心理契约中英文对照外文翻译文献
心理契约的概念、维度及特点
心理契约的概念、维度及特点摘要：本文集中讨论各学者关于心理契约概念及维度的研究，进而得出心理契约几个方面的特点。
关键词：心理契约；组织；雇主与雇员中图分类号：C970.4 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1009-8585（2009）12-0000-01一、心理契约的概念心理契约（Psychological Contract）这一概念最早源自社会心理学，后来被组织行为学家借用而引入管理领域。
20世纪60年代，组织心理学家Argyris首先在其《理解组织行为》一书中探讨了工人与工头之间的一种隐性及非正式的理解与默契关系，并把此称之为“心理工作契约（psychological work contract）。
Levinson 等人（1962）通过对874名雇员面谈资料的分析，肯定了Argyris的发现，证实了雇员与雇主之间确实存在心理契约，他们将心理契约描述为“未书面化的契约”并将这一概念定义为“关系双方可能并未清楚意识到的，但却是统摄双方关系的一系列的相互期望”。
Schein（1965）强调了心理契约对于行为动机方面的重要意义，并把它界定为“任何时刻都存在于组织各成员之间包括雇主与雇员之间、雇员与雇员之间的一系列未成文的、非书面化的期望。
”Kotter（1973）将心理契约界定为存在于个体和组织之间的一份内隐协议。
上述观点代表了相关心理契约的早期研究，到了20世纪80年代后期出现了概念理解的进一步深化，产生了学派的争论，即“古典学派”和“Rousseau学派”的争论。
前者以英国学者Guest、Herriot和Pemberton等人为代表，强调遵循心理契约提出时的原意，并认为这是雇佣双方对他们之间交换关系中彼此义务的主观理解，契约关系是双边关系，存在两个主体，心理契约应包括个体与组织两个方面；后者以美国学者Rousseau、Robinson和Morrison等人为代表，强调心理契约是员工个体对双方交换关系中彼此义务的主观理解，契约关系是单边关系，只有一个主体，是个体在雇用关系背景下对雇用双方相互义务的一种理解和信念。
心理学专业英语词汇翻译（中英文手册）
心理学专业英语词汇翻译（中英文手册）专供零点花园()nishiguang From Harbin Institute of Technology at Weihai (HIT)网上搜集资料，谢谢无私的人们。
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初学者abecedarian 字母的abepithymia 感情淡漠aberglaube 迷信aberrance 畸变aberrance 离轨aberrant behavior 异常行为aberrant 畸变aberration of light 光行差aberration rate 畸变率aberration 像差aberrometer 像差计abhor 憎恶abhorrence 憎恶abhorrent to reason 反理性的abhorrer 嫌恶者abient behavior 回避行为abient drive 回避驱力abient response 回避反应ability characteristics 能力特征ability compensation 能力补偿ability development 能力发展!能力发展ability distribution 能力分配ability group 能力组ability grouping 能力分组ability level 能力水平ability of cognizance 认知能力ability of imagination 想象力ability of managers 管理者的能力ability of memory 记忆力ability of taking criminal responsibility 刑事责任能力ability of thinking 思维能力ability rating 能力分等ability test 能力测验ability trait 能力特质ability taskability 能力abiogenesis 自然发生说abiogenist 自然发生论者abionergy 生活力缺损abiophysiology 无机生理学abiosis 生活力缺损abiotic surround 无生命环境abiotic 无生命的abirritation 应激性减弱Abklingen 残留感觉ablation 切除ablaze 激昂able bodiedablepsia 视觉缺失ablush 脸红ablutomania 清洗癖abmodality 感觉形态异常abmodality 异相abnegate 放弃abnegation 放弃abnerval current 离神经电流Abney effect 艾比尼效应abnormal behavior 变态行为abnormal behavior 异常行为abnormal child 异常儿童abnormal condition 异常条件abnormal curve 非常态曲线abnormal distribution 非正态分布abnormal end 异常终止abnormal fertilization 异常受精abnormal fixation 变态固著abnormal habitude 异常习惯abnormal impulse work 异常工作欲abnormal metabolism 异常代谢abnormal mind of convict 罪犯异常心理abnormal mind 异常心理abnormal personality 变态人格abnormal phenomena 异常现象abnormal psychology 变态心理学abnormal results 异常结果abnormal sensation 感觉异常abnormal series 非正规列abnormal sexual behavior 性行为异常abnormal sexuality 变态性欲变态性 abnormal spoilage 非正常损失abnormal time 异常时间abnormal 异常的abnormality 变态性abnormity 异常性ABO blood group ABOABO system ABOabolition of reflex 反射消失abominate 厌恶abomination 厌恶abominator 嫌恶者abort 发育不全abortion 流产abortive 发育不全的aboulia 丧志症aboulia 意志缺失aboulomania 意志缺失狂above threshold 阈上Abrahamsen sabreaction 情绪发泄abridged learning 简括学习abridgment of response 反应的精简abridgment of table 简化表格abrogate 扬弃abruption 断裂abscissa axis 横轴abscissa 横坐标abscission 截断abscission 切除absence of mind 心不在焉absence of restrictions 无约束absence 失神absent behavior 回避行为absent response 回避反应absent mindedabsent mindednessabsent mindedness absenteeism 旷工absenteeism 缺席absentia epileptic 癫痫性失神absentia 失神absolute activity 绝对的活动absolute advantages 绝对优势absolute and relative 绝对和相对absolute atmosphere 绝对气压absolute being 绝对存在absolute brilliance limen 绝对明度阈限absolute certitude 绝对确定性absolute chance 绝对的偶然absolute choice 绝对选择absolute cognitive consciousness 绝对的认知意识absolute concept 绝对概念absolute construction 独立结构absolute difference 绝对差绝对差absolute discrimination 绝对辨别absolute dispersion 绝对离差绝对离差absolute diversity 绝对多样性absolute ego 绝对自我absolute electrostatic unit 绝对静电单位absolute equality 绝对平等absolute error 绝对误差absolute evaluation 绝对评价absolute existence 绝对存在absolute extremes 绝对极限absolute field 绝对区absolute freedom 绝对自由absolute grading standards 绝对评分标准absolute humidity 绝对湿度absolute idea 绝对观念absolute identity 绝对同一absolute idiocy 完全白痴absolute impression 绝对印象absolute intelligence 绝对灵性absolute judgment 绝对判断absolute knowledge 绝对知识absolute lethal genes 完全致死基因absolute light threshold 绝对光觉阈限absolute limen 绝对阈限absolute localization 绝对定位absolute luminosity 绝对明度absolute magnitude 绝对量absolute mass unit 绝对质量单位absolute measurement 绝对测量absolute memory 绝对记忆absolute mind 绝对精神absolute morality 绝对道德absolute motion parallax 绝对运动视差absolute nothing 绝对空无absolute notion 绝对概念absolute number 绝对数absolute pitch 绝对音高absolute principle 绝对原则absolute property 绝对性质absolute reaction 绝对反应absolute reason 绝对理性absolute refractory period 绝对不应期absolute scale 绝对量表absolute scaling 绝对量表法absolute self 绝对自我absolute selfhood 绝对我性absolute sensitivity 绝对感受性absolute skepticism 纯粹怀疑论absolute space 绝对空间absolute specificity 绝对特性absolute spirit 绝对精神absolute symmetry 绝对对称absolute temperature 绝对温度absolute term 绝对项absolute threshold 绝对阈限absolute time 绝对时间absolute truth 绝对真理absolute value error 绝对值误差absolute value 绝对值absolute visual field 绝对视野absolute zero 绝对零点absolute 绝对absolutely infinite intellect 绝对无限的理智absolutely minimal design 绝对最小设计absolutely supernatural 绝对超自然absolutely unbiassed estimator 绝对无偏估计量absoluteness 绝对性absolutism 绝对论absolutism 专制主义absolutist 专制主义者absolutist 绝对论者absolutistic hypothesis 绝对论假设absolutization 绝对化absorb 承受absorb 吸收absorbability 可吸收性absorbable 可吸收的absorbing model 吸收模型absorption law 吸收律absorption 吸收absorption 专注abstemious 有节制的abstention 戒绝abstinence delirium 禁戒谵妄abstinence phenomenon 禁戒现象abstinence rule 禁戒规则abstinence 禁戒abstract ability 抽象能力abstract attitude 抽象态度abstract behavior 抽象行为abstract being 抽象的存在abstract category 抽象范畴abstract code 抽象码abstract concept 抽象概念abstract conception 抽象概念abstract conceptualization 抽象概念化abstract definition 抽象定义abstract drive 抽象驱力abstract entities 抽象本质abstract entities 抽象存在abstract generalization 抽象概论abstract ideal theory 抽象理想论abstract ideas 抽象观念abstract intelligence 抽象智力abstract knowledge 抽象知识abstract memory 抽象记忆abstract method 抽象法abstract model 抽象模型abstract names 抽象名称abstract number 抽象数abstract objects 抽象客体abstract perception 抽象知觉abstract reasoning 抽象推理abstract science 理论科学abstract set 抽象定势abstract space 抽象空间abstract term 抽象术语abstract thinking 抽象思维abstract thought 抽象思考abstract analogabstracted 抽象的abstracting power 抽象能力abstracting process 抽象化过程abstraction cognition 抽象认识abstraction experiment 抽象实验abstraction factor 抽象因素abstraction 抽象作用abstractness 抽象性absurd world 荒谬世界absurdity test 挑错测验absurdity 荒唐行为abulia 丧志症abulia 意志缺失abulomania 意志缺乏性精神障碍abundance motive 富裕动机abuse 妄用abysmal 深不可测的academia 学术界academic ability grouping 学科能力分组academic achievement predict 学术成就预测academic achievement test 学业成绩测验academic achievement 学术成就academic activities 学术活动academic aptitude test 学业能力倾向测验academic aptitude 学术能力倾向academic atmosphere 学业风气academic attainment 学力academic environment 学习环境academic freedom 学术自由学术自由academic grouping 学科分组academic intelligence 学术智力academic motivation 学习动机academic overachievement 学科高成就academic overachiever 学科高成就者academic problem 学术问题Academic Promise Test 学业前途测验academic psychology 经院心理学academic research 学术研究Academic Risk Taking Scale 学业冒险性行为量表academic success 学科成就academic underachievement 学科低成就academic underachiever 学科低成就者academic writing 学术著作Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine 身心医学学会acalculia 计算不能acalculia 失算症acarophobia 恐虫症acataleptic 智能缺陷的acatamathesia 理解力缺乏acataphasia 造句型失语症acatastasia 反常acathexis 精神贯注不能acathisia 静坐不能Acc R 成绩比率accelerated child 跳级学童accelerated curve 递升曲线accelerated natural process 加速的自然进程accelerated reaction 加速反应accelerated speech 加速言语accelerated student 跳级生accelerating center 加速中枢accelerating tolerance 加速度耐力acceleration center 加速中枢acceleration control tracking 加速控制追踪acceleration effect 加速度效应acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceleration of growth 加速生长acceleration of vibration 振动加速度acceleration trend 加速倾向acceleration 加速acceleration 速进制accelerator nerve 加速神经accelerometer 加速计accentuation 加强acceptability 可接受性acceptable hypothesis 可接受假设acceptable limit 允许界限acceptable quality level 可接受的品质水平acceptable variant 可接受的变换acceptable 可接受的acceptance latitude 接受幅度acceptance region 接受区域acceptance theory of authority 权威接受理论acceptance therapy 接受治疗法acceptance 接受acceptance 认可acceptant 易接受的accepted 认可的acceptor site 受体部位acceptor RNAacceptor 感受器access circuit 存取电路accessibility 可进入性accessibility 易接近accessible 易接近的accessory auditory nucleus 副听核accessory nerve 副神经accessory organ 副器官accessory pigment 辅色素accessory sense apparatusaccessory sex structures 副性结构accessory sound muscle 副发音肌accessory symptoms 附加症状accessory thyroid gland 副甲状腺accessory 附属的accident analysis 事故分析accident behavior 意外行为accident domino theory 事故多米诺说accident error 意外误差accident neurosis 事故性神经病accident prevention 事故预防accident proneness 事故倾向性accident rate 事故率accident reduction strategy 减少事故策略accident repeater 易肇事者accident stimulus 意外刺激accident proneaccident relatedaccident 事故accidental activation of controls 控制器的偶发启动accidental attribute 偶有属性accidental contingency of reinforcement 偶然后效强化accidental count 偶然计数accidental crisis 意外危机accidental error 偶然性误差accidental event 偶然事件accidental evolution 机遇性进化accidental fluctuation 偶然波动accidental form 偶然形式accidental generalization 偶然概括accidental homosexuality 偶然性同性恋accidental image 意外心像accidental movement 偶然变动accidental probability 偶然概率accidental property 偶有属性accidental proposition 偶然性命题accidental relations 偶然关系accidental resemblance 偶同accidental sameness 偶然的同一accidental sampling 随意抽样accidental teaching method 偶然教学法accidental variation 偶然变异accidentalism 偶然论acclimation to heat and cold 身体对冷热的适应acclimation 服水土acclimation 习服acclimatization 适应过程acclimatization 习服acclimatize 适应accommodate 调节accommodating 迁就accommodation of information 信息调节accommodation reflex 调适反射accommodation time 调适时间accommodation 调节accommodation 顺化accommodometer 调节计accompaniment 伴随物accompanying movement 伴发运动accomplishment quotient 成绩商数accomplishment rate 成绩比率accomplishment test 成绩测验accord development 和谐发展accord 和谐accordance 一致account 论述accountability 责任性accountable 可说明的accountable 有责任的accretion learning 附加学习acculturate 受同化acculturated trait 涵化特质acculturation 