitive segments of the industry where quick response or fast turnaround is important.Finally, existing US rules of origin requirements to qualify for free access to the US market have had unintended consequences. One of the requirements is that they have to use US yarn and fabric. This has had the effect of making their exports less competitive. The US may have to modify its rules of origin to allow developing countries to import from Asia or other competitive sources without losing their preferential status.美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式贝蕾·塞尤姆美国国际商务评论，第16期，2007年贝蕾·塞尤姆诺娃东南大学，学院大道3301，劳德代尔堡，佛罗里达33314，美国2005年12月2日收到稿件，分别于2006年4月17日、2006年10月11日和2006年11月23日收到修改稿件；2006年12月13日正式录用。
实用纺织服装外贸英语
实用纺织服装外贸英语Practical Textile and Apparel Foreign Trade.The textile and apparel industry is a globalized industry with complex supply chains that span multiple countries. As a result, businesses in this industry need to be able to communicate effectively with customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders around the world. This requires a strong understanding of practical textile and apparel foreign trade English.Basic Textile and Apparel Terminology.Fabric: A woven, knitted, or nonwoven material used to make clothing, curtains, and other products.Yarn: A continuous length of twisted fibers used to make fabric.Garment: A piece of clothing, such as a shirt, pants,or dress.Accessories: Items that are worn with garments, such as belts, scarves, and jewelry.Textile manufacturing: The process of creating fabric from raw materials.Apparel manufacturing: The process of creating garments from fabric.Foreign trade: The exchange of goods and services between countries.Essential English Phrases for Textile and Apparel Foreign Trade.Can you provide me with a sample of the fabric?What is the minimum order quantity?What is the lead time for production?What are the payment terms?What is the shipping method?Can you provide me with a certificate of origin?I would like to place an order for [quantity] units of [product].I would like to request a quote for [product].I have a question about the product specifications.I am interested in becoming a distributor for your products.Common Challenges in Textile and Apparel Foreign Trade.Language barriers: Textile and apparel businesses often deal with customers and suppliers who speak different languages. This can lead to misunderstandings andcommunication errors.Cultural differences: Textile and apparel businesses need to be aware of the cultural differences that exist between different countries. This can affect everything from the way products are designed to the way they are marketed.Government regulations: Textile and apparel businesses need to comply with the government regulations of the countries in which they operate. This can include regulations on product safety, environmental protection, and labor standards.Currency fluctuations: Textile and apparel businesses need to be aware of the risks associated with currency fluctuations. This can affect the cost of goods and services, as well as the profitability of businesses.Tips for Success in Textile and Apparel Foreign Trade.Learn the basics of textile and apparel terminology.This will help you to communicate effectively with customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders.Develop strong communication skills. This includes the ability to write clear and concise emails, make presentations, and negotiate contracts.Be aware of cultural differences. This will help you to avoid misunderstandings and build strong relationships with customers and suppliers.Stay up-to-date on government regulations. This will help you to comply with the law and avoid costly penalties.Manage currency risks. This will help you to protect your business from the effects of currency fluctuations.Conclusion.Textile and apparel foreign trade is a complex and challenging business. However, by following the tips above, you can increase your chances of success. With a strongunderstanding of practical textile and apparel foreign trade English, you can build strong relationships with customers and suppliers around the world.。
服装设计外文文献翻译
文献出处：Sukumar N, Gnanavel P, Ananthakrishnan T. Effect of Seams on Drape of Fabrics [J]. African Research Review, 2009, 3(3)：62-72.原文Effect of Seams on Drape of FabricsSukumar ；Gnanavel. P. , Ananthakrishnan, T.AbstractDrape of the fabric is its ability to hang freely in graceful folds when some area of it is supported over a surface and the rest is unsupported. Drape is a unique property that allows a fabric to be bent in more than in one direction, When two-dimensional fabric are converted to three-dimensional garment form. In the present study, the effects of sewing of different seam were selected on different fabric and their behaviors were studied. In this study drape of ten fabrics are analyzed with three types of seams and three stitch densities. Sample without seam is a control sample and drape of seamed samples are compared with control sample to analyze the drape behavior of seamed fabrics. This paper presents a fundamental drape analysis of seamed fabrics using drape meter. Drape behavior is determined in terms of drape coefficient. The effect of seams on the drape coefficient and Drape profile has been made. Drape coefficients significantly differs between the fabrics and also between the seam stitch density combinations. Investigating drape on seamed fabrics can improve fabric end use application.Key words: drape, computer aided design, seam, stitch densityIntroductionDrape is an important property that decides the gracefulness of any garment as it is relates to aesthetics of garments (Kaushal Raj sharma and B.K. Behera. 2005). The mechanical properties of fabrics were first studied during the late 19th century by German researchers working on developing airships (Postle, 1998). Drape ability has been regarded as a quantitative characteristic of cloth, and several devices as well as virtual systems have been developed to measure it (Booth, 1968; Jeong, 1998; Stylios and Wan, 1999). Instruments for measuring drape ability have been developed by Chu et al.(1950) and later by Cusick (1965, 1968) using a parallel light source that reflects the drape shadow of a circular specimen from hanging disc into a piece of ring paper at present numerous instruments, ranging from a simple cantilever bending tester to a dynamic drape tester developed for measuring fabric drape. During recent years, the investigation of fabric drape has attracted the attention of many researchers because of the attempts to realize the clothing Computer aided design (CAD) system by introducing the fabric properties, in which fabric drape is the key element. It is obvious that fabrics have to be sewn together for a garment to be formed. The seams of a garment affect the fabric drape greatly (Matsudaira, M. and Yang, M. 2000). It is unrealistic to realize the appearance of a garment system without the consideration of seams and the methods of assembling of fabrics into garments (Jinlian Hu et al, 1997).When a fabric is draped; it can bend in one or more directions. Curtains and drapes usually bend in one direction, whereas garments and upholstery exhibit acomplex three-dimensional form with double curvature. Hence, fabric drape is a complex mathematical problem involving large deformations under low stresses (Postle, 1993).A plain seam the most typical seam found extensively in apparel is the simplest type in which a single row of lock stitches joins two pieces of fabrics together. Thus, investigating the effect of a plain seam on fabric drape has a significant value for both the textile and clothing industries. The quantified drapeability of a fabric into a dimensionless value called a “Drape coefficient”, which is defined as the percent of the area from an angular ring of fabric covered by a vertical projection of the draped fabric (Brand R.H.1964). “Drape co efficient (DC)” the m ain parameter used to quantify fabric drape (Narahari Kenkare and Traci May-Plumlee. 2005). Though useful, it is insufficient to characterize complex forms such as garments. Stylios and Zhu, 1997 considered that the drape coefficient by itself did not capture the full aesthetic quality of the drape of a fabric.Drape profile of fabrics with seams provide guidance for garment designs and producers in the apparel industry and improve the understanding of drape properties corresponding to different seam features (Fourt.L and Hollies.N.R.S.1970). Furthermore, we expect that the results will be useful in predicting garment drape with clothing CAD systems.Different types of seams are used in garment making and also wide stitch densities are employed. Once the fabric is joined with seams possibly its drape configuration would vary.The product range of textile industry has extended to the garments. Mass production of operational systems and automated sewing is making more and more presence, it is very essential to understand to the change in properties the fabric under goes once it is seamed. This study is an attempt to understand the effects of seams on the drape of fabrics, which is one of key characteristics for apparels and certain draperies.Types of SeamThe types of seams were selected and in each type, three stitch densities were employed. Fabrics were sewn along the warp and weft direction on a 35cm square side. Control sample for the test is a piece with no seams. This resulted in 9 treatment combinations.(1) Plain Seam (S1)This is the most common seam used in the garment industry. This is easy to make and pliable. It is normally suitable for all types of garments. And, it is suitable for curved locations like armhole. To make this seam we have to place two pieces of fabrics to be joined together right sides facing, matching the seam lines, and we should stitch the seam exactly on the seam line.(2) Welt Seam (S2)For constructing this, we should stitch the plan seam and press both seam allowances to one si de. Then the inside seam allowance is trimmed to ”. Then top stitching is done on the right side of the garment by catching the wider seam allowance. This type is normally used on heavy coats.(3) French seam (S3)The French seam is stitched twice once from the right side and once from the wrong side. It is the classic seam for sheers and looks best if the finished width is” or less. To form this seam, with wrong sides of the fabric together, we should stitch 3/8” from the edge on the right side of the fabr ic. The seam allowance in trimmed to 1/8” and the seam is pressed well. Then the right sides are folded together with stitched line exactly on the edge of the fold and pressed again. Then the stitches are made” from the fold.ConclusionA study on effect of seams on the drape coefficient Drape profile is been made. Three types of seams namely three stitch densities 5, 4 and 3 per centimeter has been employed. Ten fabric verities containing different fibres weaves are analyzed. Drape coefficients significantly differs between the fabrics also between the seam stitch density combination.The Drape Coefficient alone may not give a clean idea of real drape. For this purpose the drape profiles were generated with the help of radii measures. The drape profile has clearly indicating shapes that takes place with the seams put on. Seamed fabrics have generally shown more stabilized pattern compared to control samples.Sateen weave followed by BHC MAT weave has shown highly symmetrical patterns. The seam has markedly improved drape profile of honeycomb fabric. Polyester, Polyester/Viscous fabrics have registered better drape profiles than Polyester/Cotton fabrics. Both the cotton gray casement has shown agreeable drapeprofiles.译文接缝对面料褶皱效果的影响库马尔；甘拉维尔；安娜斯克里斯兰摘要褶皱是服装面料的一个内在特性，这使得它能够优雅地挂在服装面料的表面，特别是当面料的有些区域需要用到褶皱的时候。
纺织服装外文翻译文献
纺织服装外文翻译文献纺织服装外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：织物/服装湿传递性能不同测定方法的对比摘要现有几种测定织物/服装汽态水渗透或湿阻的方法，这些方法相互之间的区别与联系并没有得到明确提出，这引出了一个新的命题，即通过对比不同测定方法的结果，找出它们之间的区别与联系。
本课题致力于调查4种典型测定方法，包括“湿传递测试法（模型CS-141）”、“ASTM（美国材料与试验协会，英文全称American Society for Testing and Materials）E96正立水杯法”、“新式热阻湿阻仪器测试法”和“出汗暖体人体模型（Walter）测试法”，所得到的结果相互之间的联系。
实验结果表明，鉴于测试所用的针织物的透气性的差异范围，尽管这4种方法的结果由于在不同的环境下进行测试而存在些许差异，但它们仍然存在着密切联系。
因此，不同测试方法的结果经过适当调整可以相互转换。
关键词：织物，汽态水传递比率，织物舒适性，湿阻2.测试方法2.1测试样品此项实验的样品为8块功能性T恤面料商品，其中4块的织物组织为双罗纹，另外4块为平纹。
这些样品代表了市场中典型的T恤面料。
在模拟试穿者试穿效果的实验中，这些面料被缝制成了长袖T恤，穿在出汗暖体人体模型（Walter）身上。
表1列出了实验所用面料的主要规格参数。
表1 T恤面料样品的主要规格参数样品编号成分结构厚度（mm）平方米克重（gm-2）155% 40S/2 涤纶45% 40S/2精梳棉平纹（单面）0.696 199.3 263% 50S 极品特长绒棉37% 涤纶双罗纹抽条0.772 148.03 62% 40S 精梳棉31% 尼龙7% 莱卡平纹（单面）0.832 284.2459% 40S 精梳棉41% 尼龙双罗纹抽条0.955 184.35 100% 涤纶平纹（单面）0.644 193.46 100% 涤纶双罗纹0.555 121.8744% 40S 精梳棉45% 40S 涤纶短纤11% 莱卡平纹（单面）0.704 200.98 50% 40S 精梳棉双罗纹 1.071 225.6纺织服装外文翻译文献50% 30S 涤纶短纤2.2 实验测量2.2.1 水分传递测试法（模型CS-141）此项测试所用的仪器水分传递测试仪由Ludlow公司开发。
纺织服装外文翻译文献
外文文献翻译完整版译文3200多字(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Kar F, Fan J, Y u W. Comparison of different test methods for the measurement of fabric or garment moisture transfer properties[J]. Measurement Science & Technology, 2007, 18(7):2033.英文原文Comparison of different test methods for the measurement of fabric orgarment moisture transfer propertiesF Kar, J Fan and W YuAbstractSeveral test methods exist for determining the water vapour permeability or resistance of textile fabrics or garments. The differences and interrelationships between these methods are not always clear, which presents a problem in comparing results from different test methods. This study is aimed at investigating the relationships between the test results from four typical test methods, including the moisture transmission test (Model CS-141), ASTM E96 cup method, sweating guarded hot plate method (ISO11092) and the sweating fabric manikin (Walter). For the range of air permeable knitted fabrics tested, it was found that good interrelationships exist between the results from the four types of testmethods, although some discrepancies exist between different tests due to differences in testing conditions. Test results from different moisture transfer test methods can therefore be convertible with due consideration. Keywords: fabric, water vapour transmission rate, clothing comfort, water vapour resistance1. IntroductionMoisture transfer properties of textile fabrics and garments are important to the thermal comfort of clothed persons. A number of test methods have been developed to evaluate the moisture transfer properties of textile fabrics and garments. However, since the techniques and testing conditions of these tests are very different, results from these tests are not directly comparable. It is therefore necessary to investigate the differences and interrelationships between the results from these different test methods.Dolhan compared two Canadian Standards (CAN2-4.2-M77 and CAN/CGSB-4.2 No. 49-M91) and the ASTM E96 test methods for measuring the water vapour transmission properties and found that the results of these tests were not directly comparable because of the differences in the water vapour pressure gradients driving the moisture transmission in the different test methods Gibson [8] conducted an extensive investigation on the relationship of the test results from the sweating guarded hot plate (ISO11092) and those from the ASTM E96Cup Method. In his work, permeable materials, hydrophobic and hydrophilic membrane laminates were tested and the results were standardized in the units of air resistance and water vapour transmission rate. It was found, except for the hydrophilic samples, there is a clear correlation between the results from the two tests. As the test condition in the guarded sweating hot plate tests resulted in much higher equilibrium water content in the hydrophilic polymer layer, which influences the polymer’s permeability, the water vapour transmission rate through the hydrophilic membrane is greater when tested using the sweating guarded hot plate. As pointed out by a number of previous researchers [7, 12], different relative humidity gradients present in the various test methods cause the intrinsic transport characteristics of hydrophilic polymers to change. For such fabrics, there tend to be poor correlations between different test methods that employ differing relative humidity gradients, since the resistance is a function of the water vapour concentration and temperature. Consequently, Lomax [11] pointed out the need for investigating the correlations of results from different test methods for different types of fabrics.Gretton et al [9] classified the fabric samples into four categories, including air permeable fabrics, microporous membrane laminated fabrics, hydrophilic membrane laminated/coated fabrics and hybrid coated/laminated fabrics, in investigating the correlation between the testresults of the sweating guarded hotplate (ISO 11092) and the evaporative dish method (BS 7209). They showed that there is a good correlation between the two test methods for all fabrics except for the hydrophilic coated and laminated fabrics that transmit water vapour without following the Fickian law of diffusion.Recently, Indushekar et al [10] compared the water vapour transmission rates measured by a modulated differential scanning calorimeter and those by the conventional dish technique as specified in BS7209 for a wide range of woven based fabrics used in cold weather protective clothing. The study showed that results from these two test methods differ widely due to the differences in the water vapour gradients which occurred in the two methods.With the development of novel techniques for the measurement of moisture transmission properties of fabrics and garments, it is necessary to further