Input and interaction (SLA)
SLA(6)
2.2. 交互活动 ：
Vygotsky认为高级思维活动来源于社会交互活动。 在Vygotsky（1978）看来，一个人语言的发展不可避 免地会经历社会的和个体的两种心理层次，且这种发 展是内部与外部交互的产物。在他看来，一个人独特 的语言经验是通过不断的交互活动而形成的，而那些 更具集中性的交互活动又会导致学习的更高级形式。 小组活动常被认为是保持语言学习中语言交互活动的 核心。 Brown（1994）认为：小组活动不仅能够促成大量的 言语输出，而且也能增加交互语言的种类和提高交互 语言的质量。
2.3. 小ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้互动教学的原则
(1) 主体性原则：尊重和完善学生的主体性，为他们创造一个自主发展 的空间，学生的主体性才能得到充分发展，教师的主导作用要体现在 以学生为主体的课堂教学之中。 (2) 环境性原则：英语教学是一个复杂的社会化活动。教师一方面要创 造生动形象的语言环境，另一方面应将学生放在特定的环境去考虑， 制定的活动、内容、方式都要适合学生的年龄特征和智力水平。 (3) 创造性原则：活动的成功度与学生内在兴趣和动机是成正比的。活 动设计要使学生具有一定的创造性 (i+1)，让学生充分发挥创造性思维 去完成具有一定挑战性的任务(task)。这种任务的完成会使他们产生成 就感和自豪感，增强交际信心。 （4）综合性原则：外语素质是各种能力的综合，有目的地进行目标为 ） 导向（goal-oriented）的小组互动（Group Interaction）。小组成员之 间开展合作，运用英语进行语言交际活动，即在活动中真实地使用语 言（use language to achieve a real outcome）.
1.5. 启示：
Krashen的情感过滤假说表明我们的教学目标不仅应该提供可理 解的摄入，而且应该创造一个促成低情感过滤的学习环境。因此， 教学效果好的语言教师应该能为学生提供摄入，并帮助他们把这 种摄入在低焦虑或无压力的学习环境中变得可理解，让输入转化 为吸入。 俄国心理学家Vygotskt（1962）提出的“最近发展区” （zone of proximal development，ZPD）和语言学家Krashen提出的 “comprehensible input（i＋1）”都肯定了输入信息不能太难或 太容易的观点。教师平时准备教学内容时，必须十分清楚学生的 实际能力（即“i”），并以此为出发点，保证语言输入信息有一 定难度（即“十1”）。只有做到“i＋l”，才能诱发学生的语言习 得活动。但是，这个“1”必须是学生通过努力能够达到的水乎， 否则会扼杀他们的学习动机。
第二语言学习的语言的输入与互动
1.Nature of input modifications 输入修正的本质
Characteristics of foreigner talk 外国式谈话(5.1)
1、简单高频的词汇和短语； 2、 长时间的停顿； 3、放慢语调； 4、清晰发音； 5、声音大； 6、强调重点单词； 7、简化的语法结构； 8、主题化； 9、句法规律； 10、保留词组的形态
Modification of written input(5.2)
频繁的组织记号，例如大标题和链接； 清晰的主旨句； 强调中心句和同义词； 迅速列出重点； 细化和展开文化背景； 图表；规则；理解核实
5.2Modification of written input
2.Nature of interactional modification语言互动 修正的本质
Input and interaction
语言的输入与互动
The role of input
Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for both L1 and L2 learning. Chapter 3 Krashen's Monitor Model considers comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient to account for SLA. In this chapter, some researchers claim the nature and role of input and interaction in acquisition. Let's see them. 语言的输入对一语二语都是绝对必要的。第三章克拉申的监控假说 就认为理解性的输入对于二语习得来说是必要又充分的。本章节一 些研究者就解释了二语习得中输入和互动的本质与作用。
language acquisiton
Language acquisition
Refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
as "Baby cry", Baby chair, Daddy hat "Hit ball". Most of these sentences consist of two words, each
word with its own single-pitch contour. Most of the words are contents words, like nouns, verbs and adjectives. As indicated in Fromkin & Rodman (1983: 330), at the two-word stage there are no syntactic or morphological markers; that is, no inflections for number, or person, or tense, and so on. Pronouns are rare, although many children do use "me" to refer to themselves, and some children use other pronouns as well.
对比分析指的是通过比较两种语言系统的异同来判断语言学习者可能遭遇的困难错误分析则是分析语言学习者的错误来探讨第二语言习得的现象secondlanguagelearningmodelsinputhypothesismainlydividedwhatextentslabehaviorismmodelemphasizedpositivereinforcementnurtureposition
inout&output
hopeful
8.3 Input and Interaction in SLA
Behaviorist view Corder: a distinction between Input and Intake Krashen: Input Hypothesis Long: Interaction Hypothesis Empirical studies on comprehension and acquisition
3. It is clear that caretakers by any prime language-teaching goal, nor their speech in general specially adapted so as to model the target grammar.