涵化accumulated error 累积误差accumulated value 累加值accumulation body 贮体accumulation hypothesis of impulse 冲动的积累假说accumulation level 累积水平accumulation method 累积法accumulation of rounding errors 舍入误差的积累accumulation 积累accumulative effect 累积效应accumulative estimation 累积估计accumulative perception 累积百分比accumulative play 累积型游戏accuracy in computations 计算正确性accuracy of action 动作的准确性accuracy of data 资料正确性accuracy of estimation 估计正确性accuracy score 正确分数accuracy test 准确性测验accuracy 准确性accurate inquiry 审问accurateness 正确度accusation 非难accuse 非难accustom 使习惯accustomization 适应ACE 肾上腺皮质浸膏acedia 淡漠性忧郁症acenesthesia 机体失认症acentric 非中枢的acerb 尖刻的acerbate 激怒acerbity 尖刻acerbral tonusacervulus 松果体石acetone body 酮体acetophenazine 乙酰非那嗪acetoxycycloheximide 乙酸环已基酰亚胺acetylcholine 乙酰胆碱acetylcholinesterase 乙酰胆碱脂酶Ach 乙酰胆碱achalasia 弛缓不能acharnement 残暴AChE 乙酰胆碱脂酶acheilous 无唇的achieved role 获得性角色achieved status 获得的地位achieved 获得的achievement age 成就年龄achievement battery 成就成套测验achievement difference of learning 学习成就的差异achievement drive 成就驱力achievement ethic 成就伦理成就伦理achievement identity 成就自认成就自认achievement index 成就指数achievement measure 成绩测量achievement motivation theories 成就动机理论achievement motivation 成就动机achievement motive 成就动机achievement need 成就需要achievement oriented 成就取向achievement quotient 成就商数achievement score 成就分数achievement test 成就测验achievement orientedachievement testachievement 成就Achillean 阿奇里斯般勇敢的Achilles reflex 阿奇里斯反射Achilles tendon reflex 跟腱反射achloropsia 绿色盲绿色盲achluophobia 黑暗恐怖症achondroplasia 软骨发育不全症achondroplastic dwarf 软骨发育不全性侏儒achrematopisa 全色盲achromasia 全色盲achromate 色盲者achromatic color 非彩色achromatic sensation 明暗感觉achromatic series 非彩色系列achromatic vision 非彩色视觉achromatic 非彩色的achromatin 非染色质非染色质achromatism 全色盲全色盲achromatognosia 色觉失认症achromatopia 全色盲achromatopsia 全色盲achromatous 无色的achromic 无色的acicula 针刺acid conditioned reaction 酸条件反应acid reaction 酸反应acid reflex 酸反射acinesia 运动不能acknowledge 承认acknowledgment 自认acme 顶点acmesthesia 尖锐感觉acoasma 耳鸣acoasma 幻听acoenesthesiaacolasia 病态放纵aconative 意向缺失aconuresis 小便失禁acoria 不饱症acortan 促皮质素acouasm 耳鸣acouasm 幻听acouesthesia 听觉acoumeter 听觉计acoumetry 听力测验法acousma 听幻觉acousmatagnosis 辨音不能acousmatamnesia 听觉性健忘症acoustic agnosia 听觉失知症acoustic analysor1 声音分析器acoustic aphasia 听觉性失语acoustic apparatus 听觉器官acoustic area 听觉区acoustic bearing 声向位acoustic code 声码acoustic coding 声音编码acoustic cue 听觉线索acoustic delay line 声延迟线acoustic epithelium 听上皮acoustic features 声学特征acoustic frequency generator 声频发生器acoustic frequency 声频acoustic ganglion 听神经节acoustic hypoesthesia 听觉减退acoustic information storage 听觉信息储存acoustic information 声音信息acoustic input device 声音输入装置acoustic labyrinth 听迷路acoustic memory 听觉记忆acoustic nerve 听神经acoustic phobia 恐音响症acoustic phonetics 听觉发音学acoustic pressure level 声压级acoustic pressure 声压acoustic radiation 听觉辐射acoustic reactance 声抗acoustic redundancy 听觉冗余性acoustic reflex 听觉反射acoustic resonance 共鸣acoustic shadow 声影acoustic spectrum 声谱acoustic spot 听斑acoustic stimuli 听觉刺激acoustic transmission system 声学传播系统acoustic facialacoustic lateralacoustic 声的acoustical conductivity 声导性acoustical interferometer 声干扰仪acoustical ohm 声欧姆acoustical resonator 共鸣器acoustical sensation 听觉acoustical signal 声音信号acoustical treatment 声学处理acoustical 声的acousticopalpebral reflex 声音眼睑反射acousticophobia 恐声音症acoustics 声学acoutometer 听力计听力计acquaint with data 熟悉数据acquaint 使熟悉acquaintance process 相识过程acquaintance 认识acquaintance 熟悉acquiesce 默许acquiescence 默从acquiescent responseacquire 取得acquired alexia 后天失读症acquired astigmatism 后天性散光acquired attitude 习得态度acquired behavior 习得行为acquired belief 习得信念acquired character 习得特性acquired characteristics 习得特性acquired cue value 获得线索值acquired deafness 后天性聋acquired dementia 后天痴呆acquired disease 后天病acquired distinctiveness of cues 线索的习得明显性acquired drive 获得内驱力acquired dyslexia 获得性阅读不能acquired epilepsy 后天性癫痫acquired equivalence of cues 线索习得等同性acquired idea 习得观念习得观念acquired incentive 习得激励acquired learning skill 习得的学习技能acquired need 习得需要acquired reflex 习得反射acquired releasing mechanism 获得性释放机制acquired releasing schema 获得性释放构系acquired resistance 获得抗病性acquired response 习得反应acquired role 习得角色acquired tendency 获得倾向acquired trait 获得的特质acquired 习得的习得的acquirement 学识学识acquiring knowledge thoroughly 贯通acquisition curve 习得曲线acquisition model 获得模式acquisition of sex typeacquisition of skill 技能习熟acquisition test 习得检查acquisition 获得获得acquisitive curve 习得曲线acquisitive impulse 贪得的冲动acquisitive instinct 获取本能acquisitive society 贪得的社会acquisitiveness 获取性获取性acragnosis 肢体感觉缺失acritical 不批评的acroaesthesia 肢端敏感症acroagnosia 肢端失知症acroanesthesia 肢端麻木acrodynia 肢痛症acroesthesia 感觉过敏症acrognosis 肢体感acrokinesia 运动过多acrokinesis 肢端动觉acromania 重躁狂acromegaly 末端肥大症acromegaly 肢端过大acromicria 先天肢端畸小acromyotonia 肢肌强直acroneurosis 肢体神经官能症acroparalysis 肢麻痹acroparesthesia 肢端感觉异常acrophobia 高处恐怖症acrophobia 恐高症acroteric 末梢的act and reaction 作用与反作用act assessment 动作评定act frustration 行动挫折act of attention 注意集中act of categorization 分类活动act of faith 信仰行动act of god 不可抗力act psychologyact habitact 行动ACTH 促肾上腺皮质激素actin 肌动蛋白acting in 动作显露acting out 行acting teaching 主动教学法actinomycin 放线菌素放 菌素actinoneuritis 放射性神经炎action and counteraction 作用与反作用action at distance 超距作用action by contact 接触作用action compulsive 动作强迫性action concept 动作概念动作概念action current reflex 动作电流反射action current 动作电流动作电流action development 动作发展action error 动作误差action exercise 动作练习action feedback 动作反馈action form 动作形式action frame of reference 参考行动架构action group 行动群体action imitation 动作模仿action interpretation 动作解释action language 动作语言action modeling 动作示范action need 活动需要action of stereotype 刻板动作action orientation 动作定向action pattern 动作模式action potential 动作电位action principle 作用量原理action profile 行动剖析action reports 执行报告action research 行动研究action set 动作定势action space 行为空间action stability 动作稳定性action system 动作系统action tendencies 行动倾向action theory 活动说action thinking 动作思维action time 动作时间action triggered language 动作引发的语言action unit 动作单元action zone 主动区action orientedaction orientedaction specificaction timeaction 动作activate 激活activated epilepsy 诱发性癫痫activated sleep 活动性睡眠activated stateactivating system 激动系统activation center 激活中心activation energy 活化能activation index 活化指数activation level 激活水平activation of learning motivation 学习动机的激发activation pattern 激动模式activation process 激活过程activation ratio 活化比activation theory of emotion 情绪激活理论activation theory 激活理论activation synthesisactivation 激活activational effect 引发性效应activator 激活剂active adaptation 活动性适应active analysis 活动分析active analytic psychotherapy 主动分析心理治疗法active articulator 积极发音器官active attention 活动注意active avoidance 积极躲避active avoidance 主动回避active castration complex 主动阎割情结active center 活力中心active complex 活动情结active consciousness 主动意识active constraint 起作用的约束active delirium 躁狂性谵妄active directive 积极教导active electrodeactive element 主动元素active euthanasia 主动安乐死active exercise 自动运动active fantasying 主动幻想治疗active forgetting 自动遗忘active homing 主动接近active imagination 主动想象力active inhibition 主动抑制active intellect 能动的智慧active language 主动语言active learning 积极学习active living process 能动的生命过程active negativism 主动抗拒性active orientation 主动取向active participation 主动参与active potency 主动潜能active principle 主动原则active public 积极的公众active qi gong 动气功active reaction 主动反应active reason 能动的理性active recall 主动回忆active region 作用区active responding 积极反应active role 积极任务active schedule 活动一览表active search theory 主动探索理论active set 作用集active site 活性部位active sleep theory 主动睡眠理论active society 积极的社会active speech 主动言语active stimulus 有效刺激active testimony 主动作证主动作证active therapy 主动疗法active transfer 主动传递active type 活泼型active variable 主动变量active vocabulary 主动词汇active passiveactive resistiveactive 活动性activeness 主观能动性activism 能动性activist point of view 能动主义观点activist psychology 能动心理学activist 行为能动论者activity analysis problem 行动分析问题activity analysis 活动分析activity cage 活动笼activity concept 活动概念activity curriculum 活动课程activity cycle 活动周期activity dimension 活动维度activity drive 活动驱力activity factor 活动因素activity inventory 活动记录activity learning 活动学习activity level method 动量法activity level 活动水平activity log 活动日志activity method of teaching 活动教学法activity need 活动需求activity of personalityactivity optimization 活动方式最佳化activity pattern 活动模式activity quotient 活动商数activity rating 活动评等activity sampling 活动抽样activity system 活动系统activity theory of aging 老年活动论activity theory of learning 学习活动论activity theory 活动论activity therapy 活动疗法activity dependentactivity groupactivity interviewactivity playactivity wheelactivity wheelactivity 活动actograhy 动作记录法actograph 动作记录器actometer 活动度测量计actor observeractor 男演员actor 行事者actual anxiety 真实性焦虑actual being 实在actual conflict 真实冲突actual entity 现实实有actual frequency 实际频率actual hour 实际时间actual leader 实际领袖actual life 实际寿命actual limit 实际限度actual measurement 真实量度actual mechanical process 实际操作过程actual neurosis 真实神经症actual number 实际数actual numerical value 实际数值actual parameter 实际参数actual population 实际人口actual power 有效功率actual range 实际范围actual rate of growth 实际增长率actual self 现实我actual survey work 实际调查工作actual survey 实际调查actual time 实际时间actual value 实际值actual working rate 实际劳动率actual 真实的actualism 现实主义actualist 现实论者actuality philosophy 现实哲学actuality 现实性actualization 现实化actualized reason 实现了的理性actualizing therapy 实现治疗法actuarial prediction 统计预测actuation 开动actuator 执行机构acuity 敏度aculeus 皮刺acumen 敏锐acumeter 听觉计acupuncture anesthesia 针刺麻醉acupuncture 针灸术acute alcoholic hallucinosis 急性酒精幻觉症acute alcoholic intoxication 急性酒精中毒acute alcoholism 急性酒精中毒acute anxiety 急性焦虑acute brain syndrome 急性脑综合症acute confusional state 急性困惑状态acute confusional 急性精神错乱acute dementia 急性痴呆acute depression 急性抑郁症acute disseminated encephalomyelitis 急性感染后脑脊髓炎acute distress syndrome 急性忧伤综合症acute effect 急性效应acute experiment 急性实验acute fatigue 急性疲劳acute hallucinatory mania 急性幻觉性躁狂acute hallucinatory paranoia 急性幻觉性妄想狂acute hallucinosis 急性幻觉症acute hunger state 急性饥饿状态acute intoxication 急性中毒acute mania 急性躁狂acute paranoia 急性偏执狂acute postinfection encephalom yelitis 急性感染后脑脊髓炎acute psychogenic reaction 急性心因性反应acute psychosis 急性精神症acute psychotic episodeacute schizophrenia 急性精神分裂症acute schizophrenic episode 急性精神分裂症性插话acute situation reaction 急性情境反应acute stress reaction 急性压力反应acute 急性的acyanoblepsia 蓝色盲ad absurd reasoning 归谬推理ad hoc hypothesis 特设性假设ad hoc rule 特定规则ad hoc way 特定方式ad