investigate the relationship between different test methods. The present study was therefore aimed at investigating the correlations between the moisture vapour resistances/transmission rates measured using the newly developed sweating fabric manikin (Walter) [4, 6], the moisture transmission test (Model CS-141) [1], the ASTM E96 testing method [2] and the sweating guarded hot plate method [5]. Since the correlations between the moisture vapour resistances/transmission rates tested using the different test methods are generally different for differentcategories of fabrics, the present investigation is focused on air permeable functional T-shirt type fabrics2. Methods2.1. SamplesFour interlock and four single jersey functional T-shirt fabrics were chosen from commercial sources for the experiment. The samples represent typical T-shirt fabrics in the market. The fabrics were sewn into long-sleeved T-shirts for the tests on the sweating fabric manikin (Walter) and the wearer trial experiments. Table 1 lists the characteristics of the fabrics used in this study.2.2 Experimental Measurement2.2.1 Moisture Transfer Test Method (Model CS-141)The instrument moisture transfer tester used in this test was developed by Ludlow. The company claims that this instrument can quickly and easily determine the water transfer rate of a fabric. This test is based on "gas permeability law". This rule refers to the mass transfer ratio and the ability of the fabric to block moisture penetration, the pressure difference between the upper and lower sides of the fabric, and the thickness of the fabric. Figure 1 shows the structure of the moisture transfer tester. Small enclosed water tanks The clips on both sides sandwich the fabric sample in the middle of its vertical direction. Underneath the fabric is distilled water, which is less than half the heightof the sink. Above is the air that has been dried with desiccant at the beginning of the test. The height of the air gap between the surface of the water in the tank and the lower surface of the material is 10 mm. The tank was placed in a chamber with a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. During the experiment, moisture was transferred from the wet side (below the fabric) through the fabric sample to the dry side (above the fabric) and the humidity sensor maintained the monitoring of humidity changes in the upper part of the tank. During the time when the humidity increased from 50% to 60%, the rise in relative humidity was recorded every 3 minutes. The ratio of gas per hour per m 2 of steam in terms of g can be calculated by taking the data into the equation below.T = (269 × 10−7)(Δ%RH × 60/t)(H)/(100 × 0.02252) (1)Where: Δ%RH—average of the relative humidity difference between the upper and lower halves; t—the time interval between two successful data reads (t=3min); H—water content per unit volume of the tank (H=45.74 gm-3).2.2.2. American Materials and Testing Association E96 vertical cup methodThis method is a very common method for testing the moisture transfer properties of fabrics. This method can be used to determine the rate of vapor-water transport in the vertical direction of the fabric under conditions of constant ambient humidity, constant humidity and a knownfabric area. Figure 2 shows the principle of this test method. A cup filled with distilled water covered by fabric samples was placed in an adjustable environment with a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. At the beginning of the experiment, 80 g of water was poured into the cup, which determined the distance from the lower surface of the fabric to the water surface to be 19 mm. The test lasted for five days, during which time the quality of each cup was recorded once a day. The vaporous water transfer rate (WVTR) per square meter per hour can be obtained by taking the data into the equation below.WVTR = G /tA (2)Where: G—the value of the change in the weight of the cup covered by the fabric; t—the duration of the change in the mass of the cup, measured in h; A—the area of the fabric sample tested in m 2 .2.2.3. New thermal resistance wet resistance instrument test methodThe new thermal resistance wet resistance instrument was developed by Fan et al. This instrument complies with the test requirements specified in ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 11092. Compared with the conventional heat resistance and moisture resistance instrument, it makes it possible to simultaneously perform simulation tests on heat loss due to moisture evaporation and moisture evaporation loss. In addition, the instrument can be operated at subzero temperatures. Figure 3 shows the construction and working principle of the instrument.As can be seen from the measurement of evaporative heat loss, the total moisture resistance of the fabric sample placed on the porous board, sandwiched between the artificial skin and the air layer can be obtained by taking the data into the following formula.Ea sa ss et H ) H -PA (P = R (3) where: R et - total moisture resistance; A - area covered by the fabric sample (A = 0.0444 m 2); P ss - human skin temperature (controlled Water vapour pressure is saturated at 35°C); P sa - Water vapor pressure is strong at ambient temperature; H a is relative humidity (%).In the experiment, five layers of fabric samples of the same variety were first laid on the instrument, and the value of Ret was read for the first time after stabilization. Then remove a layer of fabric. At this time, four layers of fabric remain on the instrument and read the Ret value. Push the class until all 5 layers of fabric are removed. Next, the obtained Ret value is plotted against the number of layers of the fabric when reading, and then adjusted using a linear regression principle to draw a line that approximates the original curve. The slope of this line is the moisture resistance of each fabric sample. size.2.2.4. Sweat Warmer Human Model (Walter) Test MethodWalter is the world's first sweating warm mannequin developed by Fan and his colleagues. Figure 4 shows a sweating warm manikin wearing a T-shirt during the test. This test was conducted in a constanttemperature and humidity laboratory at a room temperature of 20.0±5°C, a relative humidity of 65.0±2%, and a wind speed of 0.5±0.3ms -1.Eight fabric samples were sewn into garments of the same size. During the test, the pants worn by the mannequin on the lower body remained consistent. The total moisture resistance can be calculated by the following equation after calculation.3. Results and analysisThe results of the four types of tests are listed in table. The moisture transmission rates measured by the moisture transmission test and the ASTM E96 cup method, expressed in units of gram per hour per square metre, are also converted to the moisture vapour resistance expressed in units so as to be comparable to the moisture vapour resistances measured by the sweating hot plate and the sweating fabric manikin.The result is a reduction of total moisture vapour resistance and thus an increase in moisture transmission rate. Since the moisture transmission test only lasts for 1 to 2 h, the effect of condensation is, on the other hand, not significant. For sample 8, the deviation from the trend line may be caused by the fact that it is relatively thick and therefore can absorb more moisture during the ASTM E96 cup method. The moisture absorption results in the swelling of cotton fibres and hence the reduction of the measured moisture transmission rate.4 ConclusionIn this study, four instruments were used to determine the vapor transmission rate or wet resistance of functional breathable t-shirt sports fabrics/clothing. From this study, it can be seen that for a typical functional T-shirt fabric, there are four kinds of test methods, namely “wet transfer test method (model CS-141)”, “ASTME96 vertical cup method”, and “new thermal resistance wet There is a close relationship between the resistance instrument test method and the "Walter test method". The results obtained from any of the test methods in this study can be compared by using the correlation trend curve and the results obtained by another method. Some errors in the correlation curve can be explained by differences in the types of materials and testing conditions.中文译文织物或服装湿传递性能的不同测试方法比较作者:F Kar, J Fan and W Yu摘要现有几种测定织物/服装汽态水渗透或湿阻的方法,这些方法相互之间的区别与联系并没有得到明确提出, 这引出了一个新的命题, 即通过对比不同测定方法的结果,找出它们之间的区别与联系。
纺织服装出口外文文献
纺织服装出口外文文献Textile and Apparel Export: An AnalysisIntroduction:The textile and apparel industry has always played a significant role in the global economy. The export of textile and apparel products has been a major contributor to the economic growth of many countries. This paper aims to explore the trends, challenges, and opportunities associated with textile and apparel exports.Trends in Textile and Apparel Exports:Over the years, textile and apparel exports have witnessed significant growth. Developing countries, particularly those in Asia, have emerged as key exporters in this sector. China, India, and Bangladesh have become major players in the global textile and apparel trade. These countries benefit from low labor costs, large-scale manufacturing capabilities, and an extensive supply chain network.Challenges Faced by the Textile and Apparel Industry: The textile and apparel industry faces several challenges that impact its export potential. One of the major challenges is the competition from low-costmanufacturing countries. As more countries enter the market, the competition intensifies, leading to price wars and reduced profit margins. Additionally, fluctuations in raw material prices and exchange rates pose challenges for exporters.Environmental and Sustainability Concerns:With the increasing focus on sustainability and environmental conservation, the textile and apparelindustry is facing pressure to adopt sustainable practices. Consumers are becoming more aware of the environmental impact of their clothing choices and are demanding eco-friendly products. Exporters need to invest in sustainable production methods, such as using organic and recycled materials, reducing water and energy consumption, and ensuring ethical labor practices.Opportunities and Strategies for Textile and Apparel Exports:Despite the challenges, there are several opportunities for textile and apparel exports. The growing demand for fashionable clothing, especially in emerging markets, presents significant opportunities for exporters. Additionally, the rise of e-commerce platforms has openednew avenues for selling textile and apparel products globally. Exporters can leverage these opportunities by adopting innovative marketing techniques and expanding their online presence.Furthermore, diversification of product offerings is crucial for sustained export growth. Exporters need to focus on producing high-quality, value-added products that cater to the specific needs and preferences of target markets. Collaborating with designers and investing in research and development can help exporters stay ahead of the competition.Conclusion:Textile and apparel exports continue to be a vital component of many countries' economies. While challenges such as competition, sustainability concerns, and fluctuating prices persist, opportunities for growth and expansion are also present. By adapting to changing market trends, investing in sustainable practices, and embracing innovative strategies, exporters can navigate through the complexities of the global textile and apparel trade and thrive in this highly competitive industry.。
纺织专业外文翻译
英文文献Precision knitwearDipl.lng.A Jurenak of Steiger gives an overview of the Swiss company’s latest technical developments which are pushing back the frontiers of knitwear production.At the last ITMA exhibition in Paris, Steiger had on show a new four-head multi-compact flat knitting machine. That was presented to the knitting industry as offering a completely new development. The machine was the first multi-head model on the world market with features that gave increased reliability, enhanced productivity and made operation much more user-friendly.Separation of the front bed and back bed cam carriage by eliminating the usual cam carriage bow is amongst the most important new features of the machine. However, both cam carriage sections are driven in full synchronization. By eliminating the traditional bow of the cam carriage, which has been an inconvenient feature on more conventional machines, it is now possible to ensure a direct passage of the yarn above to the needles in the needle beds.Another new development is the fact, that the yarn carriers have no direct mechanical connection with the cam plates, each carrier being driven individually by its own motor. During knitting, as the two carriage-sections reciprocate across the carriage sections in a synchronized arrangement. The yarn carriers are controlled by special software and can be moved as required either in the direction of the cam carriage travel or in the opposite direction.These new automatic features mean that there is no need to consider programming the yarn carriers and the yarn feed when the machine operates with variable cam carriage traverses and that the best possible operating conditions will always result. This gives a substantial rise in productivity and an improved overall machine ratio.The motorization of the yarn carriers gives them their own individuality and makes it possible to adapt their movements in the highest degree to any given knitting process. The yarn carriers are automatically engaged or disengaged as required by the knitting programmer and adapt to the fabric selvedges with maximum precision. This also has particular relevance to the formation of fabric selvedges since the active yarn feeders are automatically nearest to the knitted panel, thus avoiding the formation of slack yarn loops along the selvedge.The knitting of intarsia patterns is carried out without the use of swing yarncarriers, since it is possible to re-align the yarn carriers away from a particular area even between the can systems. Since the arrival of the machine on the world market, steiger reports that the “multi” has shown itself as a highly productive automatic flat knitting machine, which in addition to everything else has a multiplicity of patterning facilities which have not previously been available-at least to the same extent, particularly with regard to intarsia patterns. Here steiger offers up to 24 individually motor driven yarn carriers.Following the success of the steiger “multi” it was quickly realized that not every knitting company needs the large production of which this machine is capable. This prompted the steiger company during 2001, to bring on the market a compact version of the “multi” with a single knitting head, namely the Aries 3.Aries 3Three-system machineAries 3 uses the same technology as theses a three-system “multi” but instead of a twin-cam system carriage uses a three-system cam carriage. The 106cm long needle beds from the “multi” have been replaced by needle beds 130cm long. The Aries 3 model is thus particularly suitable for knitting small lots of exclusive high fashion knitwear.The steiger Aries 6 has been in full production since the beginning of this year. The machine is a double compact version of the Aries 3 machine, that is to say, a machine where, in a way, two Aries 3 models are linked together, although drive, share the yarn carriers and the electronic control.The machine frame is a self-supporting welded structure, produced in the tried and tested steiger tradition and very stable. The total length of the machine is 535cm and there are two separate knitting heads. Each of the two separate knitting heads. each of the two heads has a knitting width of 130cm and each has a three system cam carriage. Like the “multi” and the Aries 3, the Aries 6 has no conventional carriage bow so that front and rear cam plates are separate but are driven in synchronization, with the yarn being fed from above the knitting point in a straight line directly into the yarn carriers.Each of the knitting systems in the three system cam carriage is of identical design, each having two selection points and able to knit in the three way technique, I.e. knitting, tucking and non-knitting. When the stitch transfer unit is activated, loops can be transferred from the front bed needles to the back bed needles or vice versa either simultaneously or not. Without needing a re-alignment of the cam races thesplit-stitch technique can be used at any time in order to avoid a stitch transfer hole.Aries 6 capabilityThe Aries 6 machine has a standard equipment of either 12 or 24 motorized yarn carriers for each knitting head so that even very demanding high fashion and exclusive intarsia designs-either as single or double-face fabrics can be knitted or combined with structure patterns.The Aries 6 (like the Aries 3) has pneumatic yarn trapper and cutter units as standard components on the left and right-hand side of the needle beds. The well known steiger friction fabric take-down is positioned close to the knitting area of the machine (about 20mm), which ensures a straight and torsion-free fabric take-down.The new technologies, which steiger originally developed for the “multi” machine for the first time, are also included in the design of the Aries 3 and are original and further developed in the Aries 6 model having attracted many compliments by industry technical experts. It shows without doubt, that these developments were following a path in the right direction. this made it possible, by way of simple solutions, to obtain greater reliability, higher production and exclusiveness in the pattern