2. There seems to be a relationship between the caretaker’s use of inverted yes-no question and children’s developing control of verbal auxiliaries in English as an L1.
二语习得
2. What is positive and negative transfer? 3. How are errors treated by behaviorists?
4. How can potential errors be predicted?
Revision
Contents
Key The
issues in SLA role of the first language and the natural route of
Interlanguage
development
Individual Input, The
learner dific basis of CA
1.
Is it worthwhile to do a contrastive
analysis of L1 and L2?
2.
What may be the relationship between
L1 and SLA?
3. Error analysis
Errors and mistakes
Errors(错误):
when the deviation arises as a result of a lack of knowledge, representing a lack of competence. (Errors are systematic.) Mistakes(失误、语误): when learners fail to perform their competence, and it is caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, etc. (Mistakes are incidental)
二语习得第一,二章笔记
Chapter 1. Introducing Second Language AcquisitionI. What id SLA?1. The definition of SLASLA, that is Second Language Acquisition. It refers both to the study of individual and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language or target language.2.The scope of SLAIt includes informal L2 learning and formal L2 learning.Informal L2 learning take place in naturalistic context, formal L2 learning takes place in classrooms.3.Three basic questionsIn trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we are seeking to answer three basic questions:(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the learner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?There are probably no answers that all second language researches would agree on completely. This is because SLA is highly complex in nature, and in part because scholars studying SLA come from academic disciplines which differ greatly in theory and research methods.II. What is a second Language?A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for further travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.III. What is a first language?Acquisition of more than one language during early childhood is called simultaneous multilingualism.Sequential multilingualism: learning additional languages after L1.IV. Diversity in learning and learnersWhat is learned in acquiring a second language, as well as how it islearned is often influenced by whether the situation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immersion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often profoundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors affecting the status of both languages and learners.Chapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionI. The world of second languageNot only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of language in human history. It is probably true that no language group has ever existed in isolation from other language groups. There are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual.Multilingualism refers to the ability to use two or more languages.Monolingualism refers to the ability to use only one.Those who grow up in a multilingual environment acquire multilingual competence in the natural course of using two or more languages from childhood with the people around them, and tend to regard it as perfectly normal to do so. Adding second languages at an older age often takes considerable effort, however, and thus requires motivation. This motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:(1)invasion or conquest of one's country by speakers of another language;(2)A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;(3)Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's another language;(4)Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language.(5)A need or desire to pursue educational experience s where access requires proficiency in another language;(6)A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;(7)An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.II. Reasons for uncertainty in reporting language data include some which have social and political significance, and some which merely reflect imprecise or ambiguous terminology, for example:1.Linguistic information is often not officially collected2.Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable3.There is lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identificationIII. The nature of language learningBy the age of six months an infant has produced all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world.On average children have mastered most of the distinctive sounds of their first language before they are three years old, and an awareness of basic discourse patterns such as conversational turn-taking appear at aneven earlier age. Children control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns before they are five or six, although complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.The understanding of how children accomplish the early mastery of L1has changed radically in the past fifty years or so. (1). It was suggested that first language acquisition is in larger part the result of children's natural desire to please their doting parents. (2). Others argued that children's language acquisition is purposive, that they develop language because of their urge to communicate their wants and needs to the people who take care of them. (3). The most widely held view by the middle of the twentieth century was that children learn language by imitation .IV. The role of natural abilityHumans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language. In viewing the natural ability to acquire language in terms of innate capacity, we are saying that part of language structure is genetically "given" to every human child. If a child had to consciously learn the set of abstract principles that indicate which sequences of words are possible sentences in their language as opposed to those that are not, only the smartest would learn to talk, and it would take them many more years than it actually does.V. The role of social experienceEven if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed inchildren, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Appropriate