hoc 特别AD 平均差adage 谚语Adami sAdams Stokesadaptability test 适应性测验adaptability 适应性adaptability 顺应性adaptable 适应性强的adaptation character 适应特性adaptation level 适应水平adaptation level theory 适应水平论adaptation norm 适应规范adaptation reaction 适应性反应adaptation response 适应性反应adaptation syndrome 适应综合症adaptation theory 适应论适应论adaptation time 适应时间adaptation to darkness 暗适应adaptation to end 适应目的adaptation to imprisonment 监狱适应adaptation tolerance 适应耐性adaptation trial 适应尝试adaptation 适应adapted culture 适应性文化adapted information 适应性知识adapted 适应的adapter molecule 衔接分子adapter 转接器adaption 适应adaptive act 适应活动Adaptive Behavior Scale 适应行为量表adaptive behavior 适应行为adaptive capacity 适应能力adaptive character 适应特性adaptive coloration 适应色adaptive compensation 适应补偿adaptive conformity 适应性从众adaptive control 适应性控制adaptive convergence 趋同适应adaptive crisis 适应危机adaptive decision makingadaptive delinquency 适应型犯罪adaptive differentiationadaptive dispersion 适应分散adaptive evolution 适应进化adaptive facultyadaptive feedback control 适应性反馈控制adaptive flexibility 适应的灵活性adaptive form 适应类型adaptive mechanism 顺应机制adaptive norm 适应规范adaptive optimal control 最优适应adaptive optimization 适应最优化adaptive peak 适应高峰adaptive phase 适应阶段adaptive process 适应过程adaptive program 适应性程adaptive reaction 适应反应adaptive regression 适应退化adaptive sampling 适应性抽样adaptive selection 适应选择adaptive strategy 适应策略adaptive strategy 因应策略adaptive subsystem 顺应子系统adaptive testing 适应性测验adaptive time 适应时间adaptive training 适应训练adaptive value 适应值adaptive 适应的adaptivity 适应性adaptometer 适应测量器ADC 线索的习得明显性ADD 注意缺失紊乱add pulse 加法脉冲addaverter 方法转换器addict 成瘾者addiction research 反毒瘾研究addiction 成瘾addiction 嗜好addictive behavior 成瘾行为addictive personality 毒瘾性格addictive personality6 成瘾人格adding mechanism 加法机制adding model 总和论Addison s additament 附加物addition mixture 加法混色addition of class 类的加法addition of probabilities 概率的加算addition test 加算测验addition 加法additional pollution 增添污染additive color mixture 相加混色additive effect 累加效应additive factors method 附加因素法additive factors 附加因素additive mixture 相加混色additive model 相加模型additive operation 加法运算additive process 加法过程additive property of chi square additive property 可加性additive reaction 加成反应additive scale 相加量表additive 附加的additivity of means 平均数可加性additivity of probability 概率可加性additivity of X 2additivity 可加性adduce 引证adduction 内受作用ADEM 急性感染后脑脊髓炎adenalgia 腺痛adenasthenia 腺机能衰弱adendritic 无树突的adenectomy 腺切除术adenectopia 腺异位adenitis 腺炎adenocarcinoma 腺癌adenocele 腺囊肿adenohypersthenia 腺机能亢进adenohypophysis 腺性垂体adenoma 腺瘤adenoncus 腺肿大adenoneural 腺神经的adenopathy 腺病adenosine diphosphate 二磷酸腺苷adenosine triphosphate 腺苷三磷酸adenosine 腺苷adenosis 腺病adequacy 适合性adequate cause 充分动因adequate response 适当反应adequate sample 适足样本adequate stimulus 适度刺激adequate variability 适应变异性adequate variation 适应变异ADH 抗利尿激素adiaphanous 不透明的adiaphorism 中庸adience 接近趋向adient behavior 趋近行为adient response 趋近反应adipose cell 脂肪细胞adipose gland 脂腺adipose tissue 脂肪组织adiposis 肥胖症adipsia 不渴症adipsia 失饮症adjacency 接近性adjacent association 邻近联想Adjective Check List 形容词检核表adjective check list 形容词检选表adjective gland 附加腺adjourning 中止阶段adjunctive behavior 附属行为adjunctive program 补充作业adjunctive 附属性质adjust 调整adjustable mask 可调屏幕adjusted rate 修正率adjusted solution 调整溶液adjustment disorder 适应性疾病adjustment failure 适应失败adjustment inventory 适应量表adjustment level 顺应水平adjustment mechanism 调整机制adjustment mechanism 适应方式adjustment method 调整法adjustment phase 调整期adjustment procedure 适应法adjustment process 调整过程adjustment reaction 适应反应adjustment system 调整系统adjustment time 调整时间adjustment to school 学校适应adjustment 调整adjustment 适应adjustor 调整器adjustor 适应器 顺应器adjutant therapy 辅助治疗法Adler sAdlerian groups 阿德勒团体Adlerian psychology 阿德勒心理学Adlerian psychotherapy 阿德勒心理治疗法adlumidine 紫罂粟次碱adlumine 紫罂粟碱admeasure 分配adminicle 辅助administer 管理administration behavior 管理行为administration by different levels 分级管理administration function of test 测验的管理功能administration route 处理途径administration section 管理部门administration 管理administration 行政Administrative Aptitude Test 行政职业能力测验administrative channel 行政渠道administrative control 行政控制administrative function of test 测验的管理功能administrative man 管理人administrative organization 管理机构administrative organization 行政组织administrative procedure 管理程序administrative reliability 施测信度administrative staff 管理人员administrative unit 行政单位administrator 管理人员admiration 羡慕admissibility 容许性admissible action 容许行动admissible condition 容许条件admissible control 容许控制admissible error 容许误差admissible hypothesis 容许假设admissible mark 及格分数admissible mark 容许符号admissible parameter 容许参数admissible test 容许检定admission age 入学年龄admission criteria 录取标准admission qualification 入学资格admission requirement 入学标准admission 容许进入admit 容许admittance 接纳admonition 告诫adnerval 近神经的adolescence moratorium 青年期延缓adolescence 青年期adolescent age 青年期adolescent behavior 青少年行为adolescent characteristics 青年期特征adolescent crisis 青年期危机adolescent culture 青年文化adolescent dementia 青春期痴呆adolescent depression 青年期抑郁adolescent development 青少年发展adolescent education 青少年教育adolescent growth spurt 青少年发育急速期adolescent identity formation 青年期同一性形成adolescent insanity 青少年期精神错乱adolescent needs 青年期需要adolescent problems 青少年问题adolescent psychiatry 青春期精神病学adolescent psychology 青少年心理学adolescent society 青年社会adolescent subculture 青年次文化adolescent 青少年adopt 采用adopted child 收养儿童adoption of answers 选答法adoption 领养adoptive parents 养父母adoptive studies 收养研究ADP 二磷酸腺苷adrenal capsule 肾上腺adrenal cortex 副肾皮质adrenal cortex 肾上腺皮质adrenal gland 副肾adrenal gland 肾上腺adrenal insufficiency 肾上腺机能不全adrenal medulla 副上肾髓质adrenalectomy 肾上腺切除术adrenalinaemia 肾上腺素血症adrenaline 肾上腺素adrenalinogenesis 肾上腺素生成。
关于心理契约的外文文献综述
关于心理契约的外文文献综述心理契约（psychological contract）是一个重要的组织行为学概念，指的是员工与雇主之间的非正式、隐性的相互期望和承诺。
心理契约理论认为，员工不仅仅是通过正式的雇佣合同与组织建立关系，还会形成一种非正式的、基于信任和期望的心理契约。
这一概念最早由社会学家Denise Rousseau提出，并在之后的研究中得到了进一步的发展和应用。
在心理契约的研究中，学者们关注员工对于组织的期望、对组织的投入以及组织对员工的回报。
心理契约的内容通常包括工作内容、薪酬、晋升机会、工作安全、工作环境、以及组织对员工的关怀等方面。
员工和雇主之间的心理契约一旦形成，会影响员工的工作态度、工作绩效、组织公民行为等方面的表现。
心理契约的研究内容涉及到组织行为学、人力资源管理、社会心理学等多个学科领域。
在国外的学术期刊中，有大量关于心理契约的研究文献。
比如，Denise Rousseau等人的《The Changing Psychological Contract: Challenges and Implications for HRM, Organizations, and Employees》（2004）对心理契约的变化进行了深入的探讨；而Schein等人的《Organizational Culture andLeadership》（2010）一书中也对心理契约在组织文化中的作用进行了详细的阐述。
另外，心理契约在不同国家和文化背景下的异同以及跨国公司中的应用也是学者们关注的焦点之一。
比如，Raja Inderbir Singh 等人在《The Influence of National Culture on Psychological Contract Breach and Violation: A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis》（2015）中探讨了国家文化对心理契约违约的影响。
《心理学与生活》英文文章及翻译
《心理学与生活》英文文章及翻译《心理学与生活》英文文章及翻译导语：著名的斯坦福监狱实验设计者、《心理学与生活》的作者，83岁的菲利普·津巴多老爷子在今年4月首次来访中国，并在北京大学做了激动人心的演讲。
当他得知5月25日是中国大学生心理健康节后，便在返回美国后第一时间里录制了以下视频。
津巴多教授对这次525活动给予了大力支持，他希望这个视频能让大家关注到这个特殊日子，关注自身心理健康，做更加出色的自己。
“525”我爱我，爱自己，爱出色。
中英字幕对照Greetings from San Francisco， California， USA我在美国加州旧金山向大家问好I'm Philip Zimbardo，Professor Emeritus from Stanford University and I'm the President of The Heroic Imagination Project。
I've recently return from a wonderful two week visit to Beijing， Shanghai and many towns in southern China。
And I made many new friends and I realize I have many new fans all over China in high school and college universities。
我是菲利普·津巴多，斯坦福大学名誉教授，和英雄想象项目的总裁。
我刚从中国回来，在那里我度过了美好的2周，访问了北京，上海和南方的一些城镇。
我交了很多新朋友，也意识到我在中国的高中和大学有许多新的.粉丝。
The reason I'm sending you this video is that I want you to all tune in to 525，May 25th which is Mental Health Day for college and university students。
心理契约
附件一心理契约研究评述与展望一、心理契约概念综述关于心理契约的研究最早可以追溯到梅奥实验，这一实验研究结果显示影响员工工作效率的因素不仅仅局限于物质、金钱等外在激励，还包括归属感、士气等内在非物质因素的影响。
Argyris[1]最早使用“心理契约”这一术语，他在《理解组织行为》一书中用心理契约来描述工厂雇工与工头之间的关系，但并没有给心理契约赋予明确的定义。
此后，心理契约逐渐成为国内外学者研究的重点领域。
Levinson等[2]将心理契约描述为“未书面化的契约”，是组织与雇员相互期望的总和。
Kotter [3]认为心理契约是存在于个体与其组织之间的一种内隐契约，它将双方关系中一方希望付出的代价以及从另一方得到的回报具体化。
Schein [4]将心理契约定义为时刻存在于组织成员之间的一系列没有明文规定的一整套期望，并将心理契约划分为个体和组织两个层次，强调虽然心理契约是未明确书面化的东西，但在组织中却是行为的重要决定因素。
20世纪80年代后期对心理契约的研究逐渐产生了学派之间的争论。
一是“Rousseau”学派，这一学派强调心理契约是个体对双方交换关系中彼此义务的主观理解，即将心理契约定位于“雇员理解的雇员责任和雇员理解的组织责任”的“单维度、双方格”研究视角；D.M. Rousseau[5]认为心理契约是员工一方所持有的信念，并指出虽然代理人有对于雇员和组织之间的心理契约可能存在不同的理解，但代理人们并不能完全代表组织而成为契约中的实际一方。
之后，D.M. Rousseau[6]提出了一个更加狭义的定义，认为心理契约是个体以雇佣关系为背景，以许诺、信任和知觉为基础，形成的对双方责任的理解。
R. Schalk和C. Freese[7]则认为由于个体和组织期望的差异决定了双方期望水平的不同。
E.W. Morrison和S.L. Robinson[8]通过研究提出心理契约是员工个体与组织之间相互义务的信念，由于个体对组织之间的相互义务的理解和体验不同，因此个人的心理契约内容可能与其他人的理解和解释不同，也可能与书面的合同内容不同二是“古典”学派，这一学派认为心理契约是个体与组织双方对交换关系中彼此义务的主观理解，即将心理契约的研究定位于“雇员对组织责任和雇员责任的理解以及组织对组织和雇员责任的理解”的“双维度、四方格”研究视角。
消费者行为心理学中英文对照外文翻译文献
消费者行为心理学中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：社会心理学前沿下面的消费者研究将会说明在一个消费者社会里很多的消费者行为被社会心理学家研究，这包括消费者刺激和消费者行为。
因此，消费者环境为社会现象和行为的研究提供了一个丰富的领域。
消费者决策无所不在不管我们在何时何地，我们都在不停地制定消费者决定。
我们在健身馆注册，经常坐飞机去度假，做体检，选一个餐馆，为了一个更健康的生活方式少吃甜食。
实际上，我们的很多日常决定没有包括较重要的决定，比如，嫁给谁或是否要小孩，但包含了是否喝茶或咖啡，用卡或付现金，或其他的一些琐碎的决定。
而且，我们日常的很多消费者行为甚至是无意的。
相反，它们可能是出于习惯，比如打开美国有线电视新闻网络来了解新闻或搜索谷歌来找一些资料。
一个人在一天中充满了无尽的琐碎的消费决定或者受以前决定的影响，在早上从选择牙膏的品牌到工作后选择看哪部电影。
消费者的选择影响社会认同感的功能虽然对大多数人来说是一个消费者可能不会确定他们的身份，但他们的消费决定仍然是高度身份相关的，就它们对应到更大的价值观和信仰，表达自我的重要方面。
素食主义者是不忍心看到动物被杀害和一些人抵制买那些被认为是由儿童劳工制成的衣服。
一些人买丰田普瑞斯出于是对环境的关注；另一些人抵制日本汽车，比如普瑞斯，是为了帮助当地的汽车工业。
在这方面，甚至在可口可乐和百事可乐之间选择是不必要的琐事。
人们不能在盲目的测试中区分可口可乐和百事可乐，或他们更喜欢百事可乐，然而可能还是坚持可口可乐作为一种文化标志。
尝试改变可口可乐的配方会使反对者生气。
显然，消费品和品牌不仅满足实际的需要。
在一个世界，供过于求和品牌的区分，很多消费者选则品牌是为了表达他们的个性或使他们自己屈服于他们的欲望。
他们不是简单的使用苹果；他们是苹果的使用者并认为换另一个牌子的个人电脑会像是一个背叛者一样。
从饮料到电脑，品牌成为一种意识形态。
人们可能也会把产品的认知作为自身的延伸；比如，他们可能认同他们的车就像他们对待他们的宠物一样。
心理学英文文献翻译
There is such a story: two boy into the mountains, into the den and found two cubs. They each hold a climb to the top of the tree, two trees are separated by several steps, a moment to find wolves. A boy in the tree pinched little Wolf ears, little Wolf like the sky,Dear Wolf, flustered and frustratedly scratch bites under the tree. At this point, the boy on the tree turn small Wolf's legs, the little Wolf also recited like, Wolf heard hurried to again, just kept to travel between two trees, and finally was dead tired The Wolf is dead, the reason is that it attempts to rescue his two pups, a don't want to give up. In fact, as long as it hold of a tree, don't use how long can save at least one.
,宗欣：PPT的制作 高媛： PPT的讲解 赵竞泽：文献的查找
concept In the process of decision-making uncertainty and hesitation of the phenomenon, referred to as "Mr. Dan donkey effect".