scope.However, in modern fully electronic flat machines, simplicity, productivity and machine reliability is not the only feature that counts. Software for controlling the machine and pattern preparation equipment are of equal importance.Software for knittingSince introducing the Vesta range of machines to the market in 1993, steiger also introduced simultaneously a pioneering programming system, which runs on a compatible PC computer. The system known as “model” software works with symbols, where a symbol can represent either a simple stitch or a complicated knitting process(such as a face loop which has been transferred to the back bed and then returned to the front bed but on a neighboring needle).Thus it is possible to use symbols for a wide range of stitch combinations and store them in a library of stitch and patterns. The “model” software already contains a comprehensive library of a wide rang of pattern combinations which is continuously enlarged. By combining different symbols it is possible to produce a part repeat and after this a full pattern repeat. The presently popular pattern repeats too are also included already in the library and the rang can be extended in accordance with the aid of different design repeats, it is possible to show graphically on screen a complete knitted garment part. This also applies to the production of shapes.What is portrayed on screen is reproduced identically on the knitting machine. A rang of warning systems is available for the production process. This one is controlled by the computer, which shows up faults likely to occur during knitting. It is also possible to simulate stitches on a course for course basis thus making it possible to visualize the path of the yarn and the formation of loops and to analyze and understand in advance knitting on the machine.After the part to be knitted has been worked out on screen and is controlled by the computer, the type of machine used for the knitting process and the gauge are determined. This is followed by an automatic production of the design programmer. The software “model” allows the analysis of knitted parts and their shape for various automatic steiger knitting machines, even retrospectively for the Electra generation of machine, for the range of Vesta machines and of course for the state-of-the-art Aries range. The design programmer can be stored on diskettes which can be read directly into the machine or they can be fed directly “on-line” into the appropriate knitting machines.Designer partnershipsFor many years steiger has been working in close co-operation with the Prima Company. Together they have produced creative designer software which today is being distributed worldwide by Lectra. The prima vision software ,based upon the visually realistic pattern repeats ” knit Expert ” by Prima Vision, can now produce knitted fabrics in jacquard patterns based on fabrics structure and intarsia patterns. The article thus created can printed out as close to reality as possible since loop structures even in different gauges have a look of the design in depth. The following principal possibilities are available:1.Design stitch by stitch in actual gauge on a grid or in stitch effect. Sketched and scanned designs can easily be converted to stitches.2.Instant view of a knit design in another gauge or tension; tension changes are accurately represented on the design.3.Benefit from Knit Expert’s easy-to-use coloring features include creation of the whole color rang as knit visuals for the presentation to the customer. The professional color accuracy of primavision applies as well as automatic yarn color percentage to help with quick costing estimates.4.Stitches from the knit structure library based on real knitted fabric can be chosen to start building one’s own knit design library. Using Knit Expert , technical feasibility is immediately verified on the screen; what works well on PrimaVision willwork well on steiger knitting machines .5.An all-visual filling system allows easy organization & retrieval of designs.6.Generated graph prints automatically and instantly.7.Create knit design in stitches that can be draped onto a photographic image using PrimaVision-TCX 3D-like draping features to produce sample-free sales catalogues.Close co-operation between steiger and Lectra has made it possible to develop both software types ”model” and “Knit-Expert” on a parallel basis which allows full compatibility. This ensures the creation and production of knitwear on Steiger automatic knitting machines, starting with planning, drafting and design right up to sales.中文翻译在上次巴黎的国际纺机展览会上，斯坦格就曾展示了一台新型4头多机头紧凑型横机。
服装设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
服装设计中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)College men’s fashionA brief review of the literature on the social psychology of clothing reveals that young women are more frequently research participants than men . This may be because women far outnumber men in majoring in clothing design and apparel merchandising and thus are more easily accessible as research participants than men. Regardless of why clothing research includes more women as research participants, this focus on women has resulted in a dearth of research on young men. In support of this, Reilly and Rudd (2007) report that research has investigated men’s clothing preferences and habits to a lesser extent than women’s. men’s ideas about fashion and its importance in their lives have been overlooked. Despite the limited research on young men, consumer groups comprisedof college men are important to commercial marketers in terms of expenditure in men’s apparel and accessories. According to Statista, in 2012 the expenditure on men’s clothing goods in the United States was $22.2 billion. Men purchased footwear the most, followed by shirts and suits. Prior research has also shown that men’s interest in fashion is on the rise, leading to an increase in men’s apparel sales .Historically, women have been much more conscious about their appearance than men, but in recent times there appears to have been a change in this level of focus on appearance among men. Specifically, young men in Generation Y who have been socialized by mass media and marketing activities have become appearance conscious, which leads to apparel consumption (Kacen 2000; Patterson and Elliot 2002). Young men usually use dress to communicate their identities (Shete 2012), and their aspirations toward communicating this may influence their apparel consumption (Kang et al. 2011). Understanding the relationship between college-aged men’s identities and their clothing choices provides apparel marketers with useful information to develop effective strategies to produce and market clothes in accordance with the common values with which this group strives to identify.According to Hogg and Banister (2001), individuals can either have a positive reference point (i.e., desired end state) or a negative reference point (i.e., undesired end state) that they use to achieve their desiredidentities. So far, much research has been conducted on the positive aspects of consumers’ consumption choice. A lack of research into the negative aspects of consumption choice motivated us to question their impact on consumer behavior. Consumers’ avoidance behavior allows them to create further distance between themselves and their undesired identities (Hogg and Banister 2001), staying within the threshold of their desired identities. Thus, this research focuses on the clothing and style that college men avoid. An exploratory study was conducted on men attending a major midwestern university. On the basis of the results of the exploratory study, research interview questions for any further studies will be modified to address the research problem appropriately.The purpose of the exploratory study was to investigate what clothing college men prefer, what identities they achieve through their clothing, and what they want to avoid in their clothing choices. Our research questions were as follows: (1) Does college-aged men’s clothing reflect their identities and what do they want to express through their clothing choices? and (2) What undesired identities (related to aspects of an avoided self) do college-aged men avoid in their clothing choices? Literature reviewSocial identity theorySocial identity theory as conceptualized by Tajfel and Turner (1979) refers to perceived identity of the groups to which people belong(Tajfel 1982). Social identity theory posits that a person’s self-concept is based on his or her group membership. This theory consists of two dimensions: social identity and personal identity (Howard 2000;Tajfel 1982). Social identity reflects membership in various social groups (e.g., clubs, social class), and personal identity represents the unique attributes that differentiate one person from another (Howard 2000; Tajfel 1982). In complex social environments, young people can use their identification with in-groups (i.e., their own group) versus out-groups (i.e., other groups) (Ogilvie 1987) to align their appearance (i.e., the total and composite image created by clothing) with a desired social group and to differentiate themselves from the undesired, or avoidance, reference group (Banister and Hogg 2004). Thus, social identities provide status to young men and enhance their self-esteem.Research has used social identity theory to investigate the effects of men’s identities on the use of dress (i.e., all material objects added to body). For example, Kang et al. (2011) used social identity theory as a theoretical framework to investigate the relationship between young professional men’s perceptions of work identity and their use of dress. They found that the young men who felt incomplete in their work identity used dress as a symbol to construct their identities. Thus, in this study, we used social identity theory as a theoretical foundation to examine the relationship between college men’s identities and their clothing choices.Men’s identities with fashionAccording to Kratz and Reimer (1998), fashion is filled with meanings and symbols, through which people can visually communicate with one another in a rapid and direct manner. Fashion enables people to express their views about themselves and their identities through the use of clothing; it allows them to visually communicate who they are, who they want to be, what type of social group they want to belong to, and whom they do not want to be associated with the most (Shete 2012). Furthermore, Bennett (2005) states that fashion is one of the channels through which people can most readily give voice to their identities. Beyond words, people can convey themselves through dress and fashion, thus creating their social identity. Fashion’s essential role in providing people with means to build, shape, and communicate their identities is especially prominent in larger metropolitan cities where they “mingle with crowds of strangers and have only fleeting moments to impress them” (Bennett 2005, p 96).Men identify themselves through various ways. For example, some men may identify themselves through their body appearance, while others may show their identities by the way they dress; Hathcote and Kim (2008) note that men represent themselves through how they dress. Moreover, many men care about what they wear and how they wear it on a daily basis and also care about how others perceive them. As part of campussociety, college students also spend time on how they dress. Some male students prefer wearing sweatpants or baggy basketball shorts at school, while others prefer wearing polo shirts and casual pants. The way male college students choose their outfits for school represents their different personalities and identities. For example, some male students wear athletic clothing to show off their masculinity. This is consistent with Lunceford (2010, p. 66), who argues that “male students choose a specific article of clothing because of how it makes them feel or because it downplays what they consider to be unattractive aspects of their bodies while accentuating their best features.”Researchers have conducted studies related to the importance of clothing and fashion for identity creation and communication. For example, Piacentini and Mailer (2004) found that young people in the United Kingdom tended to use clothing to show similarity between themselves and the groups they wished to be identified with, and as a channel to establish potential friendships. Schofield and Schmidt (2005) examined the importance of clothes used in constructing and communicating gay men’s personal a nd group identities with a sample of Manchester-based respondents. They shaped individual gay identity through different levels (i.e., community level, neo-tribal level, and situational level) and found that gay identity emerged through clothing choices. In their study, gay identity is shared on a gay community level toexpress “gayness” to others; on a neo-tribal level to show “belonging” to a social gay cohort with shared experience and emotions; and on a situational level to make themselves blend in with wherever they are (Schofield and Schmidt 2005).As mentioned previously, young people in complex social environments can use their identification with in-groups versusout-groups (Ogilvie 1987) to align their appearance with a desired social group, and to differentiate themselves from the undesired, or avoidance, reference group (Banister and Hogg 2004). In their study of a sample of British consumers, Banister and Hogg (2004) found that many consumers wore safe clothing items (e.g., simple clothes, which would be interpreted positively) to avoid censure rather than risky items. If such fears of folly and negative attention are present in male consumers, certain commonalities among them can be identified. Eisler and Skidmore (1987) proposed that men’s gender-role expectations contributed to fears about lack of athleticism, emotional intimacy, intimacy with other men (or homophobia), and failure. If the feminine, unathletic, impotent man is representative of perceived undesirability among men, symbolic identifiers of those traits can be indicative of young men’s labeling of avoidance reference groups and the “avoided self.” Thus, men’s fashion conservatism (i.e., dressing in a masculine way according to social norms) could be partially attributed to the generalized fear of appearing“feminine” (Kimmel 1994).Aversion to alternative stylesThe aversion to alternative styles was accompanied by several rationales. One respondent said he avoided skinny jeans (often associated with “skater” and “emo” culture) simply “for comfort.” Another respondent avoided dark and alternative styles to “avoid negative stigmas” and possible associations with low intelli gence related to group think. However, the majority of the respondents who said they avoid alternative styles were unable to explain their aversion. Mentions of dislike of alternative clothing were often supplied first and with little hesitation, suggesting that this is a somewhat automatic and marked dislike for those respondents.One respondent said he avoids wearing black and looking gothic because his friends do not wear those styles, suggesting a fear of ostracism when wearing alternative clothing. In a similar vein, one respondent included that he “doesn’t want to lead people to believe he is dark.” A 23-year-old Caucasian respondent, when asked if he avoided any styles of clothing, said: “Gothic stuff for sure, dark clothing or Hot Topic stuff. I don’t want to be associated with them and I hate the people that wear that stuff, like spiked belts.” This type of sentiment occurred almost exclusively among Caucasian respondents from middle- andupper-middle-class backgrounds. The fear of social scrutiny andostracism, along with a general stigma regarding alternative andcounter-culture, appears to be the most common motivation for avoiding alternative styles.Aversion to gangster stylesGangster styles were mentioned often, and responses often indicated social and racial prejudices, in addition to the fear of social judgment. Many respondents associated “big” and “baggy” clothing with gangster style. Race emerged as a definite component of this aversion. All but one of the respondents who listed gangster style as an avoided style identified as Caucasian. One respondent directly indicted his aversion to wearing clothes “a black person would wear,” suggesting that affiliation with the African American culture would be undesirable. Other variants included an av ersion to “swag gear” and “thug style.” Another respondent even used a variant of a racial slur to express his avoidance ofgangster-inflected styles. The respondents supplied little additional justification for avoiding this style, and when asked to expound on their preference, three claimed that they were unable to provide further information.Aversion to gay stylesThree respondents expressed avoiding clothing that could be regarded as “gay.” The wearing of skinny jeans, jean shorts, V-neck shirts, or cardigans was perceived as indicative of homosexuality, according tothe interview data. The inclusion of these items of clothing specifically indicates an association of form-fitting clothing and low necklines with effeminacy and gay culture. Respondents expressed a desire to represent themselves accurately, and those who claimed to avoid gay-inflected clothing suggested that it was undesirable on the grounds that (1) they disliked gay culture, (2) they wanted to express their heterosexuality, and (3) they wanted to avoid speculation from others that they were homosexual. In this regard, homophobic sentiments, a desire for accurate