social experience , including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.Sources of L1 input and interaction vary depending on cultural and social factors. Mother's talk is often assumed to be the most important source of early language input to children. The relative importance of input from other young children also varies in different cultures, as does the importance of social institutions such as nursery schools.When young children's social experience includes people around them using two or more languages, they have the same innate capacity to learn both or all of them.VI. L1 versus L2 learningThis brief comparison of L1 and L2 learning is divided into three phases. The first is the initial state, which many linguists ans psychologists believe includes the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that is in learner's heads at the very start of L1or L2 acquisition. The second phase, the intermediate states, covers all stages of basic language development. The third phase is the final state, which is the outcome of L1and L2 learning.(1). Initial stateSome linguists and psychologists believe that the genetic predispositionwhich children have from birth to learn language remains with them throughout life, and that differences in the final outcomes of L1and L2 learning are attributable to other factors. Others believe that some aspects of the innate capacity which children have for L1 remain in force for acquisition of subsequent languages, but that some aspects of this natural ability are lost with advancing age.There is complete agreement , however, that since L2 acquisition follows L1 acquisition , a major component of the initial state for L2 learning must be prior knowledge of L1.(2).Intermediate statesThere is similarity in that the development of both L1and L2 is largely systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1and L2 learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not mimic what they have heard or been taught. ·processes·necessary conditions·facilitating conditions(3)final stateThe final state is the outcome of L1or L2 learning . The final state of L1development is native linguistic competence. While vocabulary learning and cultivation of specialized registers may continue intoadulthood,the basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever languages children hear around them re essentially established by the age of about five or six years , along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate for fulfilling communicative functions. VII. The logical problem of language learningThe "problem" as it has been formulated by linguists relates most importantly to syntactic phenomena. As noted in the preceding section, most linguists ans psychologist assume this achievement must be attributed to innate and spontaneous language-learning construct and/or process. The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underline language acquisition. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:1.Children's knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receiveThis is essentially the poverty -of- the- stimulus argument. According to this argument, children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input,and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.2.Constrains and principles cannot be learnedConstrains ans principles cannot be learned in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond theircomprehension; Constrains ans principles are thus outside the realm of learning processes which are related to general intelligence.3.Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific inputThe extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child's mind. The logical problem of language learningFirst of all, children often say things that adults do not.Next, children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language even though they have not yet developed the cognitive ability necessary to understand these rules.Finally, patterns of children's language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.VIII. Frameworks for SLAFrameworks for study of SLATimeline linguistic psychological social195os and before structuralism behaviorism sociocultural theory 1960s TGG neurolinguistics information processing ethnography of communication variation theory1970s functionalism humanistic models acculturation theroy1980s principles and parameters model connectionism social psychology1990s minimalist program processabilityThis view is still influential in SLA approaches which are concerned with the role of input and interaction.1.linguisticThere have been two foci for the study fo SLA from a linguistic perspective since 1960:internal and external. The internal focus has been based primarily on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers. It sets the goal of study as accounting for speakers' internalized, underlying knowledge of language rather than the description of surface forms as in earlier Structuralism. The external focus for the study of SLA has emphasized language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners' production at different stages of development.2.PsychologicalThere have been three foci in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective: languages and the brain, learning processes and learner differences.Language and the brainThe location and representation of language in the brain has been of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century. And the expanding field of Neurolinguistics was one of the first to influencecognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in th e1960s.Learning processesThe focus on learning processes has been heavily influenced by computer-based Information Processing(IP) models of learning, which were established in cognitive psychology by the 1960s. Explanations of SLA phenomena based on this framework involve assumptions that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills.Learner differencesThe focus on learner differences in SLA has been most concerned with the question of why some learners are more successful than others. This framework calls for consideration of emotional involvement in learning, such as affective factors of attitude, motivation, and anxiety level.SocialThere are two foci for the study of SLA from this perspective:micro-social and macro-social.Micro-social focusThe concerns within the micro-social focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation and interaction.Macro-social focusThe concerns fo the macro-social focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political and educational settings.。