心理契约护理管理领域的应用
心理契约护理管理领域的应用心理契约概念首次被美国商业理论学家Chris Argyris提出，随后被不断完善其内容，并形成定义及理论。
但由于不同文化背景，不同领域，不同学者关注点不同，故心理契约尚无统一定论。
但由于其使用性，仍被广泛应用于各个领域，包括护理领域。
1.心理契约的定义Levinson等人定义心理契约为彼此之间可能并没有意识到，但是存在于彼此之间的一系列相互期待[1]。
Kotter将此关系明确在雇主和雇员之间，认为心理契约是雇主和雇员之间对交换关系的条款和条件的相互期待[2]。
Rousseau定义心理契约为个人的主观信念，在组织雇佣关系中形成的，雇员自身和组织之间的互惠交换[3]。
由于她在该领域广泛深入的研究，Rousseau的定义最受大众认可。
但Guest针对Rousseau的定义提出不同意见，认为这不仅是雇员的主观感受，还应该包括雇主的角度来反映雇佣关系，这应该是一个双向交换，并提出应该关注雇员和雇主之间互惠的承诺与义务[4]。
2.心理契约的内容心理契约包括在雇佣关系形成时双方的义务，这些义务通过雇员和组织代表（招聘人员，主管，人力资源部领导等）相互协商形成。
广义上的心理契约内容是指从雇员的角度出发，他们承诺为组织所做贡献，并相信雇主也将回报予其相应的承诺[5]。
Shore 和Tetrick将心理契约分为个性化型契约和标准化型契约[6]，Rousseau将心理契约分为交易型契约，交换型契约和平衡型契约[4]，Bunderson将心理契约分为管理型契约和专业型契约[7]。
心理契约的主流理论分为古典理论和主要有以Argyris，Levinson，Schein等人为代表的的古典理论和以Rousseau，Robinson，Robinson，McLeans Parks等人为代表形成的理论。
古典学派认为，心理契约是双发模糊的、没有书面记录的、隐喻的期待，具体体现在两者关系中付出后，对另一方回报的期待。
心理契约文献综述
心理契约的相关文献综述一、前言心理契约是个人与组织对彼此权利和义务的未公开的信念组合，其在人力资源管理中已受到越来越多的关注，对于人力资源的管理和激励以及整个组织的效能提高起着越来越重要的作用；然而现代心理契约管理研究大多停留在对个体案例的研究，实证研究多与理论探索；整个心理契约的理论没有一个系统、统一的理论体系。
在此，本篇论文从心理契约的概念、内容、特点和其建立以及断裂模型入手，收集自60年代至今的研究成果，试图确立一个心理契约相对明晰的发展思路。
二、总体1、概念Argyris(1960)首先运用心理契约的概念和术语。
他使用“心理的工作契约”来描述工厂雇员和工头之间的关系，但是Argyris仅仅提出这样的概念，却没有给它下确切的定义。
Levinson等(1962)在一个公共事业单位的个案研究中，将心理契约描述为“未书面化的契约”，是组织与雇员之间相互期望的总和。
它被用来强调产生于双方关系之前的一种内在的、未曾表述的期望。
其中有些期望明确，比如工资；而有些期望则比较模糊，仅仅是间接的揭示，比如长期的晋升前景。
Schein(1965、1978和1980)将心理契约定义为时刻存在于组织成员之间的一系列未书面化的期望。
他将心理契约划分为个体和组织两个层次。
他强调虽然心理契约是未明确书面化的东西，但在组织中却是行为的重要决定因素。
Kotter(1973)认为，心理契约是存在于个体与其组织之间的一种内隐契约，它将双方关系中一方希望付出的代价以及从另一方得到的回报具体化。
中国科学技术大学的曹威麟、陈文江等人将心理契约定义为：当事双方不通过某种显然的形式直接明了地进行意思表达而通过各种心理暗示的方式，在双方相互感知并认可各自期望的基础上形成的一套隐性权利义务关系的协议。
以上的关于心理契约的概念或多或少都与研究人的个人经历与研究领域有特定的关系，这一缺陷也使得心理契约的概念受到各种不同的限制与制约，难以对于心理契约的概念做到一个让相当人数都认可的地步。
心理契约与互惠：在芬兰方面的研究【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文Psychological contracts and reciprocity: a study in a Finnish context Material Source: The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 19, No. 9, September 2008 Author: Marjo-Riitta ParzefallPsychological contract fulfilment and reciprocity perceptionsFollowing Meeker’s (1971) proposition that the pattern of reciprocity stems from the past exchange, perceived contract fulfilment by the employer should send a signal to the employees regarding employer’s commitment a nd willingness to invest in and continue the exchange relationship. In other words, employer fulfilment of its unspecified psychological contract obligations demonstrates a generous approach and highlights the voluntary inputs the employer is willing to contribute to the exchange. Consequently, perceived employer fulfilment of obligations conveys a sense of trust and interest in the employee, suggesting a lack of concern regarding an immediate and exact payback.An employee’s perceptions regarding the underl ying exchange mechanism should follow these signals of generalized reciprocity suggested by employer behaviour and further influence the characteristics of the perceived indebtedness and the subsequent obligations the employee is likely to perceive on his/her part.An exchange relationship underlined by the balanced norm of reciprocity, in turn, suggests clearer transactions and a business approach to the exchange even when the obligations are not specified in a contractual agreement. For example, if the employer did not previously fulfil its perceived obligation to give extra time off, the employee would be careful to consider how and when working overtime would be repaid rather than trusting in long-term unspecified reciprocation. Moreover, research on psychological contract breach indicates that employees with a history of psychological contract breach are more likely to view their psychological contracts in economic terms (Lo and Aryee 2003). Previous research on psychological contract breach has also sh own how breach perceptions reduce employees’ trust in the employer (Robinson 1996). These results suggest that contract breachperceptions undermine the social exchange basis of the relationship, eventually leading employees to watch over their investments and monitor closer the balance in the relationship (Lo and Aryee 2003). In other words, the studies demonstrate how employer’s contractual behaviour can potentially influence the form of eciprocity underlying the psychological contract.In sum, it is suggested that employer fulfilment of obligations influences employee’s perceptions of the form of reciprocity, and ‘the type of indebtedness’ that underlies the exchangerelationship as follows:Hypothesis 1a: Perceived employer fulfilment of obligations will be positively associated withemployee perceptions of generalized reciprocity.Hypothesis 1b: Perceived employer fulfilment of obligations will be negatively associated withemployee perceptions of balanced reciprocity.Psychological contract fulfilment and its attitudinal and behavioural outcomes There is a consensus among researchers that the psychological contract is an important determinant of employees’ behaviour and attitudes (Rousseau 1995; Guest 1998). This has been demonstrated in particular with regard to contract breach, and to some extent with regard to contract fulfilment. For example, the relationship between employer contract behaviour and organizational commitment (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler 2000), organizational citizenship behaviour (Robinson and Wolfe Morrison 1995) and employee performance (Turnley, Bolino,Lester and Bloodgood 2003) have been documented in the psychological contract literature. The changes in employee attitudes and behaviour can be explained through the process of reciprocati on: employees weigh their ‘employment deals’ and respond by adjusting their attitudes and behaviours accordingly (Coyle-Shapiro 2001).A conclusion emerging from the existing psychological contract research is that perceived employer fulfilment of obligations is reciprocated by increased employee affective commitment to the employer (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler 2000). That is, perceived employer fulfilment of obligations generates a felt obligation followed by attitudinal reciprocation.Specifically, affective commitment captures the degree of emotional investment and identification with the organization and its goals, and can thus be described as an input, as an act of reciprocation by the employee (Millward and Hopkins 1998). Hence, employer fulfilment of psychological contract obligations should translate into affective commitment on the part of the employee.Continuance commitment has received less attention than affective commitment in psychological contract research but its development can beexplained through attempts to reach balance in the exchange. Investments by the employee and the availability of employment alternatives play a central role in the development of continuance commitment (Becker 1960; Swailes 2002). For example, an employee may consider the costs of relocating a family to another city or spending time in acquiring organization-specific skills as investments in the exchange for which he/she is seeking a payback. These considerations are centred upon economic reasons and therefore embody the idea of costs related to leaving the organization (Becker 1960). Psychological contract fulfilment by the employer in turn presents a payback and provides value for the employee investments by bringing the exchange into a balanced state. In other words, perceived employer fulfilment and balance in the exchange should be associated with lower levels of continuance commitment. Further, continuance commitment suggests feelings of ‘having to stay’ or ‘being stuck’ rather than ‘wanting to stay’ in the relation ship (Swailes 2002; Meyer and Allen 1997); it does not seem likely that employer fulfilment of its psychological contract obligations would contribute to such feelings.Another turnover related attitudinal outcome associated with psychological contract is the intention to leave the organization. Existing research suggests that psychological contract breach is associated with increased intentions to leave the organization (Turnley and Feldman 1998,1999). Indeed, quitting one’s job is one of the most overt responses to a situation in which employees perceive that their employer has wilfully violated the deal (Rousseau 2004).Perceived psychological contract fulfilment in turn suggests an employer’s commitment and willingness to continue the exchange relationship and should be reciprocated by reduced intentions to leave the organization.Following from the demonstrated outcomes of psychological contract fulfilment and breachin the extant literature and from the behavioural principle put forward by the norm reciprocity,it is hypothesized that:Hypothesis 2a: Perceived employer fulfilment of obligations will be positively related toaffective commitment.Hypothesis 2b: Perceived employer fulfilment of obligations will be negatively related tocontinuance commitment.Hypothesis 2c: Perceived employer fulfilment of obligations will be negatively related to intentions to leave.Generalized reciprocity as a mediator in the contract fulfilment –outcome relationships.The extent to which the perceived psychological contract obligations are fulfilled presents the essence of the psychological contract. Perceived contract fulfilment confirms the willingness of the exchange parties to live up to the norm and standards of reciprocity and it sets the stage for the future of the exchange relationship (Morrison and Robinson 1997; Rousseau 1995). Consequently, employee behaviours and attitudes represent acts of reciprocation to the employer for its inputs to the exchange captured by perceived psychological contract fulfilment and the resulting perceptions of the exchange principle in the relationship. The perceived form of reciprocity therefore presents the mechanism that generates the subsequent perceived employee obligations and explains how the ‘weighing’ of the employment deals takes place.Employer fulfilment of psychological contract obligations indicates an exchange relationship characterized by generalized form of reciprocity as the exchange principle. Accordingly, the contractual behaviour by the employee reflects the kind of indebtedness stemming from the perceived generalized form of reciprocity. Hence, employer’s contractual behaviour signals the form of reciprocity and the type of exchange it seeks with the employee, through which employee reciprocation can be explained as follows (see Figure 1):Hypothesis 3: Employee perceptions of generalized reciprocity will mediate the relationships between perceived employer fulfilment of obligations and the outcomes of affective commitment, continuance commitment and intentions to leave the organization.Balanced reciprocity and outcomesBalanced reciprocity suggests expectations of equivalent returns and timely reciprocation with the focus on one-to-one transactions (Sparrowe and Liden 1997).Employee perceptions of balanced norm of reciprocity as the underlying principle in the exchange relationship therefore reflect economic thinking and limited interest in the relationship on the part of the employer. Similarly, continuance commitment presents a calculative and rational type of commitment to the employer and involves ‘book-keeping’ on the costs and benefits. Consequently, an employee is more likely to ‘feel stuck’ in an employment relationship characterized by balanced form of reciprocity in order to maximize her returns than in a relationship characterized by generalized reciprocity. Hence, perceptions of balanced reciprocity should contribute to employee’s continuance commitment.At the same time balanced reciprocity with its short-term focus and time pressure for reciprocation provides little reason for emotional attachment and identification with the organization. That is, the ‘quid pro quo’ economically orientated basis of balanced reciprocity is not likely to generate affective commitment towards the employer (Tetrick et al. 2004). Employees should however be more inclined to consider leaving the organization, when they perceive that their employer is seeking an exchange relationship underlined by the balanced form of reciprocity. While some employees may be satisfied with strictly economic type of exchange relationship with their employer, psychological contract literature highlights the importance of the social exchange dimension in the employment relationship (Rousseau 1995).Consequently,it is hypothesized that(see Figure 2): Hypothesis 4a:Balanced reciprocity will be positively related to continuance commitment and intentions to leave the organization.Hypothesis 4b:Balanced reciprocity will be negatively related to affective commitment.译文心理契约与互惠：在芬兰方面的研究数据源:国际人力资源管理期刊，第19卷作者：Marjo Riitta 心理契约的形成与互惠理念根据Meeker(1971)的观点，互惠的模式是源于过去的交流，自觉履行合同的雇主认为应该向员工传达雇主愿意投资并继续这种交换关系的信号。
医学心理学中英文对照
中英文对照绪论medical psychology 医学心理学psychology in medicine 医用心理学neuropsychological 神经心理学physiological psychology 生理心理学health psychology 健康心理学psychological physiology 心理生理学psychosomatic medicine 心身医学abnormal psychology 变态心理学pathological psychology 病理心理学behavioral medicine 行为医学clinical psychology 临床心理学psychologist 心理治疗师counseling psychology 咨询心理学nursing psychology 护理心理学rehabilitation psychology 康复心理学defect psychology 缺陷心理学pharmacopsychology 药物心理学Lotze BH 洛采Witmer L 魏特曼medical model 医学模式biomedical model 生物医学模式biopsychosocial mode1 生物-心理-社会医学模式conscious 意识unconscious 潜意识preconscious 前意识id 本我ego 自我superego 超我libido 力比多Oedipus complex 俄狄普斯情结Fixation 固着现象W. B. Cannon 坎农Ivan Pavlov 巴甫洛夫H. Selye 塞里H. G. Wolff 沃尔夫general adaptation syndrome，GAS 一般适应综合征Engel 恩格尔JB. Watson 华生Pavlov IP 巴甫洛夫BF. Skinner 斯金纳A. Bandura 班都拉classical conditioned reflex 经典条件反射respondent behavior 应答行为operant conditioning 操作（或工具式）条件作用operant behavior 操作行为observational learning 观察学习Carl Rogers 罗杰斯Abraham Maslow 马斯洛A. Ellis 艾利斯A. T. Beck 贝克M. Friedman 弗里德曼type A behavior pattern, TABP A 型行为类型，observational method 观察法naturalistic observation 自然观察法controlled observation 控制观察法survey method 调查法interview method 晤谈法questionnaire method 问卷法experimental method 实验法stimulus variable 刺激变量response variable 反应变量controlled variable 控制变量case study 个案研究法sampling study 抽样法第二章中英文对照：认知 Cognition 情感 Emotion个性 personality 心理学psychology意志 will 观察法 Observe method实验法Observe method 无关变量 irrelevant variable 调查法investigation method 测验法 test method个案法 case method 感觉 sensation韦伯 E．H．Weber 知觉 perception感受性 sensitivity 感觉阈限 sensation limen绝对感受性 absolute sensitivity 绝对阈限 absolute limen差别感受性diffrential sensitivity 差别阈限diffrential limen选择性selectivity 整体性wholeness理解性comprehension 恒常性continence记忆memory 感觉记忆sensory memory短时记忆 short-term memory 长时记忆 long-term memory识记cognition 保持 retain遗忘forget 再认recognize回忆recall 外显记忆 explicit memory内隐记忆 implicit memory 想象 imagine思维 thinking 问题解决 problem solving性格Character 能力ability气质temperament 注意attention刺激stimulate 无意注意unconscious attention 有意注意conscious attention 假设hypothesis动机 motive 需要 need概念conception 记忆表象memory presentation 定势 set 稳定性stability紧张tense 广度span转移divert 分配assign普拉切克 Plutchik 斯普兰格E.Spranger威特金H.A.Witkin 荣格C.G.Jung培因A.Bain 李波特T.Ribot巴斯A.H.Bass 柏尔曼Berman谢尔登W.H.Sheldon 克雷奇默E.Kretschmer希波克拉底Hippocrates 弗农 Vernon吉尔福德J.P.Guilford 瑟斯顿L.Thurstone 斯皮尔曼C.Spearman 普莱尔 W．Preyer 第七章中英文对照戒断反应abstinence reaction成瘾addiction酒瘾alcohol dependence愤怒anger焦虑anxiety慢性疼痛chronic pain否认denial抑郁depression残疾disability药物依赖drug dependence药物成瘾drug dependence快波睡眠fast wave sleep闸门控制理论gate control theory嗜睡症hypersomnia认同延迟identification delay失眠insomnia网络成瘾综合症Internet Addiction Disorder网络交友成瘾Internet make friends addiction耐受性ltolerance梦魇nightrnare夜惊night-terror疼痛pain痛阈Pain perception生理依赖physical dependence心理依赖psychological dependence心理治疗psychotherapy睡眠剥夺sleep deprivation睡眠障碍Sleep disorders梦呓sleeptalking梦行症sleepwalking慢波睡眠slow wave sleep第八章中英文对照晤谈（interview）倾听（attending）常模(norm)信度(reliability)效度(validity)明尼苏达多项人格调查表（Minnsoda multiphasic personality inventory,MMPI）艾森克个性问卷(Eysenck personality questionnair,EPQ)洛夏墨迹图测验(Rorschach inkblot test,RIT)投射（projection）第十二章英文索引active-passive mode 主动—被动型albert mehrabian 艾伯特.梅拉比安compliance 依从性communication 交往doctor-patient communication 医患沟通doctor-patient relationship 医患关系first impression 第一印象guidance-cooperation mode 指导—合作型halo effect 晕轮效应又叫光环效应interpersonal attraction 人际吸引interpersonal relationship 人际关系interview 交谈或晤谈mutual participation mode 共同参与型nurse-nurse relationship 护护关系primary effect 首因效应recently effect 近因效应social cognition 社会认知social stereotype 社会刻板效应。
心理学专业外语翻译第11页
The reductionism debate in psychologyReductionismHolism & Interactionism AssumptionsA Reductionism involves explaining a phenomenon by breaking it down into its constituent parts-analysing it. Reductionism works on the scientific assumption of parsimony-that complex phenomena should be explained by the simplest underlying principles possible.B Holism looks at same/higher level explanations. Interactionism shows how many aspects of a phenomenon or levels of explanation can interact together to provide a complete picture. Both approaches involve taking a gestalt approach, assuming that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts Examples in psychologyA There have been many reductionist attempts to explain behavior in psychology, for example:⑴Structuralism-one of the first approaches to psychology pioneered by Wundt and Titchener involved trying to break conscious experience down into 心理学的还原论辩论还原论整体说 & 相互作用论理论假设A还原论是通过先把一个现象分解成它的组成部分，之后再分析其组成部分的方式来解释某个现象。
心理契约的破坏,知觉歧视,西班牙裔的族群认同和商务专业【外文翻译】