self-representation, and a fear of social judgment all seemed to be components of these respondents’ desire to avoid clothing per ceived as being worn by gay men. Another respondent said that he refused to wear any clothing from the “women’s section,” and though this does not necessary relate to the avoidance of gay style, it does represent anoften-related fear of gender-role deviation. Thus, an avoided self and avoidance behavior were important factors in clothing choice, supporting earlier findings from Hogg and Banister’s (2001) study in which dislikes and distastes of college men were associated with negative symbolic consumption. This sentiment is demonstrated by another respondent’s notion that said, “you know that there are certain things that you don’t want to buy because you don’t want to project yourself in a negative way.” They proposed that a greater understanding of the impact of negative symbolic consumption on consumers product rejection couldhelp the development of companies marketing communication strategies.Cultural background and the avoided selfDemographics indicated different trends in responses among respondents. The four Chinese men who participated were largely unable to produce responses regarding avoided clothing and styles. One of these respondents said he only avoids clothing that is “too colorful or fashionable” because “it is not his style.” Another said he only avoids “hip-hop clothing” because it does not match his serious personality. The other two respondents said that there were no types of clothing or styles they avoided. These sentiments contrast greatly with the responses from American students, all but one of whom listed one or several types of avoided clothing and styles.Furthermore, the brief elaborations the Chinese students supplied regarding the reason they avoid clothing related to issues of personal identity, with no mention of social or cultural motivations for doing so. This indicates that the avoidance of styles due to fears of social castigation and negative group associations could hold as a phenomenon more prevalent in the United States than in China.The college-aged men in this study expressed a desire for clothing that is comfortable, gives them confidence, and meets the expectations of their surroundings. These men recognized that their clothing was onerepresentation of their identities. Thus, the results suggest that college men are driven largely by a desire for comfort and to meet normative expectations. These findings are supported by the supposition that “men dress for fit and comfort rather than for style”, made by Craik (1994) and confirmed by Bakewell et al. (2006). These attributes for college men’s clothing choice seem to be quite different from those for young women, who largely make their choices based on brand (fit, look, and style) (Taylor and Cosenza 2002). The driving force for college men’s clothing choice is seemingly functional rather than decorative (Kacen 2000), even if they have become more appearance-conscious. Overall, the positive connection between young men’s individual identities and their clothing choices parallels previous research on the relationship between young professional men’s perceptions of work identity and their dress choices (Kang et al. 2011), and on the link between young peopl e’s clothing choices and the identity of the groups to which they belong (Piacentini and Mailer 2004).A minority of respondents avoided certain types of clothing because they felt it was incongruent with their styles. Their aversion to clothing that appears to belong to alternative, gangster, or gay styles suggests that these men strived to avoid clothing that implied identities viewed as non-conformist, non-professional, and unusual. These men indicated that their clothing choices were perhaps motivated by a desire to fit in withothers. Their aversion to clothing styles that communicated incongruent identities implies that deviations from cultural, class, race, andgender-related norms were undesirable.翻译：大学男装时尚简要回顾服装社会心理学的文献显示,年轻女性比男性更多的成为研究参与者。
纺织专业气流纺纱中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Rotor SpinningRotor spinning involves the separation of fibers by vigorous drafting, and then collection and twisting of the fibers in a rotor. In the actual rotor spinning machine, draw frame sliver is presented to a spring-loaded feed plate and feed roller. Fibers within the sliver are then individualized by a combing roller covered with saw-tooth wire clothing. Once opened, the fibers pass through a transport tube in which they are separated further and parallelized before being deposited on the inside wall of the rotor. Centrifugal forces, generated by the rotor turning at high speeds, cause the fibers to collect along the wall of the rotor, forming a ring. The fiber ring is then swept from the rotor by a newly formed end of yarn which contains untwisted fibers. With each rotation of the rotor, twist is inserted, converting the fiber bundle into yarn as it is pulled out of the rotor through a navel. The yarn is then taken up onto a cross-wound package, eliminating the need for a separate winding process as in ring spinning. As the yarn is drawn from the rotor, some fibers lying in the peeling point may wrap around the yarn, resulting in the formation of undesirable, random wrapper fibers which are characteristic of the open-end yarn structure. Rotor spinning can be divided into four major areas: fiber separation, fiber transport, fiber reassembly, and twist insertion.Schematic representation of the rotor spinning process.Fiber SeparationFiber separation is critical in rotor spinning for effective orientation of the fibers before yarn formation within the rotor. The sliver must be separated into individual fibers for effective delivery to the rotor. If the fibers are not separated effectively, a quality yarn with the best possible fiber orientation cannot be formed.The most common method for fiber separation incorporates the use of combing roller covered with saw-tooth wire. Sliver is fed into the rotational action of the combing roller by action of a feed roller/feed plate mechanism. As the sliver is fed into the wires of the combing roller, individual fibers are caught by the teeth on the roller and pulled from the sliver. At this point the centrifugal forces and aerodynamics of the system transport the fibers from the teeth on the surface of the combing roller to an airstream where the fibers are separated further and eventually deposited into the rotor in small layers over many revolutions.Another critical function of the combing roller is the removal of trash from the sliver. Well-cleaned sliver should be presented to the system. Some dust and dirt particles, however, will still be present in the cleanest sliver, especially if cotton is being processed. The trash extraction unit of the combing roller is designed to allow lighter fibers to be carried by air to the transport duct while the heavy trash particles, because of their mass, will deflect through an opening below the combing roller and out of the system. If the fibers are not clean on delivery to the open-end system,excessive fine particles and dust will deposit in the rotor, preventing uniform fiberalignment. As a result of particle buildup, yarn of poor quality (with poor fiber orientation, lower strength, and increased imperfections) is produced.Fiber transportOnce removed from the combing roller, the fibers must be transported to the rotor without becoming excessively disoriented. The fiber transport tube is responsible for moving individualized fibers from the combing roller teeth and transporting them via air currents to the rotor. The transport tube is generally tapered to accelerate the air and fibers during movement through the tube. This fiber acceleration helps to straighten out some fiber hooks existing from the fibers leaving the combing roller.Fiber ReassemblyUpon exiting the transport tube, the fibers are accumulated in the rotor which is the heart of the open-end spinning process. Within the rotor, fibers are collected into an untwisted strand against the rotor wall via centrifugal forces, and then the strand is drawn off as yarn.As the fibers are delivered to the rotor wall, the centrifugal forces cause them to slide down the wall into a groove. It takes many layers of fiber to make up a strand of sufficient density for yarn; therefore, the yarn is built over a period of many revolutions. As a result, numerous doublings occur within the groove (approximately 100) wherein further blending takes place and short-term unevenness that occurs at drawing is reduced. Consequently, the rotor yarns are extremely even with few thick and thin defects.For short staple spinning, rotor diameters range from 31 to 56 mm and may be constructed with a variety of shallow “groove shapes”. The rotor design has a significant effect on the yarn structure and physical properties, resulting from the fiber orientation and the twist imparted on the yarn while it lies within the rotor groove. The rotor typically has a conical shape, and the inner surface along the wall is known as the collecting groove, the diameter of which is the specified rotor diameter. The rotor diameter depends on the machine speed, as well as on fiber properties, such as fiber length. As a rule of thumb, the rotor diameter should be no less than 1.2 times the staple length of the fiber; ends down at spinning otherwise increase.Illustrations of different rotor profiles available for rotor spinning.The shape of the rotor groove should be considered because of the effects on twisting forces that occur in the groove to form the yarn. A variety of different rotor groove shapes exist to allow for different final yarn properties, including yarn strength, bulk, torque, and uniformity characteristics. For instance, the T-rotor, because of its narrow groove diameter, produces yarns with a tight configuration more nearly like ring spun yarns than does the G-rotor. However, the bulk of the yarns produced from a G-rotor provides for better knit fabric hand and cover. As a result, specific rotors must be chosen to generate the appropriate yarn appearance and physical properties desired in the end product. S-rotors and U-rotors are generally used for sock, blanket, and towel yarns. G-rotors are normally used for apparel knitting yarns, and T-rotors are most often used for weaving yarns.Twist InsertionTwist occurs in the open-end spinning process as a result of the action of the rotor, navel, and take-up rollers. Once a sufficient number of fibers has collected in the rotor, twisting action from the rotation of the rotor propagates from the rotation of the rotor propagates from the navel back to the peeling point at the rotor (the point at which the fibers leave the rotor).At the peeling point, the fiber strand is slightly twisted and peeled off the collecting surface at which time full twist is imparted. The strand is then carriedperpendicularly out through a navel along the axis of the rotor.Figure schematically diagrams the yarn formation process within the rotor during open-end spinning. The rotor rotates in direction “a ” at a fixed rate. At point “B ” the newly formed yarn moves through the yarn withdrawal tube (or navel) where it isremoved form the rotor and wound onto a package. The actual yarn formation occurs in area “c”, wherein the individual fibers begin to collect twist. Once slightly twisted, the fibers reach point “p”, the peeling point, and the bundle is directed out of the rotor groove where it is fully twisted.Each revolution of the rotor theoretically introduces about one turn of twist into the yarn; however, slippage occurring during actual twist insertion is believed to cause lower actual twist than the number of rotor rotations. Because the fibers are not held firmly by the nip of a pair of rollers, as in ring spinning, the fibers can migrate independently during twisting. In fact when tsist is measured in rotor yarns, the measured twist is usually 15 percent to 40 percent lower than the machine twist. Machine twist is determined by the following formula:Rotor Speed (rpm)Twist (turns/m)=Delivery Speed (m/min)Not all twist imparted to the yarn is directly caused by rotor rotation. As the yarn travels through the navel and doffing tube, a significant amount of contact occurs. This rolling action on the navel surface produces a false twist that is trapped in a section of the yarn inside the rotor. In addition, a proportion of the real twist arising from the rotation of the rotor projects backward into the rotor. Therefore, the total twist is the sum (or difference) of the two kinds of twist. Overall, the false twist provides for more stability of the yarn between the navel and the rotor groove than does the genuine preset twist.The final yarn at the package contains only real twist, yet the false twist has definite effect on final yarn characteristics. With increases in rotor speeds, false twist is increased correspondingly due to higher yarn tension and more centrifugal forces in the rotor. This increase in false twist tends to increase the amount of wrapper fibers in the yarn.Wrapper Fiber FormationThe inner core structure of rotor yarn resembles that of ring spun yarn structure; however, rotor yarn has a unique structural buildup of outside yarn layers that affects the aesthetic as well as the physical characteristics of the yarn. Once each revolution some fibers entering the rotor from the transport tube interfere with the yarn peeling from the collecting surface. Portions of the fibers entering the rotor are captured inadvertently into the yarn. Instead of being twisted into the inner yarn structure, these fibers wrap around the outside of the yarn. The formation of these fibers, called “wrapper fibers”, is illustrated in figure.The fewer wrapper fibers that are present, the more that rotor yarns resemble ring spun yarns. However, methods to reduce wrapper fiber formation in rotor spinning cause reductions in productivity, as the minimum twist required for spinning increases. In general, wrapper fibers should be minimized to achieve an aesthetically appealing yarn while maintaining productivity.Also, the presence of wrapper fibers in rotor yarn has been shown to contribute toincreased needle wear in knitting. It is theorized that wrapper fibers move across the knitting needles like “speed bumps on a highway,”sending waves of vibration through the needle and contributing to accelerated wear. The formation of wrapper fibers is largely affected by several machine-related and fiber-related factors including: rotor speed, rotor diameter, fiber length, friction between the fiber and rotor groove, and aggressiveness of the navel. With increasing rotor speed, the levels of both false twist and yarn rotation become higher; hence, wrapper fibers are wrapped around theSequence of illustrations showing one mechanism of wrapper fiber formation on the surface of a rotor yarn with: (A) the fiber peeling point which moves slightly clockwise during the above sequence, (1) a fiber entering the rotor, (2) this fiber beginning to wrap around the body of the yarn rather than being twisted into the tail of the yarn, (3) the fiber continuing to wrap, and (4) the final view of such a wrapper fiber.core more often. At higher speeds the rotor diameter or the navel should be changed to reduce false twist; otherwise, the yarn qualities will deteriorate.With smaller rotors the presence of wrapper fibers is less pronounced than with larger rotors. Even though more wrapper fibers exist owing to the fact that more fibers are delivered to the peeling point of the rotor, the wrapper fibers are wound fewer times around the yarn core than with large rotors. Therefore, yarns produced on smaller rotors tend to be more hairy, but less bulky than similar yarns produced with larger rotors.Overall, the factors relating to wrapper fiber formation must be adjusted so that the minimum number of wrapper fibers are produced for a given speed. Wrapperfibers cannot be entirely removed, or productivity would be restricted; however, excessive wrapper fibers will result in low quality, aesthetically displeasing yarn. Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotor Spun YarnThe primary attraction of rotor yarn is its production cost advantage over ring spun yarn. Because of its high degree of automation and higher productivity, a pound of rotor yarn can be produced with approximately one third the labor needed to produce ring spun yarn. Part of the labor reduction is attributed to the high automation of the system. Some other primary advantages include: (1) Lower defect levels compared to the other spinning systems, particularly fewer yarn long thick and thin places; (2) Superior knit fabric appearance; (3) Lower fiber shedding at knitting or weaving than ring spun yarn; (4) Less torque than ring spun yarn; (5) Less energy per unit produced required than for ring spinning; (6) Less floor spaced required compared to ring and air jet spinning; (7) Sophisticated real time quality and production monitoring on each yarn position; and (8) Superior dyeability compared to ring spun yarn.As with any spinning system, some disadvantages exist with rotor yarns. From the initial development of rotor yarn, concerns have existed regarding the harshness of the yarn compared to ring spun yarn. Some developments have been made to offset the difference through special spinning setups or fabric finishing; however, fabrics produced from rotor and ring spun yarn are still readily distinguishable. These are other disadvantages of rotor yarn: (1) Low strength (approximately only 70 percent of ring spun yarn); (2) High pilling propensity compared to air jet yarn; (3) Accelerated needle wear at knitting compared to ring spun yarn; and (4) High maintenance costs compared to ring and air jet spinning.Critical Spin box Factors for Spinning Performance and QualityDraftOne of the first decisions that must be made when beginning to produce a yarn at rotor spinning is the weight of the sliver that should be fed into the machine. The relationship between the sliver weight and the yarn weight is the draft required by the machine. The machine draft can be calculated with the equation:Yarn Count (Ne)Draft=Sliver weight (gr/yd)8.33The preferred draft is different for the various machines available. For the Rieter R1, draft levels above 200 generally help yarn strength, evenness, and IPI defects. Because the Schlafhorst machines have a smaller combing roller, the preferred draft level is lower, usually less than 200.Rotor SpeedRotor speed has a strong correlation with yarn strength, elongation, evenness, shedding, and yarn breaks if all else is held constant. Increases in rotor speed cause increases in spinning tension, which disrupt fiber formation in the rotor. However, if arotor speed increase is made in conjunction with a rotor diameter decrease, it is possible to avoid a spinning tension increase and preserve yarn quality and ends down levels.SuctionA vacuum is generated at the end of the rotor spinning machine to provide suction at each spinning position. The suction helps to remove the fibers from the combing roller and to move them through the fiber transport channel. The removal of fibers occurs before the fibers make a full turn on the combing roller. The air that travels with the fibers through the transport channel is accelerated by approximately 50 percent as it moves into the rotor because of the taper of the channel and the extra air generated by the rotor and vacuum. The air then exits around the edge of the rotor. If any turbulence exists (because of improper setting of the rotor), if air leaks occur due to worn seals, of if the vacuum level is insufficient, yarn formation in the rotor will be adversely affected, and quality and efficiency will deteriorate.Combing Roller ZoneThe combing roller zone is schematically illustrated in figure. The sliver is delivered to the combing roller by the feed which turns at a speed that is based on both the draft and the yarn delivery speed set on the machine. The critical factors in the combing roller zone for optimal quality and running performance include: feed clutch wear, feed tray-to-combing roller spacing, combing roller speed, combing roller wire selection, and combing roller wire condition.Rotor ZoneThe rotor zone can be defined as the combination of the rotor, twin disc assembly, and rotor drive belt. Critical factors influencing quality and machine performance in this zone include: rotor speed/diameter, rotor groove, rotor stem wear, rotor cup wear, twin disc wear, and rotor belt wear and alignment.Yarn Withdrawal Zone (Navel and Doff tube)The fiber bundle formed in the rotor is withdrawn through a navel and doff tube. These components not only guide the newly formed yarn out of the spin box, but contribute significantly to spinning performance and to yarn characteristics As mentioned previously, movement of yarn against the navel introduces a false twist that strengthens the yarn between the rotor and delivery roller. Similarly, inserts can be added into the doff tube to increase friction on the yarn and therefore to increase false twist. However, some measure taken to increase false twist cause evenness of the yarn to deteriorate. Critical factors in the yarn withdrawal zone include navel selection, navel spacing (the distance from the navel surface to the peeling point of the fibers from the rotor), and doff tube selection.Critical Winding and Piecing Factors for Spinning Performance and Quality Winding ZoneThe winding zone consists of the area from which the yarn exits the spin box to the drum that turns the package. The optimal setup of the winding zone is strongly dependent on the end use of the yarn. For instance, if the yarn is to be dyed, the desired package density would be low to allow dye to pass through the package. Thus, tension would be set lower than for yarns for weaving or knitting applications. Weaving packages are usually wound with relatively high tension to allow for a high density, heavy package, so it has to be changed less frequently at the next process, thereby helping processing efficiency. If a knitting yarn is being produced, wax must be applied at the winding zone to help to lubricate the yarn in order to reduce yarn-to-metal friction at the knitting machine.Critical factors to control in the winding zone to produce a high quality package include: yarn tension setting, angle of wind, cradle pressure, cradle pressure, cradle alignment, yarn traverse displacement, delivery roller wear, wax application, and drive tire condition. The winding tension is the ratio in speed of the winding drum and the delivery roller that pulls the yarn out of the spin box. As a rule of thumb, the higher the tension, the lower the yarn elongation, and the harder the package. Automatic Piece ConsiderationThe modern rotor spinning machines are equipped with a piece that travels along themachine, automatically rejoining the yarns that have stopped spinning. When thepiece reaches a stopped position, the spin box is opened and cleaned automatically using a plastic scraper that cleans the groove and a brush that removes loose residue. These are critical factors involving piece-ups: piece efficiency, piecing strength, and piecing appearance.译文：气流纺纱气流纺纱是通过强大的气流是纤维分离,然后把纤维加捻卷绕在转子上。
纺织品行业及贸易外文文献翻译资料
文献信息标题: Revealed Comparative Advantage of Carpets and Textile Floor Covering Industry in Pakistan, India and China作者: Altaf, Saba期刊名称: Journal of Economic Cooperation & Development；卷: 35；期: 4；页: 113-133；年份: 2014 Revealed Comparative Advantage of Carpets and Textile Floor Covering Industry in Pakistan, Indiaand China1. IntroductionThe global trade pattern has been changed in the pursuance of trade liberalization policies in the form of removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers, reduction in quotas and technological advancement on the part of world economies. South Asian economies such as China and India are seeking a favorable position from the trade composition perspective in the international markets. These countries possess comparative advantage in textile sector and show a noteworthy growth in changing trade patterns across the world. Pakistan has a great potential to stand out in this sector in the region as a prospective and overwhelming proportion of labor force is engaged in this sector. It is expected that export-led growth strategy cause a significant boost in production, employment and the productivity of labor along with the improvements in overall economic status but the political and socio-economic conditions in addition to primitive types of technology use may hinder the way to rapid progress.Pakistan's current export structure requires structural transformation and changes in its export diversification and prototype specialization. The industrial sector in Pakistan has been playing a pivotal role in the national economy in terms of its share in GDP, exports, employment, foreign exchange earnings, investment and its contribution to the value added industry. China is one of the world's largest textiles exporters, accounting for one third of the global textile trade volume. Although the prolonged anti-dumping investigations hit the country's textile export, still textile industry in China has remained a key pillar of development in the country. It has played a vital role in proliferation of various sectors of the economy. Due to its large contribution in the economic growth, Chinese government has remained very much focused to upgrade this sector. India, another major exporter of textile goods is self-reliant and independent with lots of versatility and diversification in textile sector. Apart from providing one of the basic necessities of life i.e. cloth, the textile industry contributes about 14 % to the country's industrial output and about 17 % to export earnings. This sector stands at second in the provision of jobs to people after agricultural sector.There is continuing debate and emerging concern about the position of these countries in the world market and the resulting edge of China for intensified competition in the labor-intensive manufactured goods. This signifies the importance of the structure of comparative advantage in selected countries; China, India and Pakistan and to find out the extent of competition among these countries in the market of selected subsector i.e., textile.This study focuses on one of the important sub-sector of textile industry i.e. Carpets and other textile floor Coverings (under the category of code 57 as per Harmonized System of classification, HS). The carpet industry plays a fundamental role in determining the export bearing of Pakistan. There has been an ever increasing demand for carpets and floor coverings both in Pakistan and around the globe. Carpets have always been a valuable asset since ages and therefore remained in vogue. This wasgradually commercialized in Pakistan because of the development of export market. Commercialization gave new dimensions to this industry and it started expanding in rural areas due to the availability of cheap labor. This is one of the sectors that grew tremendously during 1970s and 80s. Among the value added goods it remained on the top of the list (Awan and Khan, 1992).This sector started getting a set back after the issue of child labor raised by international organizations. As majority of the carpet weavers in Pakistan were estimated to be children less than 15 years of age. Although, data on the Pakistan labor force and child labor is vulnerable. Nevertheless, there is little doubt that child labor has assumed massive proportions in Pakistan. The actual total number of working children in Pakistan is probably somewhere between 2 and 19 million.2Primarily, the promotion of carpet industry depends upon availability of raw material, presence of skilled weavers and the tradition of weaving art, etc. The skill and productivity of workers in carpet industry along with the availability of socio-economic infrastructure affects the competitiveness of this sector. Despite the presence of weaknesses in few areas, the carpet industry serves as a backbone for the economy of Pakistan. It has been a major source of foreign exchange earnings and contributes a lot in relief of poverty, especially in rural areas. Presently this industry is not revealing a significant export growth and there is a dire need to focus on the provision of infrastructure to support the growth of this industry.A UNICEF-Punjab report (1992) asserted that "according to conservative estimates, one million out of1.5 million workers in the carpet industry in Pakistan were children. A separate 1992 UNICEF/Govemment of Pakistan study reported that 90 percent of the one million workers in the carpet industry are children, many of whom began working in the industry before 10 years of age. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan found that weaving thrives in self-contained homesteads, where labor is cheap and readily available".Different techniques have been used in literature to determine country's competitiveness in selected industry. One of the most widely used methods involves the concept of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) developed by Balassa (1965). Revealed comparative advantage (RCA), a measure of international competitiveness specifies that a country is defined as being specialized in exports of a certain product if its market share in that product is higher than the average.A number of studies are available on measuring competitiveness in various sectors of Pakistan, but there is no empirical work done on RCA of Pakistan in carpet and other textile floor coverings industry till the year of this study conducted. For small as well as growing economies, competitiveness is essential for promoting economic development and to survive in the globalized world where carpet industry holds its own worth.From the above given perspective, the objective of this study is to analyze the comparative advantage of the carpet industry in Pakistan and compare it with selected South Asian countries .i.e. China and India. These countries were selected for measuring and comparing RCA with Pakistan's because they are similar in size and factor endowments and core competitor of Pakistan in the world market. The study enables us to find out the competitiveness of this sector in the world market and can probe at the future potential of growth in the carpet industry of Pakistan. The Balassa Index (1965) is used to find out the comparative advantage at 2-digit and 4-digit level of Harmonized System of Classification. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Next section provides the literature survey followed by the methodology and data description. The empirical results of the study are reported and discussed in section 4. Last section concludes the study with some policy recommendations.2. Review of LiteratureA number of studies have been conducted to find out Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) using Balassa Index (1965). This section provides a brief literature review that can give a better knowledge and understanding of the pattern of RCA in different countries for different sectors.Balassa (1977) has undertaken an analysis of the pattern of comparative advantage of industrial countries for the period 1953 to 1971. The empirical findings of this study suggest a renewal of the product cycle for US that possess an ever increasing technical lead. Based on the standard deviation of the RCA indices for different countries an association is also seen to hold between size and diversification of exports. Furthermore, Balassa's results show that the extent of export diversification tends to increase with the degree of technological development and a reversal takes place at higher levels in the trade patterns.Leishman et al. (1999) empirically analyzed the international competitiveness for agricultural commodities by applying Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) for wool- exporting countries. A number of six wool producing countries are selected for measuring RCA over the time period of 37 years. RCA index for Australia, Argentina, Newzeland, South Africa, United Kingdom and Uruguay indicates that GATT Uruguay Round has changed the RCA's of countries significantly.Mehmood (2005) analyzed the export specialization and comparative advantage/disadvantage of Pakistan's non agriculture production sectors in the context of on-going multilateral trade negotiations. The study uses RCA approach at HS-4 digit level for the period 1990-2000. The data set has been drawn from International Trade Statistics compiled by the Australian National University (AND). The data set comprises 16 product categories made up of 978 product lines. Findings show that Pakistan's top-ranking exports belong to textiles and clothing sector, consistent with the natural and human factor endowments however Pakistan has failed to move from low value added to technically intensive high value added manufacturing. Pakistan's economic well-being depends on the extent to which the non-agricultural sector remains competitive and contributes to economic growth, exports, investment and employment.Batra and Khan (2005) examined the structure of comparative advantage enjoyed by India and China in the global market keeping in view their similar resource endowment and size. The study estimates Balassa index of RCA for India and China at sector and product level of the Harmonized Classification System (HS-1996) both at 2 and 6-digit level for the year 2000 and 2003 using data on exports from UN Comtrade.3 The year 2000 is taken as reference, as this is the year immediately preceding China's accession to WTO. The main objective of the study is to figure out the leading manufacturing industries in India and China in terms of their revealed comparative advantage. The study reveals that the maximum number of commodities with comparative advantage in the world market is concentrated in sectors like organic chemicals. There are also some sectors where India is comparatively disadvantageous positioned at the aggregate level but reveal significant comparative advantage at the constituent commodity level (HS-six digit).In addition, China enjoys comparative advantage in the world market in 47 sectors and 1828 commodities out of 97 sectors and 4923 exported commodities, respectively by China to the world. The sectors of comparative advantage in China belong to the electrical and electronic equipment, manufacture of leather, toys, organic chemicals, articles of apparel and cotton. The number of sectors for which India and China enjoy comparative advantage remains roughly the same between 2000 and 2003. An important finding of the study is that some sectors are at disadvantageous at the aggregate level but may enjoy comparative advantage at the constituent commodity level.Hanif and Sabina (2006) constructed Balassa's Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index for the textile sector of Pakistan to analyze the relationship between the financial development and international trade competitiveness. Pakistan's focus of trade policy shifted from import substitution to export promotion in the seventies and turned its resources to the products showing comparative advantage. The results show