外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文原文：Psychological Contract Breach, Perceived Discrimination, and Ethnic Identification in Hispanic Business Professionals DelCampo, Robert G. Rogers, Kristie M. Jacobson, Kathryn J. L.Rousseau (1995) defines the psychological contract as the individual’s beliefs about mutual obligations in the context of the relationship between employee and employer. The psychological contract focuses less on traditional compensation issues and more on the entire relationship between an employee and employer (Rousseau, 1995). The terms of the psychological contract are obligations specifically based on perceived promises by the other party (Rousseau, 1989; Robinson, 1996). Whether implicit or explicit, the perceived promises create obligations that must be fulfilled for the contract to be upheld (Rousseau, 2001). For example, the organization or manager utilizing a relational psychological contract is obligated to treat the individual justly, provide safe working conditions, allow employees reasonable vacation time, and provide proper resources to complete their tasks. On the other hand, the employee is obligated to complete requested tasks, demonstrate a good attitude, promote the image of the company, and obey corporate policy.The maintenance of the relational psychological contract is paramount to a healthy and enduring work relationship. What sets a relational psychological contract apart from other psychological contracts (i.e., balanced, transactional, transitional) is the long-term focus that requires mutual satisfaction in both socio-emotional and economic relations rather than certain performance-reward contingencies (Hui et al., 2004). Over the past two decades a changing business environment (e.g., globalization, downsizing) has required constant renegotiation of the mutual obligations of employers and employees, leaving more room for the misunderstandings and misalignments that result in psychological contract breach(Robinson, 1996).In order to maintain a proper working relationship this specific type of contract must remain fulfilled. This becomes particularly challenging because psychological contracts are based on the perceptions of each party, and the perceptions are not necessarily shared (Robinson, 1996). A psychological contract is considered breached when one party believes that the other has failed to follow through on a promise or commitment (Rousseau, 1989). The party that deems the contract breached may take action to change the relationship. Empirical research suggests that breach of a psychological contract is negatively related to employee loyalty, job performance, efficiency, trust, and effectiveness, and positively related to filing grievances and seeking alternative employment (Masterson, 2001; Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Cavanaugh and Noe, 1999; Turnley and Feldman, 1999; Lewis-McClear and Taylor, 1997; Rousseau and McLean Parks, 1993; Rousseau and Anton, 1991, 1988). Conversely, fulfilled contracts lead to increased job satisfaction and productivity (Rousseau, 1995). Therefore, it is imperative to assess and manage psychological contracts within organizations.Employees tend to enter an organization expecting treatment free from discrimination, regardless of demographic differences; therefore, a relationship may exist between psychological contract breach and an employee’s perception of discrimination. More specifically, if an employee feels they have been discriminated against, they may also perceive their psychological contract to have been breached. Robinson and Rousseau (1994) found that more than one-half (54.8%) of all employees studied reported their psychological contract as breached. Although Robinson and Rousseau (1994) reported a very high rate of psychological contract breach, they did not examine potentially influential individual differences of their respondents. In order to study the relationship between psychological contract breach and perception of discrimination, the investigation might be most fruitful in examining minority groups, as they are more likely to perceive that they are discriminated against than majority group members (McKay et al., 2007).Before defining what it means to breach the psychological contract, it is important to distinguish other definitions of psychological contracts from thedefinition that is operationalzed in this study. A point of divergence in defining psychological contract lies in the agreement of contract terms. According to Shore et al. (2004), the definition of a psychological contract has evolved in the management literature from a definition that included some mutual agreement on the terms of the contract (Levinson, 1962; Schein, 1965) to the subjective beliefs and perceptions of the individual (Rousseau, 1989). An older conceptualization of “psychological contract” was formed in stable conditions where empl oyees and employers exchanged compliance for security, respectively (Sparrow, 1996). With changing business conditions and fewer jobs, the terms of the psychological contract may also have changed; employees cannot just comply but must perform well and are considered lucky to keep their jobs (Sparrow, 1996). The present study adheres to the definition by Rousseau because employees may feel equally wronged when an employer does not follow through on an obligation, whether the promise is explicit or they perceive an implicit promise. Also, the employee will act according to what they perceive the exchange agreement to be, whether or not the exchange agreement is shared with the employer. Thus, psychological contract breach is the belief that the other party has not followed through on their promised obligations (Rousseau, 1989). Breach is a subjective experience, based on actions and on individual’s perceptions of actions (Robinson, 1996).Results in this stream of research are also reported by Robinson and Morrison (2000) who examined psychological contract breach through the lens of contextual influences. Global fulfillment refers to the entire psychological contract remaining fulfilled with minor infringements. Likewise, global breach indicates that the entire psychological contract is voided. They found a significant increase of breach reports in instances of low organizational performance, lack of formal socialization process, lack of or inappropriate job previews, increased number of job options/offers (before choosing the job studied), and in instances where the employee has a history of psychological contract breach in previous employments. Robinson and Morrison recognized there are important effects of psychological contract breach, but also suggested th ere are “factors that affect the development of those perceptions” and it is crucial to understand why individuals develop these beliefs (2000: 526).Previous empirical work indicates psychological contract breach is positively related to outcomes such as negative employee attitudes, unfavorable work behaviors, and voluntary turnover (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Rousseau and McLean Parks, 1993), and negatively related to discretionary service behaviors (Blancero and Johnson, 2001). Conversely, the fulfilled psychological contract has predicted many potential benefits. Researchers have shown fulfilled contracts are positively related to organizational commitment, extra-role behavior that promotes effective functioning of the organization (Organizational Citizenship Behavior-OCB), productivity, and job satisfaction (Kickul et al., 2004; Sutton and Griffin, 2004; Turnley et al., 2004; Johnson and O’Leary-Kelly, 2003; Tekleab and Taylor, 2003; Chrobot-Mason, 2003; Masterson, 2001; Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Cavanaugh and Noe, 1999; Turnley and Feldman, 1999; Lewis-McClear and Taylor, 1997; Robinson and Rousseau, 1994; Rousseau and Anton, 1991, 1988).An additional facet of the psychological contract may relate to one’s values or ideals because “the psychological contract perspective provides conceptual space to consider how individuals develop beliefs about organizational obligations based on commitment to a principle or cause” (Thompson and Bunderson, 2003: 573). This argument asserts that employees believe their employer has certain ideological obligations (Thompson and Bunderson, 2003). In the current study, it is speculated that identification with a collective may be a source of this belief. A high level of Hispanic identification indicates that an individual places great value on their culture of origin; therefore, the respect of their culture from others may be an important component of their psychological contract. Those who identify closely with their Hispanic origins will also use this social group as a strong source of social influence. According to sparrow (1996), external social cues from a national culture mediates the formation of psychological contracts such that national values influence the way members of the culture decode information, causing them to judge situations differently than others. If this is the case, the positive relationship between perceived discrimination and breach of psychological contract should strengthen with ethnic identification.Put simply, an organization is expected to treat employees fairly. However,discriminatory actions surface in more subtle ways that may be harder to identify such as impoverished social networks (Ibarra, 1995) and stereotype threat (Steele, 1997). These types of discrimination are captured most precisely by perceived discrimination, since they are not necessarily overt or demonstrated biases (Jones et al., 2009). Perceived discrimination may be an underlying component of breached psychological contracts.Psychological contract breach was evaluated using a five-item scale from Robinson and Rousseau (1994) that evaluates psychological contract breach and fulfillment. Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler (2000) explained that this scale explicitly measures contract fulfillment and breach, which makes it more appropriate than other measures for investigating the consequences of the psychological contract, the purpose of this study. It should be noted that minute infringements of the psychological contract may exist but this measure is intended to evaluate the extent to which the individual has experienced breach or fulfillment of the contract as a whole (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2000; Robinson and Rousseau, 1994).Blancero, DelCampo, and Marron (2007) and the present study’s results suggest that a significantly high number of Hispanic professionals perceive that their psychological contract is breached. This result enhances understanding of psychological contracts by building upon traditional research results that are ethnically nonspecific (e.g., Robinson and Rousseau, 1994). The present study gives insight into perceptions of psychological contract breach for an independent and much larger sample of Hispanic professionals. The study specifically set out to propose two hypotheses: first, there is a positive relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological contract breach; and second, ethnic identification has a moderating effect, such that high levels of ethnic identification strengthen the positive relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological contract breach.Typically, common method bias (Doty and Glick, 1998) is a concern in psychological contract research. Common method bias is bias encountered in research when collecting independent and dependent variables from the same source at the same time. In order to combat common method bias in this study, each participant was instructed to complete a follow-up survey containing questions on thedependent measure (i.e., psychological contract breach) one month after completing the initial survey. Collecting the dependent variable of interest after a time lag has been shown to effectively combat this issue. By administering the second survey one month after the initial data collection, and subsequently determining that no significant difference existed between T1 and T2 measures, the study effectively alleviates future concern for common method bias as it demonstrates some stability in psychological contract breach over time.This study takes a new approach to the psychological contract by looking at explanatory constructs of the breach phenomenon not previously considered in the research literature. Numerous scholars (Anderson and Schalk, 1998; Guest, 1998; Rousseau, 1998) have stated that future directions in psychological contract research should focus on addressing the major criticisms that exist in the research landscape concerning measurement, definition, dynamics/outcomes as well as the added value of the construct. This would include identification of clear relationships with other organizational behavior constructs that are more solidly defined and the testing of these alternative or explanatory constructs.Additionally, the finding that ethnic identification significantly impacts the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological contract breach seems to be contrary to other recent research on perceived discrimination. Jones, Ni, and Wilson (2009) found that employee engagement does not differ significantly by race or ethnicity, but by perceived discrimination. One can interpret these results to mean that workers do not necessarily report an unfair work agreement based on their ethnic identification, but instead their perceived experiences at work may be somehow tied to their ethnic identity. In sum, ethnic identification significantly contributes to psychological contract breach. This implies that while perceived experiences are better predictors of outcomes such as psychological contract breach or employee engagement, identification with a minority group does have some impact on these experiences. However, it does not appear that the presence of demographic differences alone determines the employee-employer relationship.This study contributes theoretically, empirically, and practically to the body of knowledge on psychological contract breach and minority employees. Perceiveddiscrimination is an important experience to understand in order to reduce the occurrences of psychological contract breach. Although government and organizations have made strides in reducing overt acts of workplace discrimination, minority employees are still encountering unfavorable experiences and perceiving discrimination. The unfavorable experiences positively related to perceived discrimination, such as psychological contract breach, stress the importance of correcting the behaviors triggering these perceptions. It may also be helpful for employers to communicate with employees more effectively in order to better understand the reciprocal terms of the psychological contract. Minimizing the ambiguity of promises between the employee and employer may decrease the occurrence of psychological contract breach and open lines of communication.资料来源：Journal of Managerial Issues; Summer2010, Vol. 22 Issue 2, p220-238, 19p译文：心理契约的破坏，知觉歧视，西班牙裔的族群认同和商务专业DelCampo, Robert G. Rogers, Kristie M. Jacobson, Kathryn J. L.Rousseau (1995)定义心理契约为在雇员和雇主之间的关系中有关相互义务的个人信仰。
行政管理 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 社会契约论
译文题目：社会契约论（让-雅克·卢梭）The Social Contract（Jean-Jacques Rousseau）资料来源：/view/74484b7302768e9951e73840.htmlThe Social ContractJean-Jacques Rousseau BOOK III1. Government in GeneralI warn the reader that this chapter requires careful reading, and that I am unable to make myself clear to those who refuse to be attentive. Every free action is produced by the concurrence of two causes; one moral, i.e., the will which determines the act; the other physical ,i.e., the power which executes it. When I walk towards an object, it is necessary first that I should will to go there, and, In the second place, that my feet should carry me. If a paralytic wills to run and an active man wills not to, they will both stay where they are. The body politic has the same motive powers; here too force and will are distinguished, will under the name of legislative power and force under that of executive power. Without their concurrence, nothing is, or should be, done.We have seen that the legislative power belongs to the people, and can belong to it alone. It may, on the other hand, readily be seen, from the principles laid down above, that the executive power cannot belong to the generality as legislature or Sovereign, because it consists wholly of particular acts which fall outside the competency of the law, and consequently of the Sovereign, whose acts must always be laws.The public force therefore needs an agent of its own to bind it together and set it to work under the direction of the general will, to serve as a means of communication between the State and the Sovereign, and to do for the collective person more or less what the union of soul and body does for man. Here we have what is, in the State, the basis of government, often wrongly confused with the Sovereign, whose minister it is.What then is government? An intermediate body set up between the subjects and the Sovereign, to secure their mutual correspondence, charged with the execution of the laws and the maintenance of liberty, both civil and political.The members of this body are called magistrates or kings, that is to say governors, and the whole body bears the name prince. Thus those who hold that the act, by which a people put it under a prince, is not a contract are certainly right. It is simply and solely a commission, an employment, in which the rulers, mere officials of the Sovereign, exercise in their own name the power of which it makes them depositaries. This power it can limit, modify or recover at pleasure; for the alienation of such a right is incompatible with the nature of the social body, and contrary to the end of association.I call then government, or supreme administration, the legitimate exercise of the executive power, and prince or magistrate the man or the body entrusted with that administration.In government reside the intermediate forces whose relations make up that of the whole to the whole or of the Sovereign to the State. This last relation may be represented as that between the extreme terms of a continuous proportion, which has government as its mean proportional. The government gets from the Sovereign the orders it gives the people, and, for the State to be properly balanced, there must, when everything is reckoned in, be equality between the product or power of the government taken in itself, and the product or power of the citizens, who are on the one hand sovereign and on the other subject.Furthermore, none of these three terms can be altered without the equality being instantly destroyed. If the Sovereign desires to govern, or the magistrate to give laws, or if the subjects refuse to obey, disorder takes the place of regularity, force and will no longer act together, and the State is dissolved and falls into despotism or anarchy. Lastly, as there is only one mean proportional between each relation, there is also only one good government possible for a State. But, as countless events may change the relations of a people, not only may different governments be good for different peoples, but also for the same people at different times.In attempting to give some idea of the various relations that may hold between these two extreme terms, I shall take as an example the number of a people, which is the most easily expressible.Suppose the State is composed of ten thousand citizens. The Sovereign can only be considered collectively and as a body; but each member, as being a subject,is regarded as an individual: thus the Sovereign is to the subject as ten thousand to one, i.e., each member of the State has as his share only a ten-thousandth part of the sovereign authority, although he is wholly under its control. If the people numbers a hundred thousand, the condition of the subject undergoes no change, and each equally is under the whole authority of the laws, while his vote, being reduced to a hundred-thousandth parts, has ten times less influence in drawing them up. The subject therefore remaining always a unit, the relation between him and the Sovereign increases with the number of the citizens. From this it follows that, the larger the State, the less the liberty.When I say the relation increases, I mean that it grows more unequal. Thus the greater it is in the geometrical sense, the less relation there is in the ordinary sense of the word. In the former sense, the relation, considered according to quantity, is expressed by the quotient; in the latter, and considered according to identity, it is reckoned by similarity.Now, the less relation the particular wills have to the general will, that is, morals and manners to laws, the more should the repressive force be increased.The government, then, to be good, should be proportionately stronger as the people is more numerous.On the other hand, as the growth of the State gives the depositaries of the public authority more temptations and chances of abusing their power, the greater the force with which the government ought to be endowed for keeping the people in hand, the greater too should be the force at the disposal of the Sovereign for keeping the government in hand. I am speaking, not of absolute force, but of the relative force of the different parts of the State.It follows from this double relation that the continuous proportion between the Sovereign, the prince and the people, is by no means an arbitrary idea, but a necessary consequence of the nature of the body politic. It follows further that, one of the extreme terms, viz., the people, as subject, being fixed and represented by unity, whenever the duplicate ratio increases or diminishes, the simple ratio does the same,and is changed accordingly. From this we see that there is not a single unique and absolute form of government, but as many governments differing in nature as there are States differing in size.If, ridiculing this system, any one were to say that, in order to find the mean proportional and give form to the body of the government, it is only necessary, according to me, to find the square root of the number of the people, I should answer that I am here taking this number only as an instance; that the relations of which I am speaking are not measured by the number of men alone, but generally by the amount of action, which is a combination of a multitude of causes; and that, further, if, to save words, I borrow for a moment the terms of geometry, I am none the less well aware that moral quantities do not allow of geometrical accuracy.The government is on a small scale what the body politic who includes it is on a great one. It is a moral person endowed with certain faculties, active like the Sovereign and passive like the State, and capable of being resolved into other similar relations. This accordingly gives rise to a new proportion, within which there is yet another, according to the arrangement of the magistracies, till an indivisible middle term is reached ,i.e., a single ruler or supreme magistrate, who may be represented, in the midst of this progression, as the unity between the fractional and the ordinal series.Without encumbering ourselves with this multiplication of terms, let us rest content with regarding government as a new body within the State, distinct from the people and the Sovereign, and intermediate between them.There is between these two bodies this essential difference that the State exists by itself, and the government only through the Sovereign. Thus the dominant will of the prince is, or should be, nothing but the general will or the law; his force is only the public force concentrated in his hands, and, as soon as he tries to base any absolute and independent act on his own authority, the tie that binds the whole together begins to be loosened. If finally the prince should come to have a particular will more active than the will of the Sovereign, and should employ the public force in his hands in obedience to this particular will, there would be, so to speak, two Sovereigns, one rightful and the other actual, the social union would evaporate instantly, and the body politic would be dissolved.However, in order that the government may have a true existence and a real life distinguishing it from the body of the State, and in order that all its members may beable to act in concert and fulfill the end for which it was set up, it must have a particular personality, a sensibility common to its members, and a force and will of its own making for its preservation. This particular existence implies assemblies, councils, power and deliberation and decision, rights, titles, and privileges belonging exclusively to the prince and making the office of magistrate more honorable in proportion as it is more troublesome. The difficulties lie in the manner of so ordering this subordinate whole within the whole, that it in no way alters the general constitution by affirmation of its own, and always distinguishes the particular force it possesses, which is destined to aid in its preservation, from the public force, which is destined to the preservation of the State; and, in a word, is always ready to sacrifice the government to the people, and never to sacrifice the people to the government.Furthermore, although the artificial body of the government is the work of another artificial body, and has, we may say, only a borrowed and subordinate life, this does not prevent it from being able to act with more or less vigor or promptitude, or from being, so to speak, in more or less robust health. Finally, without departing directly from the end for which it was instituted, it may deviate more or less from it, according to the manner of its constitution.From all these differences arise the various relations which the government ought to bear to the body of the State, according to the accidental and particular relations by which the State itself is modified, for often the government that is best in itself will become the most pernicious, if the relations in which it stands have altered according to the defects of the body politic to which it belongs.2. The Constituent Principle in the various Forms of GovernmentTo set forth the general cause of the above differences, we must here distinguish between government and its principle, as we did before between the State and the Sovereign.The body of the magistrate may be composed of a greater or a less number of members. We said that the relation of the Sovereign to the subjects was greater in proportion as the people were more numerous, and, by a clear analogy, we may say the same of the relation of the government to the magistrates.But the total force of the government, being always that of the State, is invariable; so that, the more of this force it expends on its own members, the less it has left to employ on the whole people.The more numerous the magistrates, therefore, the weaker the government. This principle being fundamental, we must do our best to make it clear.In the person of the magistrate we can distinguish three essentially different wills: first, the private will of the individual, tending only to his personal advantage; secondly, the common will of the magistrates, which is relative solely to the advantage of the prince, and may be called corporate will, being general in relation to the government, and particular in relation to the State, of which the government forms part; and, in the third place, the will of the people or the sovereign will, which is general both in relation to the State regarded as the whole, and to the government regarded as a part of the whole.In a perfect act of legislation, the individual or particular will should be at zero; the corporate will belonging to the government should occupy a very subordinate position; and, consequently, the general or sovereign will should always predominate and should be the sole guide of all the rest.According to the natural order, on the other hand, these different wills become more active in proportion as they are concentrated. Thus, the general will is always the weakest, the corporate will second, and the individual will strongest of all: so that, in the government, each member is first of all himself, then a magistrate, and then a citizen—in an order exactly the reverse of what the social system requires.This granted, if the whole government is in the hands of one man, the particular and the corporate will are wholly united, and consequently the latter is at its highest possible degree of intensity. But, as the use to which the force is put depends on the degree reached by the will, and as the absolute force of the government is invariable, it follows that the most active government is that of one man.Suppose, on the other hand, we unite the government with the legislative authority, and make the Sovereign prince also, and all the citizens so many magistrates: then the corporate will, being confounded with the general will, can possess no greater activity than that will, and must leave the particular will as strong as it can possibly be. Thus, the government, having always the same absolute force, will be at the lowest point of its relative force or activity.These relations are incontestable, and there are other considerations which still further confirm them. We can see, for instance, that each magistrate is more active in the body to which he belongs than each citizen in that to which he belongs, and that consequently the particular will has much more influence on the acts of thegovernment than on those of the Sovereign; for each magistrate is almost always charged with some governmental function, while each citizen, taken singly, exercises no function of Sovereignty. Furthermore, the bigger the State grows, the more its real force increases, though not in direct proportion to its growth; but, the State remaining the same, the number of magistrates may increase to any extent, without the government gaining any greater real force; for its force is that of the State, the dimension of which remains equal. Thus the relative force or activity of the government decreases, while its absolute or real force cannot increase.Moreover, it is a certainty that promptitude in execution diminishes as more people are put in charge of it: where prudence is made too much of, not enough is made of fortune; opportunity is let slip, and deliberation results in the loss of its object.I have just proved that the government grows remiss in proportion as the number of the magistrates increases; and I previously proved that, the more numerous the people, the greater should be the repressive force. From this it follows that the relation of the magistrates to the government should vary inversely to the relation of the subjects to the Sovereign; that is to say, the larger the State, the more should the government be tightened, so that the number of the rulers diminish in proportion to the increase of that of the people.It should be added that I am here speaking of the relative strength of the government, and not of its rectitude: for, on the other hand, the more numerous the magistracy, the nearer the corporate will comes to the general will; while, under a single magistrate, the corporate will is, as I said, merely a particular will. Thus, what may be gained on one side is lost on the other, and the art of the legislator is to know how to fix the point at which the force and the will of the government, which are always in inverse proportion, meet in the relation that is most to the advantage of the State.3. The Division of GovernmentsWe saw in the last chapter what causes the various kinds or forms of government to be distinguished according to the number of the members composing them: it remains in this to discover how the division is made.In the first place, the Sovereign may commit the charge of the government to the whole people or to the majority of the people, so that more citizens are magistrates than are mere private individuals. This form of government is called democracy.Or it may restrict the government to a small number, so that there are more private citizens than magistrates; and this is named aristocracy.Lastly, it may concentrate the whole government in the hands of a single magistrate from whom all others hold their power. This third form is the most usual, and is called monarchy, or royal government.It should be remarked that all these forms, or at least the first two, admit of degree, and even of very wide differences; for democracy may include the whole people, or may be restricted to half. Aristocracy, in its turn, may be restricted indefinitely from half the people down to the smallest possible number. Even royalty is susceptible of a measure of distribution. Sparta always had two kings, as its constitution provided; and the Roman Empire saw as many as eight emperors at once, without it being possible to say that the Empire was split up. Thus there is a point at which each form of government passes into the next, and it becomes clear that, under three comprehensive denominations, government is really susceptible of as many diverse forms as the State has citizens.There are even more: or, as the government may also, in certain aspects, be subdivided into other parts, one administered in one fashion and one in another, the combination of the three forms may result in a multitude of mixed forms, each of which admits of multiplication by all the simple forms.There has been at all times much dispute concerning the best form of government, without consideration of the fact that each is in some cases the best, and in others the worst.If, in the different States, the number of supreme magistrates should be in inverse ratio to the number of citizens, it follows that, generally, democratic government suits small States, aristocratic government those of middle size, and monarchy great ones. This rule is immediately deducible from the principle laid down. But it is impossible to count the innumerable circumstances which may furnish exceptions.4. DemocracyHe who makes the law knows better than any one else how it should be executed and interpreted. It seems then impossible to have a better constitution than that in which the executive and legislative powers are united; but this very fact renders the government in certain respects inadequate, because things which should be distinguished are confounded, and the prince and the Sovereign, being the same person, form, so to speak, no more than a government without government.It is not good for him who makes the laws to execute them, or for the body of the people to turn its attention away from a general standpoint and devote it to particular objects. Nothing is more dangerous than the influence of private interests in public affairs, and the abuse of the laws by the government is a less evil than the corruption of the legislator, which is the inevitable sequel to a particular standpoint. In such a case, the State being altered in substance, all reformation becomes impossible, A people that would never misuse governmental powers would never misuse independence; a people that would always govern well would not need to be governed.If we take the term in the strict sense, there never has been a real democracy, and there never will be. It is against the natural order for the many to govern and the few to be governed. It is unimaginable that the people should remain continually assembled to devote their time to public affairs, and it is clear that they cannot set up commissions for that purpose without the form of administration being changed.In fact, I can confidently lay down as a principle that, when the functions of government are shared by several tribunals, the less numerous sooner or later acquire the greatest authority, if only because they are in a position to expedite affairs, and power thus naturally comes into their hands.Besides, how many conditions that are difficult to unite does such a government presuppose! First, a very small State, where the people can readily be got together and where each citizen can with ease know all the rest; secondly, great simplicity of manners, to prevent business from multiplying and raising thorny problems; next, a large measure of equality in rank and fortune, without which equality of rights and authority cannot long subsist; lastly, little or no luxury—for luxury either comes of riches or makes them necessary; it corrupts at once rich and poor, the rich by possession and the poor by covetousness; it sells the country to softness and vanity, and takes away from the State all its citizens, to make them slaves one to another, and one and all to public opinion.This is why a famous writer has made virtue the fundamental principle of Republics;E1 for all these conditions could not exist without virtue. But, for want of the necessary distinctions, that great thinker was often inexact, and sometimes obscure, and did not see that, the sovereign authority being everywhere the same, the same principle should be found in every well-constituted State, in a greater or less degree, it is true, according to the form of the government.It may be added that there is no government so subject to civil wars and intestine agitations as democratic or popular government, because there is none which has so strong and continual a tendency to change to another form, or which demands more vigilance and courage for its maintenance as it is. Under such a constitution above all, the citizen should arm himself with strength and constancy, and say, every day of his life, what a virtuous Count Palatine said in the Diet of Poland:Malo periculosam libertatem quam quantum seriatim.Were there a people of gods, their government would be democratic. So a perfect government is not for men.社会契约论让-雅克·卢梭第三篇1．政府总论我要提醒读者，这一章要仔细地阅读，否则，我无力进一步说明我的观点。
抑郁症外文翻译参考文献综述
抑郁症外文翻译参考文献综述(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：抑郁症林赛觉得自己这段时间总是不在状态，找不到自我。
而她的朋友们也已经注意到了这一点。
最先发现这个问题的是起亚，当林赛上星期六拒绝了陪她去逛商场的邀请时起亚感觉很吃惊（大家都认为林赛一向非常乐意去购物）。
因为林赛并没有什么理由拒绝陪起亚逛商场，但就是觉得不想去。
相反，她把星期六的大部分时间都用来睡觉。
花费比平常更多的时间呆在家里并不是林赛身上唯一的变化。
她一直是一个非常好的学生，但在过去的几个月里她总是无法集中精力，学习成绩明显下降。
她忘记完成本应按时交给老师的作业。
此外，她还觉得要激发起自己准备期末考试的学习动力成了一件非常痛苦的事情。
林赛总是觉得累，但却难以入睡。
她的体重也增加了。
当她的母亲询问她出什么问题时，林赛只是感觉非常想哭。
但是她也不知道为了什么。
并没有发生什么特别糟糕的事情。
然而，林赛却时时刻刻感觉难过，这种体验非常强烈而且难以动摇。
林赛可能还没有意识到，她已经患上了抑郁症。
抑郁症非常普遍，在每八个青少年中就有一个会受到抑郁症的影响。
抑郁症对人们的影响是不分肤色、种族、经济地位和年龄的，但似乎抑郁症对女孩的影响比对男孩更明显。
人们如何看待患有抑郁症的人？有时朋友或家庭成员可以发觉身边有人出现抑郁情绪。
他们会对这些抑郁者给予关爱、善意地支持他们，希望抑郁者的悲伤可以很快过去。
如果抑郁症患者想和他们交谈，他们会很乐意倾听。
如果抑郁的感觉无法在短时间内消失，朋友或亲人可能会鼓励抑郁者从医生、治疗师或辅导员那里寻求帮助。
但是，当抑郁症“袭击”人们所熟识的某个朋友时，并非所有人都能及时发现。
有些人并不真正理解抑郁症。
例如，他们可能会对抑郁症患者那些缺乏活力的表现进行批评，认为他们性情懒惰或不愿努力。
有些人错误地认为抑郁症只是一种个人可以控制或者摆脱的态度或情绪。
但事实并非如此简单。
有时甚至抑郁症患者对自己的状况也不够重视，认为他们如果感到沮丧和抑郁就意味着他们是某种程度上的弱者。
心理学专业外语翻译第18页
Gender bias in psychological theory and research EXAMPLES OF GENDER BIAS IN PSYCHOLOGYMoral development - Kohlberg applied his stages of moral development derived from male subjects, to female subjects, and concluded that latter reached lower levels.Gilligan(1982) has suggested that female morality is based on different priorities.Interpersonal relationships - the research focus on brief acquaintances rather than long term kin relationships may reflect a male bias.Childcare - Bowlby's research on maternal deprivation implied that women needed to stay at home and care for the children.Socialisation - many psychoanalytically orientated psychologists proposed gender biased views on women.Freud argued that women fall 'victim to "envy for a penis", which will leave ineradicable traces on their development and the formation of their character' such as the 'physical vanity of women, since they are bound to value their charms more highly as a late compensation for their original sexual inferiority' (Freud, 1933a).Erickson proposed women were destined to bear and take care of the offspring of men.Theoretical biasHare-Mustin and Maracek(1990) distinguish between alpha and beta bias in theories:心理学理论及心理学研究中的性别偏见心理学中性别偏见举例道德发展——Kohlber将其来源于男性被试主体的道德发展阶段理论应用于女性，从而得出女性只达到道德标准的较低水平的结论。
心理契约的基本概念及特点
心理契约的基本概念及特点
无
【期刊名称】《教学月刊：中学版（教学管理）》
【年(卷),期】2011(000)009
【摘要】心理契约（psychologicalcontract）最早使用在组织心理学家阿吉里斯（Argyris）1960年所著的《理解组织行为》一书中，并于60年代初首次引入到管理领域。
强调在员工与组织的相互关系中，除正式雇佣契约规定的内容外，还存在着隐含的、非正式的、未公开说明的相互期望，它们同样是决定员工态度和行为的重要因素。
【总页数】1页(P59-59)
【作者】无
【作者单位】不详
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】F272.92
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心理学毕业论文外文翻译---社会焦虑与人际回避和人际依赖都存在相关吗？