that greater access to external finance has a strong positive impact on the country's textile sector competitiveness over the time period 1974 to 2004. The study concluded that if the economies of scale, technology and endowments are identical between countries, still a country with relatively developed financial institutions will have comparative advantage in the production of processed goods requiring more external finance.Welch and Conrad (2007) evaluated the US competitive position in the cotton yam segment using RCA index based on Balassa (1965) among the set of countries including China, India, Pakistan, and Turkey. The results disclose that United States fails to make the competitive grade in several categories and if it happens to make it, that is by narrowing margins. While the Revealed Comparative Advantage index indicates that the United States is lagging behind China, India, Turkey, and Pakistan in terms of market share in exports of yam, fabric, etc.Akhtar et al. (2008) analyzed the competitiveness of footwear industry of Pakistan in the global perspective using revealed comparative advantage at 2-digit and 4-digit level of HS classification for the period of 1996 to 2006. RCA indices have been calculated for Pakistan and other Asian countries i.e. China and India, since both countries are similar in size and factor endowments and greatest competitor of Pakistan. Calculations show that Pakistan's footwear industry has shifted from a situation of comparative disadvantage to competitive advantage especially since after 2003 due to increase in volume as well as in the value of footwear exports and thus there is an upward movement in comparative advantage.At disaggregate level, Pakistan has been enjoying comparative advantage since after 2005. This study also highlights the problems faced by footwear industry and explains the role of entrepreneurs in this regard. The rising trend of RCA reveals that there is a potential for higher growth of this industry which requires strengthening of competitiveness of the footwear industry.According to Jayawickrama and Shandre (2010), given the abundant resources, China and India have comparative advantage in a broad range of manufactured goods as compared to Singapore. From the disaggregated analysis at 2-digit level, the paper finds that the Singapore and China exports are complements, although the degree of complementarity has being declining over time. Meanwhile, Singapore and India exports are found to be stronger complements and stable over time. The results also show that China and India exports are strong substitutes. This makes the comparative advantage position of both countries more competitive. The study reported that the exports diversifications have broadened the exports net by China and India, as well.Wei and Zhao (2012) found that the comparative advantage of Chinese manufactured products in both world and US markets are gradually increasing. This is pertinent to mention that most of the products with comparative advantage are low-technology products. While, the comparative advantage of Chinese medium-technology products in the world market has largely improved, but their RCA indexes are low and their kinds of products with very high comparative advantage are small. Finally, they concluded that the Chinese manufactured exports are of greater comparative advantage in the world market than in the US market.Focusing on the clothing export sector, Kathuria (2013) demonstrated that the comparative advantage of India has increased from 23 products to 25 products between 1995 and 2003 and for Bangladesh,this number increased from 21 products to 29 products between 1995 and 2003. Moreover, the comparative position on the basis of a measure of structural change in exports of India and Bangladesh also pointed out towards a better standings of these countries.This completes the review of relevant literature. Now we turn to the trends of carpet and weaving sector in selected countries.3. Trend and Pattern of Carpet and Floor Coverings Industry: Pakistan, India and China's PerspectiveA brief picture of the trends in exports of carpet and floor covering industry is provided in this section. Overall, exports of the carpet industry in Pakistan mounted and reached up to Rs. 109 million earnings in 1971-72. By 1975-76, the income from carpet export gone up to Rs. 719 million and it further increased to Rs. 1,180 million in 1977-78 and then to Rs. 2,198 million in 1979-80. In 1980-81 carpet exports touched the highest ever figure of Rs. 2,243 million. There was a slight decline after that because of recession in the world market. With the export income coming down to Rs. 1,676 million and Rs. 1,913 million in 1981-82 and 1982-83, respectively. In 1985-86 the income rose to Rs. 2,693 million. The income from carpet exports further increased to Rs. 3,419 million in 1986-87. Table 1 depicts the trend of export value for three countries over the years 1996 to 2009 at 2-digit level of HS classification.China and India exhibit an increasing trend in exports while the figures for Pakistan showed first declining trend up to year 2002 and then a sharp rise that followed by a gradual rise in the export value. Pakistan's export values remained high than China and India from 2004 to 2007. The reason for lower export values afterward are less competitiveness, high interest rates and cost of inputs, non-conducive government policies and non-guaranteed energy supplies that hinders the competitiveness of Pakistani exports over other countries. Moreover, the bans on child labor, in the backdrop of ILO recommendations also hampered the growth of this sector in Pakistan, as an overwhelming proportion of labor force working in this sector is child labor. Furthermore, the enactment of Employment of Children Act of 1991 that banned the child labor put the sector's status in more vulnerable condition than ever before. China presented the highest export value among three countries with few exceptional years.4. Methodology and DataMeasuring comparative advantages may create certain difficulties since relative prices under autarky are not directly observable. Thus comparative advantage is calculated by calculating Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) for specific sector. There are different indices applied for this purpose, most common of which is Balassa Index (1965) of RCA. The concept of revealed comparative advantage (Balassa, 1965) pertains to the relative trade performance of individual countries in particular commodities. The advantage of using comparative advantage index is that it considers the intrinsic advantage of a particular export commodity and is consistent with changes in an economy's relative factor endowment and productivity. Demerit of using comparative advantage index is that it is a partial equilibrium framework and provides general direction of movement and do not predict the potential future comparative advantage in particular sector of the country.4This study used Balassa Index to calculate the RCA for Pakistan in rapidly growing Carpets and other textile floor coverings industry and is based on export data as per the (HS 2007) classification and is given the code 57. RCA is calculated at 2-digit and 4-digit level at aggregated and disaggregated classification.5 Data has been sourced from UNCOMTRADE and World Development Indicators (WDI) covering a period of 14 years i.e. froml996 to 2009. RCA at 4 digit disaggregated level has been estimated for the years 2004-2009. （完整内容请到百度文库）The study calculates RCA indicesfor Pakistan, China and India.5. Empirical Results and InterpretationThe study measures revealed comparative advantage indices for the carpet and floor coverings industry. The analysis has been divided into two parts. The first part analyses the comparative advantage at aggregated level. The 2-digit level of Harmonized System (HS-2007) is employed to calculate RCA index at aggregated level. The second part, calculates RCA indices at disaggregate level i.e., at 4-digit level of HS2007 classification. The purpose of calculating RCA index at disaggregate level is to work out possible differences across the industry at different level. RCA indices are measured for Pakistan and a comparison is made with India and China since both of these countries are among the major competitors of Pakistan in the export of carpets and other textile floor coverings.5.1 Aggregate Analysis of Revealed Comparative AdvantagesThe estimation of Balassa Index for the years 1996-2009 presents the movement in the pattern of revealed comparative advantage. Our findings show that at HS-2 level, Pakistan has an upward moving trend in the comparative advantage for carpet industry. RCA index has remained greater than unity (RCA>1) since 1996 and is growing over the years as shown in Table 2.The results of Table 2 show that throughout the period of study, Pakistan has never faced a situation of comparative disadvantage in this industry. The growing trend of RCA shows that Pakistan has great potential for growth in carpet and floor coverings industry. Good export performance of this sector can lead to more competitiveness if accompanied with better incentives from the government in this sector. RCA values kept on increasing from 1996 till 2001 when RCA reached its highest value i.e. 2.05 but fell immediately in the next year that may be due to the return of Afghan refugees to their homeland as 80 percent of the workforce was comprised of Afghan refugees that time. Later on, it increased gradually but still with lower values of RCAs. The carpet industry in Pakistan needs much more attention in this regards.In the last ten years Pakistan has emerged as one of the leading exporters of hand-knotted carpet industry accounts for 0.64 percent share of total GDP, 3.66 percent of manufacturing sector GDP and approximately 14 percent of small-scale manufacturing sector GDP. The available evidence indicates that Pakistan's carpet and rugs industry make up around 2.5 % of total exports". A more than 1.5 million people are employed in this sector and more than three million people directly or indirectly depend on its earnings [Nasir (2004)]."Until 1970s, the carpet industry did not receive attention from the government but later on a number of carpet-weaving centers were established in the country. With the implementation of the labor laws and the factory Act of the mid-1970s, many big centers disintegrated into small units that eventually moved into residential areas to operate in private homes and sheds. The most carpet-weaving activity takes place in homes throughout the country. The upsurge in demand for handknotted carpets in foreign markets continued in 1980s and 1990s. However, with the slump in international economy in recent years, this demand has declined (EPB)".6The lack of competitiveness in Pakistan's carpet industry has also been attached with the bans on bonded labor by ILO as child labor are mostly involved in this sector and children and women are considered as the better weavers of carpets in this industry from their efficiency and productivity concerns. The ban on child labor in 1991 in the carpet industry leads not only to the financial loss to the family but also towards a fall in production leading to lower foreign exchange earnings from thissector in the country.Other problems hindering the export performance and competitiveness of this sector in Pakistan are pointed out as the reduction in rebates and incentives accompanied with high mark up rates that is troublesome for the carpet exporters; usage of obsolete production methods that is unable to produce carpets of outstanding quality; heavy reliance on the manual design methods while India and China use modem technologies; lack of skill development and the problems of supply chain and production capacity.Although the study is mainly concerned with measuring the RCA for Pakistan in carpet and floor coverings industry, it also incorporates movements in RCA of India and China. Despite the fact that Pakistani carpets are generally superior to Indian and Chinese carpets but cheap labor, low cost raw material and low utility/fmancing charges in India and China gave a price edge to these countries over Pakistani products.As depicted by the results, India is the strongest competitor with highest RCA values throughout the years of study. India has an edge over its competitors in this industry because of vast artistic skills of the weavers and low labor cost which is another advantage and favorable factor for growth. The magnificence of Indian carpet weaving and the intricate patterns substantially increased India's carpet exports and placed it prominently in the international carpet map, as depicted by the increasing RCA values.Table 3 reports the test of equality of means between RCAs of three countries. The table postulates a significant difference of RCA among China-India and India-Pakistan, but no statistically significant difference emerged across China and Pakistan. The test suggests that India has an edge over other two countries in terms of competitiveness as a higher value for means of revealed comparative advantage is estimated for India that is also consistent with the RCA trends. Hence, India has gradually escalating in terms of competitiveness in carpet industry, while China and Pakistan are losing its competitiveness in this sector.China has RCA in carpet and other textile floor coverings industry but it is facing a declining trend. China's exports fell by 8.10 % and the average unit price fell by 9.98 % in 2009. Though the situation get improved later on but the financial crisis and low price of carpet exports made profitable growth of the carpet more difficult. This decline in carpet exports and average per unit price harmed the sound development of China's carpet industry.Now, we turn towards the discussion of findings on RCA at disaggregated level.5.2 Disaggregated Analysis of Revealed Comparative AdvantageThe second part of analysis yields the measures of RCA at disaggregate level in order to capture the difference in export performance within the carpet and other textile floor coverings sub-sector for Pakistan and a comparison with China and India. At 4-digit level of HS-2007 classification, four sub sectors are selected of this industry owing to data availability. Pakistan is enjoying comparative advantage in the sector 5703 i.e. Carpets and other textile floor covering tufted. Whereas a comparative disadvantage in the other three sub sectors i.e. Carpets and other textile floor covering, knotted, whether or not made up (5701), Carpets and other floor coverings, of felt, not tufted or flocked, whether or not made-up (5704) and other Carpets and other textile floor coverings (5705). The results of RCA at disaggregate level are presented in Table 3, 4 and 5 for Pakistan, India and China, respectively.China and India are almost presenting the same picture as both have revealed comparativedisadvantage at 4-digit disaggregate level in four sub sectors where their RCA's are less than unity (RCA<1). India has a comparative disadvantage in four sub sectors of the economy implying that India is not specialized in the export of these products since India's share of world exports of these particular commodities is less than its share of world exports of all commodities. Nevertheless, India is performing well in the overall carpet industry as is obvious from the RCA at aggregated level. China is lagging behind India in terms of RCA at disaggregated level as well and is not showing competitiveness in terms of RCA.6. Conclusions and Policy RecommendationsThis study aimed at assessing the structure of comparative advantage in Pakistan and making its comparison with India and China. Data as per HS 2007 classification was used to calculate the Balassa index of RCA. Data is collected from UN Comtrade Statistics and World Development Indicator (WDI). Balassa index is the most common approach of calculating RCA. It measures the competitiveness of a country in a particular product by comparing a country's exports of a product relative to its total exports and to the corresponding exports of all countries in the world. Index was constructed at 2 digit and 4 digit level of exports of carpets and other textile floor coverings. It also analyzed the change in scene of comparative advantage from 1996 to 2009 and at disaggregates level from 2005 to 2009, respectively. The purpose of such an analysis was to obtain an inclusive view of the comparative advantage for Pakistan in this specific sector that can enable policymakers to focus on increasing exports further and facilitating the manufacturers so that RCA can be further enhanced.Results suggest that Pakistan enjoys a comparative advantage at 2 digit level of classification throughout the period except for the year 2002 when value of RCA considerably reduced to 1.04, the lowest of all the periods but still exceeding the required value. The reason for such a sharp decline in RCA for that time period provided is the return of Afghan refugees under the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) program. India and China also reveal a comparative advantage and have RCA values greater than one throughout the period of study. India is evidently dominating the carpet industry with the highest values of RCA. Reasons behind such a high demand for Indian carpets include exclusive and unique designing. This implies that carpet business will be very challenging in the future as Pakistan has to face a tough competition from India in the global arena and the cost of production in this business is constantly going up. China showed a declining trend towards the end of 2008-09 in RCA pertaining to its low exports in these years and relatively less formal supply chain. At 4-digit level of industrial classification, none of the three countries could reveal comparative advantage in any of the sectors except for Pakistan in the category 5703.Overall, the values for RCA index of Pakistan shows that Pakistan has a comparative advantage in this sector and has higher potential for growth and development of this sector. But the resources are not being utilized properly. Continuous government support through new schemes and training program will be helpful for handmade carpet sector. Results of the study suggest that a lot of opportunities are available for the carpet industry in terms of improving the productivity and quality of raw materials at reasonable prices. The Research &Development facilities for improving the fiber quality and development of specialized fibers/yams are required as market always demands a diversified nature of product. Rising Inflation is a world-wide phenomenon. Owing to increase in energy prices, the cost of raw material has increased that leads to rise in the price of carpets. So the government must step in and provide subsidies to make the carpet industry of Pakistan more competitive in international market. The policy implications flows out from the results to improve the competitiveness of carpet industry are mentioned below:。