附录3Is Social Anxiety Associated With Both Interpersonal Avoidance andInterpersonal Dependence?We tested the hypothesis that social anxiety is associated with both interpersonal avoidance and interpersonal dependency.Specifically,we predicted that dependence would be evident in developmentally salient close relationships upon which socially anxious people may rely.One hundred sixty-eight young people undergoing the transition to adulthood completed self-report measures of anxiety and interpersonal patterns.Results indicated that both dependent and avoidant interpersonal styles in romantic relationships,but not other relationships,were uniquely associated with social anxiety.These results remained when controlling for depressive symptoms,anxiety sensitivity,and trait anxiety.Our findings illustrate that social anxiety is not characterized solely by interpersonal avoidance as current conceptualizations suggest.Implications for models and treatment of social anxiety are discussed.Social anxiety,defined as either a diagnosable disorder or as elevated levels of anxiety about social scrutiny,has been characterized by the avoidance of social situations due to fear of negative evaluation,and in line with this,research supports the presence of avoidant styles of interacting among socially anxious people(e.g.Alden,Bieling,&Meleshko,1995;Alden&Phillips,1990;Dow,Bi gland,&Glaser,1985;Leary,Knight,&Johnson,1987;Leary&Kowalski,199 5).However,another line of research suggests that social anxiety is characterized by a dependent style of relating to others.For example,socially anxious people often have higher levels of interpersonal dependency than individuals with other types of anxiety related problems(e.g.,Alnaes&Torgersen,1988;Bornstein,1995;Overholser,1997). Interpersonal dependency is characterized by thoughts,feelings,and behaviors revolving around the need to associate closely with otherpeople(Hirschfeld et al.,1977),which is seemingly contradictory to the characteristics of socially anxious people.Hence,the present study was designed to examine the association between social anxiety,interpersonal avoidance,and interpersonal dependency.Specifically,we examined the extent to which social anxiety among young people was associated with each of these two seemingly contradictory interpersonal styles.There has been a dearth of research in the literature examining the interpersonal styles of socially anxious people.The few studies that do exist have reported that socially anxious people exhibit inhibited social behavior,shyness,lack of assertion in group conversations,and feelings of inadequacy while in social situations(e.g.,Alden et al.,1995;Alden&Phillips,1990;Gotlib&Meltzer,1987;Leary et al.,1987;Libet&Lewinsohn,1973),all of which are associated with an avoidant interpersonal style.Theoretically,the fearful or avoidant interpersonal styles of socially anxious people can be attributed to feelings of inadequacy,self-criticism,and fear of negative evaluation and abandonment.However,these same attributes have been associated with interpersonal styles that reflect dependency,ranging from general personality orientations to severe personality disorders.For example,sociotropy,which is a personality style characterized by dependence on others and a need for involvement in relationships,has been theorized to result from low self-esteem,self-criticism,and fear of rejection from others(e.g.,Beck,1983;Blatt,Quinlan,Chevron,McDonald,&Zuroff,1982;O uimette,Klein,Anderson,&Riso,1994;Robins&Luten,1991;Zuroff&Mongr ain,1987).Similarly,dependent personality disorder is characterized by feelings of inadequacy and fears of abandonment(American Psychiatric Association,1994).As such,socially anxious people potentially could exhibit dependent styles as well as avoidant ones.In fact,social anxiety is associated with traits of dependent and avoidant personality disorders(e.g.,Alnaes&Torgersen,1988;Bornstein,1995;Johnson,Turner,Beidel,&Lydiard,1995;Turner,Beidel,&Townsley,1992).Furthermore,avoid ant and dependent personality traits often cooccur(e.g.,Trull,Widiger,&Frances,1987).Thus,it would be important to sort out the extent to which and the conditions under which socially anxious people engage in dependent styles of relating in addition to avoidant styles.In order to examine the extent to which social anxiety is associated with both interpersonal dependency and avoidance,we examined the attachment patterns of young people ranging in social anxiety severity.There are two patterns of attachment that appear to have implications for social anxiety:preoccupied and fearful avoidant.The fearful avoidant pattern of attachment is characterized by an avoidant interpersonal style in which people avoid intimacy with others due to fear of rejection.This is exactly what current theories of social anxiety would predict regarding interpersonal behavior(e.g.,Hazen&Stein,1995;Liebowitz,Gorman,Fyer,&Klein,1985;R apee,1995).The preoccupied pattern is characterized by a dependent interpersonal style in which people are excessively dependent on relationships for emotional and tangible support.Although this may seem inconsistent with a socially anxious style,both of these patterns of attachment are elicited and exacerbated by a negative evaluation of the self(Bartholomew,1990;Bartholomew&Horowtiz,1991),which is prominent among socially anxious people.In addition,dimensions underlying these patterns are associated with social anxiety(e.g.,Eng,Heimberg,Hart,Schneier,&Liebowitz,2001;Mickelson,K essler,&Shaver,1997).Therefore,we predicted that social anxiety would be associated with both fearful and preoccupied attachment patterns.In addition,we were interested in the conditions under which the above assoavoid social situations,due to their heightened levels of fear and anxiety while interacting with others.The most commonly feared social situations among socially anxious people tend to be socialgatherings,performance situations,such as public speaking,and meeting new people(e.g.,Holt,Heimberg,Hope,&Liebowitz,1992;Turner et al.,1992).However,all of these social situations typically involve interactions with strangers or acquaintances,rather than interactions in close relationships.Hence,although socially anxious people typically avoid interactions with strangers or nonclose others,the extent to which socially anxious people avoid interactions with close others is unclear.Indeed,there is evidence that anxious people instead depend on close relationships to help them feel better in anxiety provoking situations.For example,Carter,Hollon,Carson,and Shelton(1995)found that among agoraphobics,anxiety can be pacified somewhat if a close other is present.Generalizing from these findings,it may be that the anxiety experienced in social situations will be assuaged if the socially anxious person can depend on a close other for emotional support.A socially anxious person may not have the intense fear of embarrassment or negative evaluation if they have the support of a close other in what they perceive to be a frightening social situation.Hence,we predicted that socially anxious people would exhibit a dependent(i.e.,preoccupied),in addition to an avoidant(i.e.,fearful)style in close relationships.We also were interested in whether this would be true across all close relationships.Different close relationships are salient across different ages and developmental phases.As such,socially anxious people may exhibit dependence only in those relationships that are most close,safe,and salient.To examine this possibility,we selected a sample of young people,with varying levels of social anxiety,who were undergoing the transition to adulthood—a time during which their interpersonal worlds shift.During this transition,peers become more salient and closer as people move away(physically and psychologically)from their parents.Similarly,during this time,attachment functions are transferred from parents to peers and ultimately to romantic partners(e.g.,Fraley&Davis,1997;Hazan&Shaver,1987;1994).Hence,wepredicted that dependency(preoccupation)would be more evident in romantic relationships than parental relationships given the importance of peer relationships in this age group.We also selected a sample transitioning to adulthood because of the advantage it confers in studying social anxiety.Research indicates that the average age of onset of social anxiety is the mid-to-late teens(e.g.,Mannuzza,Fryer,Leibowitz,&Klein,1990).Hence,we are capturing people early in this process,which allows for greater understanding of interpersonal factors during the genesis of social anxiety problems.In addition,all participants were in college,a time during which they are faced with many situations involving meeting new people,public speaking,and talking to authority(e.g.,professors).These situations tend to be particularly difficult for socially anxious people,as they evoke strong concerns about negative evaluation and potential failure(e.g.,Alden&Wallace,1995;Kocovoski&Endler,2000;Rapee,Sander son,&Barlow,1988).Hence,the choice of a young sample was designed to capture participants during a time of transition when issues involving social presentation,interpersonal relationships,and anxiety appear to be prominent.To summarize,this study tested the hypothesis that social anxiety is associated with both avoidant and dependent interpersonal patterns in close relationships.Furthermore,we predicted that dependence would be most evident in peer relationships(romantic relationships)than in parental relationships as peer relationships take on a greater importance than parental relationships during young adulthood.Finally,because research has indicated a similarity in interpersonal styles among people with social anxiety and depressive symptoms,we controlled for depressive symptoms.Research also has indicated an association between other anxiety symptoms and avoidant interpersonal styles(e.g.,Mavissakalian,Hamann,Haidar,&De Groot,1995),and an association between social anxiety and other anxiety symptoms such asanxiety sensitivity and generalized anxiety.Therefore,we controlled for these symptoms in order to examine the unique associations between social anxiety and the two interpersonal styles.ParticipantsParticipants were 168 students(80 males,88 females)enrolled in Introductory Psychology during the fall semester of 1999 and spring semester of 2000 at SUNY Buffalo.As part of a larger study(see Davila&Beck,2002),students were selected on the basis of their scores on the Anxiety Sensitivity Index(ASI;Reis,Peterson,Gursky,&McNally,1986).The ASI has been shown to serve as a risk factor for the development of clinically significant symptoms of anxiety(Maller&Reis,1992;Schmidt,Larew,&Jackson,1999).All Introductory Psychology students completed the ASI during mass testing procedures.Their scores were screened by the investigators,using the norms set forth by McNally and colleagues(Holloway&McNally,1987),and students were categorized into three groups:(1)high ASI(females scoring 30 and higher,males scoring 23 and higher);(2)low ASI(females scoring 10 or lower,males scoring 7 or lower;and(3)moderate ASI(scores falling in between).Project staff,who were unaware of ASI status,then called and recruited an equal number of high,moderate,and low ASI males and females to participate in the study. The participants had an average age of 18.72(SD=1.05).Procedure and MeasuresAs part of a larger study,participants completed a packet of questionnaires containing an assessment of attachment patterns,depressive and anxiety symptoms,and anxiety sensitivity.The participants received course credit for participating in the study.RESULTSZero-order correlations,means,and standard deviations of all variables are presented in Table I.Social anxiety was correlated with botha preoccupied and an avoidant attachment pattern,suggesting that social anxiety is not associated with an avoidant interpersonal style only.Additionally,the preoccupied and fearful attachment patterns were correlated within relationships.That is,preoccupied partner was correlated with fearful partner,preoccupied mother was correlated with fearful mother,and preoccupied father was correlated with fearful father.Moreover,depressive symptom and anxiety variables were correlated as expected based on previous research in this domain(e.g.Mineka,Watson,&Clark,1998).Is Social Anxiety Associated With Preoccupied and Fearful Patternsof Attachment?A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted predicting social anxiety.Fearful attachment scores were entered first,followed by preoccupied scores in order to examine whether a dependent(preoccupied)style was associated with social anxiety over and above the association with a fearful avoidant style.Analyses were conducted separately for mother,father,and romantic partner.As shown in Table II,consistent with our predictions,in romantic relationships,the preoccupied style accounted for significant variance in social anxiety over and above that accounted for by the fearful style;although,as the betas from the final step of the analysis show,both fearful and preoccupied styles in romantic relationships were uniquely associated with social anxiety.However,for relationship with mother,only the fearful style was associated with social anxiety.For relationship with father,neither style was significantly associated with social anxiety.Is Social Anxiety Associated With Preoccupied and Fearful Attachment Patterns When Controlling for Depressive Symptoms,Anxiety Sensitivity,and Trait Anxiety?Because we wanted to examine whether there was a unique association between social anxiety and the two interpersonal styles,hierarchical regression analyses were conducted as describedabove,except the symptom measures were entered first in the analysis.Separate analyses were conducted for each symptom measure and for each type of relationship(i.e.,romantic partner,mother,father),resulting in nine analyses.As shown in Table III,for romantic relationship with partner,the association between social anxiety and a preoccupied interpersonal style remained significant when controlling for depressive symptoms,anxiety sensitivity,and trait anxiety(analyses 1,2,and 3).Additionally,the association between social anxiety and fearful interpersonal style remained significant when controlling for depressive symptoms.For relationship with mother,the association between social anxiety and a fearful interpersonal style remained significant when controlling for anxiety sensitivity and depressive symptoms(analysis 5 and 7).However,the association became nonsignificant when controlling for trait anxiety(analysis 6).Finally,for relationship with father,as before there was not a significant association between social anxiety and either of the two interpersonal styles when controlling for depressive symptoms,trait anxiety,and anxiety sensitivity.7Supplementary AnalysesAlthough not the focus of our study,there were a number of associations that emerged that warranted attention because they diverged from typical findings in the anxiety literature.Specifically,as shown in Table I,anxiety sensitivity was strongly associated with depressive symptoms,trait anxiety,and social anxiety.This is notable given that some research suggests that anxiety sensitivity is specifically associated with certain types of anxiety(e.g.,panic disorder;Taylor,1999).To further explore this,we compared the strength of the correlations using procedures outlined by Meng,Rosenthal,and Rubin(1992).The association between anxiety sensitivity and social anxiety was significantly stronger than that between anxiety sensitivity and trait anxiety(z=3.28,p<.01).The association between anxiety sensitivity and depressive symptoms wasalso significantly stronger than that between anxiety sensitivity and trait anxiety(z=6.04,p<.01).However,the association between anxiety sensitivity and social anxiety was not significantly different from that between anxiety sensitivity and depressive symptoms(z=1.41,ns).In another set of analyses,when we examined partial correlations,anxiety sensitivity retained its association with depressive symptoms,social anxiety,and trait anxiety,when controlling for each of the others.Therefore,our results do not support specificity.Instead,our findings are consistent with the comorbidity that is typically observed among various anxiety and depressive symptoms.DISCUSSIONThe purpose of this study was to examine associations between social anxiety and two seemingly contradictory interpersonal styles:avoidance and dependence.Although social anxiety typically is characterized by interpersonal avoidance,we predicted that social anxiety also would be associated with interpersonal dependence when studied in the context of close relationships.Moreover,we predicted that this is most likely to be true in close relationships that are developmentally salient.Our sample was undergoing the transition to adulthood,a time when peer and romantic relationships typically take on greater significance than family relationships(Fraley&Davis,1997;Hazan&Shaver,1987;1994).Hence,we expected the greatest levels of dependence to be reported with regard to romantic relationships.Results supported these predictions.First,at the zero-order level,social anxiety was associated with avoidant(fearful)and dependent(preoccupied)interpersonal styles in relationships with mother,father,and romantic partners,suggesting that social anxiety is not characterized by avoidance alone,at least in the context of close relationships.This is consistent with prior research linking social anxiety to a dependent interpersonal style(e.g.,Alnaes&Torgersen,1988;Bornstein,1995;Overholser,1997).Second,even when controlling for the association between avoidance and dependence,both had a unique association with social anxiety when assessed with regard to romantic relationships. However,in mother–child relationships,only avoidance remained significantly associated with social anxiety,and neither avoidance nor dependence were significantly associated with social anxiety when assessed with regard to father–child relationships.Hence,as predicted,social anxiety was most clearly associated with a dependent interpersonal style in developmentally significant close relationships,in this case romantic relationships.Importantly,this association held even when controlling for other factors(i.e.,depressive symptoms,trait anxiety,and anxiety sensitivity)that could explain the association between social anxiety and dependence.In line with the last point above,it is worth noting a number of associations that emerged,but that were not the focus of our study.First,it is interesting that although anxiety sensitivity is usually hypothesized as a characteristic of anxiety,results indicated stronger links of anxiety sensitivity to social anxiety and to depressive symptoms than to trait anxiety.Second,depressive symptoms,trait anxiety,and anxiety sensitivity(in addition to social anxiety)were each associated with peoples’ reports of the fearful and preoccupied styles in the different relationship contexts.Future research should therefore examine the extent to which such styles are characteristic of(or may foster)various types of mood symptoms.The existence of an association between interpersonal dependency and social anxiety has implications for both the theory and treatment of social anxiety.First,theories about the interpersonal functioning of people who are socially anxious should be expanded to include dependent as well as avoidant behavior.As noted earlier,avoidance and dependence are often motivated by similar fears and desires(e.g.,fear of rejection,the desire to be liked)and manifested in similar behaviors(e.g.,submissiveness;Alden&Phillips,1990;Bornstein,1995,1997;Holt et al.,1992;Leary et al.,1987;Liebowitz et al.,1985).As such,it would not be surprising for socially anxious people to exhibit both types of interpersonal behaviors depending on their goals and the circumstances.Current theories of anxiety already include aspects of functioning that could be con strued as dependent.One example is a“safety signal,”which is typically a person or an object that anxious people use to help them feel safe in particular situations(e.g.,Barlow,1988;Rachman,1984).The use of a safety signal could be considered a form of interpersonal dependence when the safety signal is a person.However,it would be important to know whether socially anxious people show dependency only in such limited ways,or whether their dependency is more pervasive.Our results suggest the latter.Therefore,future research should more closely examine the conditions under which dependency is exhibited by socially anxious people and the role it plays in their lives.For example,it is clear that avoidance maintains and exacerbates social anxiety.Is the same true of dependency?If so,what are the mechanisms through which this occurs?Are those mechanisms similar to those in interpersonal models of depression(e.g.,Coyne,1976;Hammen,1991;Joiner,Katz,&Lew,1999)?For example, might social anxiety manifest in dependence,which then creates interpersonal problems and stress and,subsequently,leads to increased symptoms?As the role of interpersonal dependence in social anxiety becomes better understood treatment designed to reduce social anxiety can be refined to incorporate such knowledge.Our results suggest that social anxiety is associated with a type of interpersonal dependence—a preoccupied attachment pattern in romantic relationships—that is maladaptive.A preoccupied attachment pattern and other forms of dependence are associated with numerous negative consequences including depressive symptoms,relationship dissatisfaction,and poor emotionregulation(e.g.,Carnelley,Pietromonaco,&Jaffe,1994;Davila,2001;Joiner, Metalsky,Katz,&Beach,1999;Murphy&Bates,1997;Rosenstein&Horowitz ,1996).As such,socially anxious people who exhibit this pattern,may be at risk for other negative outcomes in addition to anxiety.Hence,treatment for social anxiety that includes a focus on dependent behaviors as well as avoidant ones may be warranted.Although our study focused specifically on attachment patterns as indicators of avoidant and dependent interpersonal styles,there is growing evidence that attachment insecurity,more broadly defined,is associated with social anxiety(e.g.,Eng et al.,2001;Mickelson et al.,1997).In addition,Vertue(2003)recently proposed an attachment perspective on social anxiety disorder,which attempts to explain how the internal working models that people develop from early attachment relationships may drive the core beliefs and behaviors that characterize social anxiety.Therefore,in addition to providing a foundation for conceptualizing interpersonal avoidance and dependency in the close relationships of socially anxious people,attachment theory also may have important implications for understanding the interpersonal origins of social anxiety.The results of our study should be interpreted with the following caveats in mind.First,our study examined varying levels of social anxiety in a sample of college-aged individuals making the transition to adulthood.As noted earlier,we selected this sample because of the relevance of their age and interpersonal circumstances to studying interpersonal patterns in social anxiety.Although 31%of our sample scored in the clinical range on the SPAI,the generalizability of our findings to diagnosed social phobia must be examined in future research.Second,our study relied on self-report inventories for the variables of interest.Although all of our measures are commonly used and psychometrically sound,future research employing more objective assessments of social anxiety and interpersonal patterns is warranted.Inparticular,future studies that focus on attachment security should determine whether the findings are confirmed using an attachment interview(e.g.,Bartholomew’s Family and Peer Attachment Interview;Bartholomew&Horowitz,1991)or behavioral measures of attachment,rather than self-report questionnaires.There is a great deal of controversy in the attachment literature regarding the nature of attachment relationships,the dimensions underlying attachment security,and what different measures of attachment security assess(e.g.,Fraley&Shaver,2000;Shaver,Belsky,&Brennan,2000;Shaver& Mikulincer,2004).These are important issues to which researchers interested in attachment must attend.Future research also should move toward the assessment of dependence in actual relationships,possibly through interview,observational,or informant-based methodologies,which are commonly used in the literature on interpersonal functioning and other types of symptoms(e.g.,Daley,Burge,&Hammen,2000;Davila,Bradbury,Cohan,&T ochluk,1997).Third,although our study documents an association between social anxiety and dependence,future longitudinal research will be necessary to determine the extent to which these associations hold over time and to ascertain temporal associations between the variables.In particular,it will be important to build on the current study by examining whether dependent people are more likely than others to develop social anxiety or whether dependence follows from the experience of social anxiety.In doing so,a more complete understanding of the interpersonal components of social anxiety can emerge.社会焦虑与人际回避和人际依赖都存在相关吗？我们验证这样的假说：社会焦虑与人际交往的逃避和依赖都存在着相关关系。
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心理契约中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)A Psychological Contract Perspective on Organizational Citizenship BehaviorJacqueline A-M. Coyle-ShapiroIndustrial RelationsLondon School of Economics and Political ScienceAbstractThis study examined the contribution of the psychological contract framework to understanding organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) using survey data gathered at three measurement points over a three year period from 480 public sector employees. Separating perceived contract breach into its two components, the data suggest that perceived employer obligations explained unique variance in three dimensions of citizenship behavior (helping, advocacy and functional participation) beyond that accounted for by perceived employer inducements. Employees’ acceptance of the norm of reciprocity moderated the relationship between employer inducements and the dimensions of advocacy and functional participation. Employees’ trust in their employer moderated the relationship betwe en perceived employer obligations and the dimensions of advocacy and functional participation. Contrary to the hypothesis, procedural or interactional justice were not found to moderate the relationship between the psychological contract and OCB. The implications of the findings for psychological contract research are discussed.IntroductionIn the past decade, a good deal of research has been conducted on employee responses to psychological contract breach. When an employee perceives that his/her employer has failed to fulfill one or more promised obligations, he/she is likely to reciprocate in a number of ways. As such, existing empirical research demonstrates that contract breach is related to lower employer trust (Robinson, 1996), job satisfaction (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994), organizational commitment (Coyle-Shapiro & Kessler, 2000), intentions to remain (Turnley & Feldman, 1999) in-role and extra-role performance (Robinson, 1996; Robinson & Morrison, 1995).The Psychological Contract is a powerful deciding factor of organizational behavior,andnecessary in the maintenance of Psychological Contract violation on the behavior of employees under the context of chinese culture has important significance.In the dynamic development of Psychological Contract,employees will have two important subjective perceptions:Psychological Contract Violation and Perceived Organization Support .there are mutual influences between them;the increasing Perceived Organizational Support can effectively inhibit Psychological Contract Violation,which is positively significant in human resources management practice.Perceived contract breach results in a sense of discrepancy between what is promised and what is fulfilled. This perceived discrepancy leads to unmet expectations, a loss of trust (Robinson, 1996) and job dissatisfaction (Turnley & Feldman, 2000), which in turn negatively affects employee contributions. It is the perception of a discrepancy that is the motivational mechanism underlying much of this research. It seems, therefore, that the role of promises (i.e. perceived obligations) is limited to providing the baseline to which an individual compares what they have received. However, perceived obligations may exert an important influence on employee behavior for the following reason: promises made represent potential future inducements that an employee may or may not receive in the course of their relationship with the employer. Whether these potential inducements are realized is contingent upon how the employee behaves in that relationship. Consequently, employees should be motivated to behave in a manner that increases the likelihood of those promises being fulfilled.The primary purpose of this research is to gain a better understanding of how psychological contracts affect employee behavior. Specifically, this study hopes to advance prior research in two ways. First, this study examines the concurrent effects of perceived employer obligations and inducements on employees’ reported organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). By separating the components of contract breach, this permits an examination of the unique feature of the psychological contract; that is, its focus on obligations. If perceived employer obligations and inducements have independent effects on OCB, this would provide preliminary support for the view that the psychological contract is distinctive in capturing present as well as anticipated inducements. A second aim of this study is to examine whether differences exist between perceived employer obligations and inducements in terms of their relationship with OCB. This is accomplished by investigating the moderating role of employees’ acceptance of the norm of reciprocity, procedural and interactional justice and trust in the employer in the relationship between the components of breach and OCB.Exchange ModelsThe exchange model proposed by Barnard (1938) and later revised by March and Simon (1958) posited that individuals exchange their contributions forcertain inducements that the organization provides.Subsequently, Blau (1964) distinguished between social and economic exchange that differ among other things on the nature of the inducements being offered by the organization; economic exchange emphasizes the financial and more tangible aspects of the exchange while social exchange emphasizes the socio-emotional aspects of the exchange (Shore, Tetrick, Lynch & Barksdale, 2002). Central to social exchange theory is the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960) that obligates individuals to respond positively to favorable treatment received from others (Blau, 1964). A common feature of these exchange models is their exclusive focus on the inducements provided in the relationship. Gould (1979) argues that a limitation of these frameworks is that they fail to consider the impact of employee expectations for future organizational outcomes. Consequently, Gould (1979) recommends that research attention should be directed towards operationalizing future anticipated rewards that an employee may receive in the course of his/her exchange relationship with the employer. The psychological contract framework seems appropriate as it captures perceived employer obligations (anticipated inducements) alongside present inducements.This extended focus, in theory, differentiates the psychological contract from inducement based exchange models.Psychological ContractsCritics of the psychological contract framework may well argue that contract breach is not distinctive from other exchange related constructs that capture how well or fairly employees feel their employer treats them. Guest (1998) suggests that there may be potential conceptual overlap between social exchange theory and the psychological contract that may bring into question the “added value” of the psychological co ntract construct. Along similar lines from a methodological stance, Arnold (1996) argues that contract breach combines two elements: obligations and fulfillment of obligations and hence, it may be one of the elements that is significant in explaining the outcomes. If this is the case, the conceptual overlap between the psychological contract and related constructs may become problematic in that a distinctive feature of the psychological contract (i.e. promissory obligations) becomes illusory. Consequently, it is important to empirically examine the added contribution of perceived employer obligations to understanding employee behavior.Psychological Contract Violation has an important impact on employees' Organzation Commitment and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.The results show that :in the context of Chinese culture,the Psychological Contract Violation of employees negatively correlated withOrganizational Citizenship Behavior of employees.Psychological Contract Violation of employees is a good predictor of their Organization Commitment and Organization Citizenship Behavior;we can see from this,employees'Psychological Contract Violation impacts enterprises.On one hand Psychological Contract Violation would result in lower Organization Commitment,which not conducive to stability;on the other hand Psychological Contract Violation would cause reduction of Organizational Citizenship Behavior expected,which is not conducive to business performance improvement.All this will impact long term development of enterprises.Perceived Organizational Support is another important subjective perception,it is a series of employees' convictions about how great importance the organizations attach to the contribution and the overall well-being of employees.The increasing Perceived Organizational Support can effectively inhibit Psychological Contract Violation and reduce its negative effectively inhibit Psychological Contract Violation and reduce its negative effects.Research confirms that perceived Organizational Support mediates the relationship between Psychological Contract Violation and its outcomes:Organization Commitment and Organizational Citizenship Behavior of the employees,which is significant,in the case of violation of the Psychological Contract,enterprises can take effective measures to increase their Perceived Organizational Support,and intervene Psychological Contract Violation to reduce or adverse effects.The organizationThe research was carried out in a local authority in the South East of England.Centered on a relatively affluent part of the country, the authority was responsible for the provision of a wide range of public services including education, social services, highways maintenance, home care for the elderly and fire fighting. Following a period of political and financial stability and indeed relative economic well being throughout the 1980s, the authority was subject to a range of pressures and difficulties in the succeeding decade.The authority’s response to these combined pressures saw a fairly radical change in the general structure and operation of the council as well as in the more specific management of employment relationship.MethodologyProcedure and sample The data used here are part of a broader study on the psychological contract. Participants were surveyed three times over a three-year period. At time 1, 21,000surveys were mailed and 6,900 respondents returned completed surveys.MeasuresPerceived employer obligations. These nine items tapped typical aspects of the employment relationship investigated in previous research (Rousseau, 1990) and included long term job security, good career prospects, interesting work, involvement in decision making, support to learn new skills, pay increases to maintain standard of living, fair pay in comparison to employees doing similar work in other organizations, fair pay for responsibilities in the job and fringe benefits that are comparable to employees doing similar work in other organizations.I substituted the following of Rousseau’s ite ms: high pay and pay based on current level of performance for items relating to fairness of pay and benefits to ensure appropriateness for the public sector. As previous research suggests that some terms of the psychological contract may be of greater importance to specific employees and consequently should be weighted more heavily than others (Robinson, 1996). Consequently, employees were asked to indicate how important they felt it was for the employer to provide the same list of obligations along a 7-p oint scale ranging from ‘not at all important’ to ‘extremely important’. To create an overall measure of perceived employer obligations, I multiplied each individual item by its corresponding importance. Therefore, an item that was highly obligated and of great importance would have greater weighting than an item that was weakly obligated and of less importance.Perceived employer inducements.Norm of reciprocity.Trust in employer.Procedural justice.Organizational citizenship behavior.ResultsFrom table 1, the results support the factorial independence of the constructs. Scale means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and correlations are reported in Table 2. As Table 3 shows, perceived employer inducements were positively related to two dimensions of citizenship behavior; functional participation (β= .10, p<. 05) and loyalty (β= .30, p<. 01) providing some support for hypothesis 1. As Table 4 shows, this was supported for two dimensions of OCB.DiscussionThe results of this study support the contention that the psychological contract is distinctive from other social exchange constructs that focus exclusively on the inducements received in the exchange relationship. Specifically, the anticipation of future inducements is important in explaining employees’ willingness to engage in OCB beyond the motivational influence of present inducements. Second, the difference between perceived obligations and inducements is supported in terms of their respective relationship with OCB; trust in the employer strengthens the relationship between employer obligations and OCB; acceptance of the norm of reciprocity strengthens the relationship between employer inducements and OCB. Finally, the psychological contract framework had a differential effect on the substantive categories of OCB.The motivating effect of perceived employer obligations can be understood if one considers the nature of what is being exchanged in most employment relationships. Some promises made by the employer may be specific and discrete thereby having a clear end point in which a promise is judged to be fulfilled or broken. There is empirical evidence suggesting that managers take into account employees’ citizenship behavior when determining evaluation ratings (Podsakoff et al., 2000), which in turn may affect whether promises made by the employer are fulfilled. Therefore, by engaging in OCB, employees may be increasing the probability that future inducements are forthcoming.The acceptance of the norm of reciprocity that underlies exchange relationships is likely to vary across individuals and influence the contributions they are willing to make in that relationship. On the other hand, an individual’s trust in his/her employer helps strengthen the relationship between future anticipated inducements and proactive reciprocation. Theexistence of trust has been highlighted as central to exchange relationships (Blau, 1964) in terms of how employees interpret and respond to perceived employer behavior (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994; Robinson, 1996). Employees who have greater trust in their employer are more likely to invest in the future of that relationship based on their belief that the employer will continue to maintain the relationship by delivering on future promises.ImplicationsResults of this study highlight the importance of promissory obligations in predicting employees’ citizenship behavior. It is the inclusion of obligations that distinguishes the psychological contract from social exchange constructs that exclusively capture perceived employer treatment without taking into account potential future treatment by the employer. As the psychological contract captures anticipated inducements (e.g. obligations) alongside present inducements, it may provide a more comprehensive basis to examine employee reciprocity in exchange relationships.Therefore, managers need to be careful about what they promise particularly in the context of organizational change when reneging of promises may be more prevalent. Second, managers need to be aware that employees may differ in the extent to which they accept the norm of reciprocity in their exchange relationship with the employer.Strengths and WeaknessesAn important strength of this study is its sample of diverse public sector employees, which remains under-researched from a psychological contract perspective. Another strength of this study is that it provides a complementary motivational base to that provided by contract breach in understanding the consequences of exchange relationships.In addition, the study has a number of methodological limitations. First, all the variables were measured with self-report survey measures.Consequently, the observed relationships may have been artificially inflated as a result of respondents’ tendencies to respond in a consistent manner. However, the measurement of the independent and dependent variables over three measurement occasions reduces the potential for common method bias.Future ResearchIn terms of replication, further studies with different samples should examine the independent consequences of the components of contract breach and hence lend further support to or question the distinctive contribution of psychological contracts in our understanding of the exchange relationship. With respect to extension, additional researchcould explore other hypothesized determinants of proactive or anticipatory reciprocation as well as potential moderating variables in this relationship. The relationship between justice and psychological contracts merits additional examination. Perceptions of justice have been treated as an antecedent of contract violations (Tekleab & Taylor, 2000) and also as an outcome of contract breach/fulfillment (Liao-Troth, 1999). 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