服饰设计外文翻译文献
服饰设计外文翻译文献本文旨在介绍关于服饰设计的外文翻译文献，下面列举了几篇相关的文献供参考。
文献一标题： "The Influence of Culture on Fashion Design" "The Influence of Culture on Fashion Design"作者： John Smith John Smith摘要：本文探讨了文化对时装设计的影响。
研究表明，各个文化背景的差异对时装设计有着重要的影响。
通过分析不同文化背景下的时尚元素和审美观念，本研究提出了在跨文化时装设计中应考虑的因素。
本文探讨了文化对时装设计的影响。
研究表明，各个文化背景的差异对时装设计有着重要的影响。
通过分析不同文化背景下的时尚元素和审美观念，本研究提出了在跨文化时装设计中应考虑的因素。
文献二标题： "The Role of Sustainability in Fashion Design" "The Role of Sustainability in Fashion Design"作者： Emily Johnson Emily Johnson摘要：本文探讨了可持续性在时尚设计中的重要性。
时尚产业对环境和社会产生了重大影响，因此，越来越多的时尚品牌开始关注可持续性。
本文介绍了一些可持续时尚设计的实践案例，并讨论了如何将可持续性原则融入到时装设计的各个方面。
本文探讨了可持续性在时尚设计中的重要性。
时尚产业对环境和社会产生了重大影响，因此，越来越多的时尚品牌开始关注可持续性。
本文介绍了一些可持续时尚设计的实践案例，并讨论了如何将可持续性原则融入到时装设计的各个方面。
文献三标题： "The Role of Technology in Fashion Design" "The Role of Technology in Fashion Design"作者： Laura Martinez Laura Martinez摘要：本文研究了科技在时尚设计中的作用。
纺织服装外文翻译文献
外文文献翻译完整版译文3200多字(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Kar F, Fan J, Y u W. Comparison of different test methods for the measurement of fabric or garment moisture transfer properties[J]. Measurement Science & Technology, 2007, 18(7):2033.英文原文Comparison of different test methods for the measurement of fabric orgarment moisture transfer propertiesF Kar, J Fan and W YuAbstractSeveral test methods exist for determining the water vapour permeability or resistance of textile fabrics or garments. The differences and interrelationships between these methods are not always clear, which presents a problem in comparing results from different test methods. This study is aimed at investigating the relationships between the test results from four typical test methods, including the moisture transmission test (Model CS-141), ASTM E96 cup method, sweating guarded hot plate method (ISO11092) and the sweating fabric manikin (Walter). For the range of air permeable knitted fabrics tested, it was found that good interrelationships exist between the results from the four types of testmethods, although some discrepancies exist between different tests due to differences in testing conditions. Test results from different moisture transfer test methods can therefore be convertible with due consideration. Keywords: fabric, water vapour transmission rate, clothing comfort, water vapour resistance1. IntroductionMoisture transfer properties of textile fabrics and garments are important to the thermal comfort of clothed persons. A number of test methods have been developed to evaluate the moisture transfer properties of textile fabrics and garments. However, since the techniques and testing conditions of these tests are very different, results from these tests are not directly comparable. It is therefore necessary to investigate the differences and interrelationships between the results from these different test methods.Dolhan compared two Canadian Standards (CAN2-4.2-M77 and CAN/CGSB-4.2 No. 49-M91) and the ASTM E96 test methods for measuring the water vapour transmission properties and found that the results of these tests were not directly comparable because of the differences in the water vapour pressure gradients driving the moisture transmission in the different test methods Gibson [8] conducted an extensive investigation on the relationship of the test results from the sweating guarded hot plate (ISO11092) and those from the ASTM E96Cup Method. In his work, permeable materials, hydrophobic and hydrophilic membrane laminates were tested and the results were standardized in the units of air resistance and water vapour transmission rate. It was found, except for the hydrophilic samples, there is a clear correlation between the results from the two tests. As the test condition in the guarded sweating hot plate tests resulted in much higher equilibrium water content in the hydrophilic polymer layer, which influences the polymer’s permeability, the water vapour transmission rate through the hydrophilic membrane is greater when tested using the sweating guarded hot plate. As pointed out by a number of previous researchers [7, 12], different relative humidity gradients present in the various test methods cause the intrinsic transport characteristics of hydrophilic polymers to change. For such fabrics, there tend to be poor correlations between different test methods that employ differing relative humidity gradients, since the resistance is a function of the water vapour concentration and temperature. Consequently, Lomax [11] pointed out the need for investigating the correlations of results from different test methods for different types of fabrics.Gretton et al [9] classified the fabric samples into four categories, including air permeable fabrics, microporous membrane laminated fabrics, hydrophilic membrane laminated/coated fabrics and hybrid coated/laminated fabrics, in investigating the correlation between the testresults of the sweating guarded hotplate (ISO 11092) and the evaporative dish method (BS 7209). They showed that there is a good correlation between the two test methods for all fabrics except for the hydrophilic coated and laminated fabrics that transmit water vapour without following the Fickian law of diffusion.Recently, Indushekar et al [10] compared the water vapour transmission rates measured by a modulated differential scanning calorimeter and those by the conventional dish technique as specified in BS7209 for a wide range of woven based fabrics used in cold weather protective clothing. The study showed that results from these two test methods differ widely due to the differences in the water vapour gradients which occurred in the two methods.With the development of novel techniques for the measurement of moisture transmission properties of fabrics and garments, it is necessary to further investigate the relationship between different test methods. The present study was therefore aimed at investigating the correlations between the moisture vapour resistances/transmission rates measured using the newly developed sweating fabric manikin (Walter) [4, 6], the moisture transmission test (Model CS-141) [1], the ASTM E96 testing method [2] and the sweating guarded hot plate method [5]. Since the correlations between the moisture vapour resistances/transmission rates tested using the different test methods are generally different for differentcategories of fabrics, the present investigation is focused on air permeable functional T-shirt type fabrics2. Methods2.1. SamplesFour interlock and four single jersey functional T-shirt fabrics were chosen from commercial sources for the experiment. The samples represent typical T-shirt fabrics in the market. The fabrics were sewn into long-sleeved T-shirts for the tests on the sweating fabric manikin (Walter) and the wearer trial experiments. Table 1 lists the characteristics of the fabrics used in this study.2.2 Experimental Measurement2.2.1 Moisture Transfer Test Method (Model CS-141)The instrument moisture transfer tester used in this test was developed by Ludlow. The company claims that this instrument can quickly and easily determine the water transfer rate of a fabric. This test is based on "gas permeability law". This rule refers to the mass transfer ratio and the ability of the fabric to block moisture penetration, the pressure difference between the upper and lower sides of the fabric, and the thickness of the fabric. Figure 1 shows the structure of the moisture transfer tester. Small enclosed water tanks The clips on both sides sandwich the fabric sample in the middle of its vertical direction. Underneath the fabric is distilled water, which is less than half the heightof the sink. Above is the air that has been dried with desiccant at the beginning of the test. The height of the air gap between the surface of the water in the tank and the lower surface of the material is 10 mm. The tank was placed in a chamber with a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. During the experiment, moisture was transferred from the wet side (below the fabric) through the fabric sample to the dry side (above the fabric) and the humidity sensor maintained the monitoring of humidity changes in the upper part of the tank. During the time when the humidity increased from 50% to 60%, the rise in relative humidity was recorded every 3 minutes. The ratio of gas per hour per m 2 of steam in terms of g can be calculated by taking the data into the equation below.T = (269 × 10−7)(Δ%RH × 60/t)(H)/(100 × 0.02252) (1)Where: Δ%RH—average of the relative humidity difference between the upper and lower halves; t—the time interval between two successful data reads (t=3min); H—water content per unit volume of the tank (H=45.74 gm-3).2.2.2. American Materials and Testing Association E96 vertical cup methodThis method is a very common method for testing the moisture transfer properties of fabrics. This method can be used to determine the rate of vapor-water transport in the vertical direction of the fabric under conditions of constant ambient humidity, constant humidity and a known。
(外文文献)人民币升值对我国纺织品服装出口的影响
Trade liberalization and patterns of strategicadjustment in the US textiles and clothing industryBelay SeyoumU.S.A.The overall environment facing the US TC industry will be one of rapidly changing market conditions and technological innovation. With the phase out of quotas and growing number of trade agreements, the US TC industry is being exposed to intense competition in export and domestic markets. This is likely to lead domestic industries/labor to demand intervention by national governments to mitigate the adverse impact of trade liberalization .Chinese leaders have expressed strong opposition to outside pressure on their currency policy, calling it a form of protectionism and interference in China’s domestic economic policy, and some have even questioned whether the currency is undervalued at all. However, on June 19, 2010, the Chinese central bank, the People’s Bank of China (PBC) stated that, based on current economic conditions, it had decided to “proceed further with reform of the RMB exchange rate regime and to enhance the RMB exchange rate flexibility.” It ruled out any large one-time revaluations, stating “it is important to avoid any sharp and massive fluctuations of the RMB exchange rate,” in part so that Chinese corporations could more easily adjust (such as through upgrading) to an appreciation of the currency. Many observers contend the timing of the RMB announcement was intended in part to prevent China’s currency policy from being a central focus of the G-20 summit in Toronto from June 26-27, 2010.On June 22, 2010, the RMB appreciated by 0.43% against the dollar (to 6.80 yuan) over the previous day, which, at the time, was the largest daily risesince reforms were implemented in July 2005. However, on the following day (June 23) it depreciated to 6.81 yuan. As indicated in Figure 3, the yuan’s exchange rate with the dollar has gone up and down over the past few months, but overall, it has appreciated by 1.9% through October 1, 2010, with most of that appreciation occurring in September. 3 Some analysts contend that the appreciation of the currency in September 2010 has had more to do with Chinese concerns over possible congressional action on the currency than economic considerations.In spite of the substantial job losses, the US TC industry remains technologically advanced partly due to increased productivity resulting from advances in technology and design capabilities. Textile production is capital intensive and modern technology is essential to meet the increasing for high-quality products. Over the last few years, US textiles and apparel firms have substantially increased their investment to maintain modern manufacturing facilities as well as improve production and marketing capabilities in order to maximize their inherent advantages to market proximity. In apparel, low skill production jobs have moved to low-cost locations offshore while the more skilled ones have been retained. To successfully adapt to the new environment, US TC industries need to capitalize on their sources of competitive advantage. They need to develop a more flexible operational arrangement, meet high standards in product innovation and generally develop a more change-seeking business culture (Kilduff, 2005).An important survival tool for US TC firms is to expand their potential market by offering new product designs and product categories. Manufacturers must try to bring a steady stream of products to market that are in line with the taste, preferences of the consumer. They can also expandtheir market potential by offering new product categories. Two of the fastest growing apparel segments in the US, for example, have been the women’s plus and men’s big and tall segments (Driscoll, 2004). Plus-size apparel marketing was estimated at $47 billion in 2005 accounting for 20% of total apparel market. It is important to identify the firm’s target customers and assess whether the firm is successfully addressing their needs.US TC firms should target a narrow segment of the market that provides the best opportunity for success. In textiles, the focus should be on a few specialized segments such as carpets, nonwovens and technical textiles. Similarly, apparel producers should increase their focus on core products, reduce vertical integration to shed overhead costs, and establish alliances with other firms to consolidate resources and increase market share.Finally, in view of rising incomes and high growth rates in many developing countries such as China, Brazil, and India, there are potential export market opportunities for US textile and apparel products. US export interests may be served by seeking improved access to the retail distribution systems of developing countries. US textile firms should also be able to use Mexico to export to the European Union and other countries, taking advantage of the Mexico-EU trade agreement. Since the conclusion of NAFTA, a number of Asian and European firms have produced certain products in Mexico in order to export to the US market.This paper suggests a demand pull model as a basis for developing a network structure in the clothing industry. In a demand pull model, consumer demand is the driver of sales unlike the supply push model whereby the manufacturer pushes goods to the retailer regardless of consumer demand.Retail companies have become powerful due to their sufficient capitaland marketing expertise to build loyalty among consumers. They are the lead firm in view of their central role in the organizational network. The lead clothing retailer integrates industrial capabilities such as sourcing of textiles, design, product branding and its relations with consumers enables it to keep abreast of fashion consumption trends.The lead firm conveys its requirements to these changing trends (changes in style, material requirements) to its suppliers or subcontractors (Table 7). It also provides assistance with the purchasing of capital equipment and technology necessary to produce apparel in accordance with market demand. The fragmented webs of suppliers and subcontractors are bound together through information technology, online data sharing, joint product development, and collaborative forecasting, planning and replenishment activities. Retailers will hold less inventory as shipments become smaller and more frequent since point of sale data is directly transmitted to the manufacturer/supplier who will produce and ship garments as it is needed. This model shows the role of the retailer as an intermediary integrating the functions of design, textile sourcing, branding and as facilitator of apparel production through a web of suppliers/subcontractors. Such restructuring through technological improvements and information technology is one means of succeeding in an increasingly competitive environment. The horizontally structured, mass production methods no longer ensure future competitiveness.The lion’s share of the benefits from quota elimination is expected to accrue to China. Its low labor cost, high productivity, range and flexibility of services as well as efficient supplier networks will make China the supplier of choice. About 87% of apparel executives that participated in a cotton sourcing summit in Miami in February 2004, agreed that China will soon account for50–90% of all apparel sold in the US market (National Labor Committee, 2004). This means rationalization of production and a massive consolidation of vendors. Other winners are likely to include India and Pakistan in narrow segments of the TC industry. The elimination of quotas is also likely to lead to lower prices for consumers in view of the absence of quota costs which is often a significant part of the cost of TC sold in the US market. Well-known brands may still hold market value since they are not subject to retail price deflation. It is important for TC firms to evaluate their internal capabilities such as sourcing, manufacturing, logistics, transportation etc. in order to develop an action plan for the post-quota world.Exporters from Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean are likely to lose market share to China since they largely compete on price (not quality) and lack the capability to produce high value added products. Even with the introduction of safeguards on a range of products that are of export interest to these countries, their US market share has declined since the phase out of quotas. With the complete removal of quotas in 2008, it is difficult for these countries to compete on price. Since the US government lifted quotas in 2002 on 29 categories, for example, China’s market share (in these categories) jumped from just 9% (2002) to 65% (2003) while prices paid by US retailers (for apparel from China) dropped by 48% (National Labor Committee, 2004). In cotton dressing gowns (quotas removed) China’s share in 2003 jumped from 25% to 39% while that of Caribbean countries fell from 13% to a mere 3%. In the first 12 months after the phase out of quotas, China’s market share in apparel rose by 59% in value while that of many Central and South American countries showed a sharp decline.What are the implications for TC firms in countries that are vulnerable tocompetition from China? First, they should capitalize on their proximity to the US market. Their ability to offer lower transport cost, lower lead times as well as duty free entry to the US market may attract the fashion-oriented segment of the US industry. This will depend on access to good local transport infrastructure to get goods to market as well as advanced telecommunications systems to link suppliers and customers. Local firms and governments need to collaborate in creating a climate which is conducive to business and to develop infrastructure to attract and retain TC industries that are so vital in generating exports and employment.Secondly, low wages do not necessarily provide a comparative advantage with respect to China. Firms should develop new capabilities in areas in which China does not have a comparative advantage (yarn, and silk non-apparel). This requires, inter alia, investment in modern production methods and development of competitive sources of local raw materials. Even in product areas in which China is expanding its exports, developing country suppliers that enhance their skills, technology, supply chains and marketing capabilities (through joint ventures, licensing arrangements) faster than China can still maintain their shares to the US market.Thirdly, an important strategic consideration that limits the competitive impact of China is the need on the part of multinationals to diversify their risk portfolios. US manufacturers and retailers are likely to adopt a diversified risk adjusted sourcing strategy that balances cost, speed to market as well as political and economic stability. They may not be prepared to rely on China for critical inputs beyond a certain threshold of risk. Furthermore, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean could be attractive options for US companies in some fashion sensitive segments of the industry where quick response or fastturnaround is important.Finally, existing US rules of origin requirements to qualify for free access to the US market have had unintended consequences. One of the requirements is that they have to use US yarn and fabric. This has had the effect of making their exports less competitive. The US may have to modify its rules of origin to allow developing countries to import from Asia or other competitive sources without losing their preferential status.美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式作者：贝蕾·塞尤姆美国纺织品和服装行业面临的是一个市场条件快速变化、科技不断创新的环境。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
外文文献翻译完整版译文3200多字(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Kar F, Fan J, Y u W. Comparison of different test methods for the measurement of fabric or garment moisture transfer properties[J]. Measurement Science & Technology, 2007, 18(7):2033.英文原文Comparison of different test methods for the measurement of fabric orgarment moisture transfer propertiesF Kar, J Fan and W YuAbstractSeveral test methods exist for determining the water vapour permeability or resistance of textile fabrics or garments. The differences and interrelationships between these methods are not always clear, which presents a problem in comparing results from different test methods. This study is aimed at investigating the relationships between the test results from four typical test methods, including the moisture transmission test (Model CS-141), ASTM E96 cup method, sweating guarded hot plate method (ISO11092) and the sweating fabric manikin (Walter). For the range of air permeable knitted fabrics tested, it was found that good interrelationships exist between the results from the four types of testmethods, although some discrepancies exist between different tests due to differences in testing conditions. Test results from different moisture transfer test methods can therefore be convertible with due consideration. Keywords: fabric, water vapour transmission rate, clothing comfort, water vapour resistance1. IntroductionMoisture transfer properties of textile fabrics and garments are important to the thermal comfort of clothed persons. A number of test methods have been developed to evaluate the moisture transfer properties of textile fabrics and garments. However, since the techniques and testing conditions of these tests are very different, results from these tests are not directly comparable. It is therefore necessary to investigate the differences and interrelationships between the results from these different test methods.Dolhan compared two Canadian Standards (CAN2-4.2-M77 and CAN/CGSB-4.2 No. 49-M91) and the ASTM E96 test methods for measuring the water vapour transmission properties and found that the results of these tests were not directly comparable because of the differences in the water vapour pressure gradients driving the moisture transmission in the different test methods Gibson [8] conducted an extensive investigation on the relationship of the test results from the sweating guarded hot plate (ISO11092) and those from the ASTM E96Cup Method. In his work, permeable materials, hydrophobic and hydrophilic membrane laminates were tested and the results were standardized in the units of air resistance and water vapour transmission rate. It was found, except for the hydrophilic samples, there is a clear correlation between the results from the two tests. As the test condition in the guarded sweating hot plate tests resulted in much higher equilibrium water content in the hydrophilic polymer layer, which influences the polymer’s permeability, the water vapour transmission rate through the hydrophilic membrane is greater when tested using the sweating guarded hot plate. As pointed out by a number of previous researchers [7, 12], different relative humidity gradients present in the various test methods cause the intrinsic transport characteristics of hydrophilic polymers to change. For such fabrics, there tend to be poor correlations between different test methods that employ differing relative humidity gradients, since the resistance is a function of the water vapour concentration and temperature. Consequently, Lomax [11] pointed out the need for investigating the correlations of results from different test methods for different types of fabrics.Gretton et al [9] classified the fabric samples into four categories, including air permeable fabrics, microporous membrane laminated fabrics, hydrophilic membrane laminated/coated fabrics and hybrid coated/laminated fabrics, in investigating the correlation between the testresults of the sweating guarded hotplate (ISO 11092) and the evaporative dish method (BS 7209). They showed that there is a good correlation between the two test methods for all fabrics except for the hydrophilic coated and laminated fabrics that transmit water vapour without following the Fickian law of diffusion.Recently, Indushekar et al [10] compared the water vapour transmission rates measured by a modulated differential scanning calorimeter and those by the conventional dish technique as specified in BS7209 for a wide range of woven based fabrics used in cold weather protective clothing. The study showed that results from these two test methods differ widely due to the differences in the water vapour gradients which occurred in the two methods.With the development of novel techniques for the measurement of moisture transmission properties of fabrics and garments, it is necessary to further investigate the relationship between different test methods. The present study was therefore aimed at investigating the correlations between the moisture vapour resistances/transmission rates measured using the newly developed sweating fabric manikin (Walter) [4, 6], the moisture transmission test (Model CS-141) [1], the ASTM E96 testing method [2] and the sweating guarded hot plate method [5]. Since the correlations between the moisture vapour resistances/transmission rates tested using the different test methods are generally different for differentcategories of fabrics, the present investigation is focused on air permeable functional T-shirt type fabrics2. Methods2.1. SamplesFour interlock and four single jersey functional T-shirt fabrics were chosen from commercial sources for the experiment. The samples represent typical T-shirt fabrics in the market. The fabrics were sewn into long-sleeved T-shirts for the tests on the sweating fabric manikin (Walter) and the wearer trial experiments. Table 1 lists the characteristics of the fabrics used in this study.2.2 Experimental Measurement2.2.1 Moisture Transfer Test Method (Model CS-141)The instrument moisture transfer tester used in this test was developed by Ludlow. The company claims that this instrument can quickly and easily determine the water transfer rate of a fabric. This test is based on "gas permeability law". This rule refers to the mass transfer ratio and the ability of the fabric to block moisture penetration, the pressure difference between the upper and lower sides of the fabric, and the thickness of the fabric. Figure 1 shows the structure of the moisture transfer tester. Small enclosed water tanks The clips on both sides sandwich the fabric sample in the middle of its vertical direction. Underneath the fabric is distilled water, which is less than half the heightof the sink. Above is the air that has been dried with desiccant at the beginning of the test. The height of the air gap between the surface of the water in the tank and the lower surface of the material is 10 mm. The tank was placed in a chamber with a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. During the experiment, moisture was transferred from the wet side (below the fabric) through the fabric sample to the dry side (above the fabric) and the humidity sensor maintained the monitoring of humidity changes in the upper part of the tank. During the time when the humidity increased from 50% to 60%, the rise in relative humidity was recorded every 3 minutes. The ratio of gas per hour per m 2 of steam in terms of g can be calculated by taking the data into the equation below.T = (269 × 10−7)(Δ%RH × 60/t)(H)/(100 × 0.02252) (1)Where: Δ%RH—average of the relative humidity difference between the upper and lower halves; t—the time interval between two successful data reads (t=3min); H—water content per unit volume of the tank (H=45.74 gm-3).2.2.2. American Materials and Testing Association E96 vertical cup methodThis method is a very common method for testing the moisture transfer properties of fabrics. This method can be used to determine the rate of vapor-water transport in the vertical direction of the fabric under conditions of constant ambient humidity, constant humidity and a knownfabric area. Figure 2 shows the principle of this test method. A cup filled with distilled water covered by fabric samples was placed in an adjustable environment with a temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%. At the beginning of the experiment, 80 g of water was poured into the cup, which determined the distance from the lower surface of the fabric to the water surface to be 19 mm. The test lasted for five days, during which time the quality of each cup was recorded once a day. The vaporous water transfer rate (WVTR) per square meter per hour can be obtained by taking the data into the equation below.WVTR = G /tA (2)Where: G—the value of the change in the weight of the cup covered by the fabric; t—the duration of the change in the mass of the cup, measured in h; A—the area of the fabric sample tested in m 2 .2.2.3. New thermal resistance wet resistance instrument test methodThe new thermal resistance wet resistance instrument was developed by Fan et al. This instrument complies with the test requirements specified in ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 11092. Compared with the conventional heat resistance and moisture resistance instrument, it makes it possible to simultaneously perform simulation tests on heat loss due to moisture evaporation and moisture evaporation loss. In addition, the instrument can be operated at subzero temperatures. Figure 3 shows the construction and working principle of the instrument.As can be seen from the measurement of evaporative heat loss, the total moisture resistance of the fabric sample placed on the porous board, sandwiched between the artificial skin and the air layer can be obtained by taking the data into the following formula.Ea sa ss et H ) H -PA (P = R (3) where: R et - total moisture resistance; A - area covered by the fabric sample (A = 0.0444 m 2); P ss - human skin temperature (controlled Water vapour pressure is saturated at 35°C); P sa - Water vapor pressure is strong at ambient temperature; H a is relative humidity (%).In the experiment, five layers of fabric samples of the same variety were first laid on the instrument, and the value of Ret was read for the first time after stabilization. Then remove a layer of fabric. At this time, four layers of fabric remain on the instrument and read the Ret value. Push the class until all 5 layers of fabric are removed. Next, the obtained Ret value is plotted against the number of layers of the fabric when reading, and then adjusted using a linear regression principle to draw a line that approximates the original curve. The slope of this line is the moisture resistance of each fabric sample. size.2.2.4. Sweat Warmer Human Model (Walter) Test MethodWalter is the world's first sweating warm mannequin developed by Fan and his colleagues. Figure 4 shows a sweating warm manikin wearing a T-shirt during the test. This test was conducted in a constanttemperature and humidity laboratory at a room temperature of 20.0±5°C, a relative humidity of 65.0±2%, and a wind speed of 0.5±0.3ms -1.Eight fabric samples were sewn into garments of the same size. During the test, the pants worn by the mannequin on the lower body remained consistent. The total moisture resistance can be calculated by the following equation after calculation.3. Results and analysisThe results of the four types of tests are listed in table. The moisture transmission rates measured by the moisture transmission test and the ASTM E96 cup method, expressed in units of gram per hour per square metre, are also converted to the moisture vapour resistance expressed in units so as to be comparable to the moisture vapour resistances measured by the sweating hot plate and the sweating fabric manikin.The result is a reduction of total moisture vapour resistance and thus an increase in moisture transmission rate. Since the moisture transmission test only lasts for 1 to 2 h, the effect of condensation is, on the other hand, not significant. For sample 8, the deviation from the trend line may be caused by the fact that it is relatively thick and therefore can absorb more moisture during the ASTM E96 cup method. The moisture absorption results in the swelling of cotton fibres and hence the reduction of the measured moisture transmission rate.4 ConclusionIn this study, four instruments were used to determine the vapor transmission rate or wet resistance of functional breathable t-shirt sports fabrics/clothing. From this study, it can be seen that for a typical functional T-shirt fabric, there are four kinds of test methods, namely “wet transfer test method (model CS-141)”, “ASTME96 vertical cup method”, and “new thermal resistance wet There is a close relationship between the resistance instrument test method and the "Walter test method". The results obtained from any of the test methods in this study can be compared by using the correlation trend curve and the results obtained by another method. Some errors in the correlation curve can be explained by differences in the types of materials and testing conditions.中文译文织物或服装湿传递性能的不同测试方法比较作者:F Kar, J Fan and W Yu摘要现有几种测定织物/服装汽态水渗透或湿阻的方法,这些方法相互之间的区别与联系并没有得到明确提出, 这引出了一个新的命题, 即通过对比不同测定方法的结果,找出它们之间的区别与联系。