应用语言学课程教学大纲
《应用语言学》课程教学大纲课程代码：ENGL2049课程类别：专业选修课授课对象：英语、英语师范专业开课学期：秋（第7学期）学分： 2主讲教师：王宇指定教材：1.《应用语言学》（第二版），乐眉云主编，南京师范大学出版社，2004年。
2.《第二语言习得研究与外语学习》，丁言仁，上海外语教育出版社，2004年。
教学目的（含课程内容和考核方式）应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。
狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学，特别是指第二语言教学或外语教学。
广义的应用语言学则涵盖所有与语言和语言学应用有关的学科，包括第二语言习得、社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学等等。
本课程将重点选取与学生英语学习密切相关的领域——即第二语言习得和第二语言教学——进行分析和讨论。
本课程是面向英语和英语教育专业所有学生的一门专业选修课，其教学目的为：●帮助学生了解第二语言习得和第二语言教学方面的基本理论和主要论题，培养学生的研究兴趣和一定的批评能力；●引导学生自觉地运用应用语言学原理指导和促进英语学习；●掌握基本的应用语言学研究方法，为撰写毕业论文打下基础。
本课程分三个模块，主要内容包括：模块一：第二语言习得，包括学习者语言/中介语、影响第二语言习得的外在因素、第二语言习得的内在机制、学习者个体差异、二语习得理论、课堂教学与第二语言习得等。
模块二：第二语言教学，包括语言技能（包括听、说、读、写）的教学和语言评估。
模块三：应用语言学的研究方法和论文写作。
考核方式：课堂讨论（20%），课外文献阅读（30%），以小组为单位的项目报告（50%）。
第一课 Orientation课时：第一周，共2课时教学内容：第一节What is applied linguistics?The Role of Applied LinguisticsThe Nature of Applied Linguistics第二节Why should we study applied linguistics?Applied Linguistics and the Language Teacher思考题:1.What is the relationship between Linguistics and applied linguistics:hierarchy or partnership?2.Can there be a unitary theory of applied linguistics, or indeed dotheories of applied linguistics exist at all?3.Should applied linguists be theoretical?模块一（第2课——第8课）：Essential Concepts and Theories in SLA第二课 Puzzles in SLA & The Influence of Behaviorism课时：第二周，共2课时教学内容第一节SLA as a Field of LearningIssues for Exploration第二节The “Interference” of L1The behaviorist Understanding of SLAContrastive AnalysisCriticism from Empirical Research思考题：1.Think of more features on which students make errors sometimes butdo fairly well other times. Describe the conditions under which they tend to err and those under which they tend to get it correct.2.Think of a few areas of difficulty for advanced Chinese learners ofEnglish. Do there areas represent features that are overtly or slightly different from their Chinese counterparts?第三课 The “Chomskyan Revolution”课时：第三周，共2课时教学内容第一节Chomskyan LinguisticsCriticisms of Chomskyan Linguistics第二节Interlanguage HypothesisError analysis思考题：1.Give examples of errors young children make when they are learningto speak Chinese. You may recall the errors you yourself made when you were little.2.Sometimes sentences may look similar, but their functions can be verydifferent. Compare “Jack comes here”with “Here comes Jack.”What are their differences? Think of situations in which you can use one but not the other.第四课 Natural Order and comprehensible Input课时：第四周，共2课时教学内容第一节Natural Order HypothesisMorpheme Studies and Their findings第二节Problems with Error Analysis and Morpheme StudiesComprehensible Input Hypothesis思考题：1.If you know any international students or any other non-nativespeakers of Chinese, carefully observe their speech. Do they make errors that are similar to those you once made when you were a child?2.What are the flaws in Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis?第五课 Variability in Performance and Acquisition课时：第五周，共2课时教学内容第一节Variability in L1 UseVariability in L2 Language Learner第二节Role of Variability in SLALearner Variation思考题：1.Discuss the possible reasons for the L2 performance variation foundin the Foster and Skehan study and Zhu Lingzhi’s study.2.Think of as many categories as you can that would characterize yourcurrent and former classmates, such as extroverts, introverts, bookworms, athletes, loners, born leaders, social butterflies, teachers’pets, to name a few. Discuss, in small groups, how different character traits affect language learning differently, and what traits are associated with good language learning and why.第六课 Input and Interaction课时：第六周，共2课时教学内容第一节Input and Interaction in L1 AcquisitionInput and Interaction in Natural SettingsInput and Interaction in Classroom SettingsEffects of Input and Interaction on SLA第二节Criticism of the Interaction HypothesisSwain’s Output HypothesisEmpirical Studies on the Role of Interaction思考题：1.In China, we use Chinese all the time, but we may still suddenly failto recall a term (or name of a person) we want to use. What do you do if this happens to you when you are (1) shopping, (2) visiting a university president, or (3) delivering a speech to a large audience?2.Recall one of your encounters with a person from overseas who was usingChinese as his or her L2. How soon did you become aware that this person might have trouble following you? What did you do to modify your speech so that you could be correctly understood?第七课 Learner Strategies课时：第七周，共2课时教学内容第一节Production StrategiesCommunication Strategies第二节Learning StrategiesThe Role of Memorization Strategies思考题：1.Presumably, production strategies will help us with production andcommunication, but will they also help us with L2 learning? Are there any strategies that do not facilitate our learning?2.Go over the list of cognitive strategies in Table 7.1 (P.167-170) again.Of the 15 strategies listed, how many of them have to do with understanding the auditory or printed material? How many of them have to do with memorizing words and phrases? How many of them have to do with learning and applying syntactic rules?第八课 Noticing the Native Speaker Selection课时：第八周，共2课时教学内容第一节The Noticing HypothesisEffects of the Noticing Hypothesis第二节Noticing the Native Speaker SelectionA New Model of Language思考题：1.How would you compare Schumann’s research with Schmidt’s? Which ofthem is closer to your own experience of learning English or another foreign language?2.Give an example of a situation in which you yourself succeeded inunderstanding or communication even though you did not have the necessary vocabulary.模块二（第9课——第13课）：Language Skills and Assessment第九课 Listening课时：第九周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is listening?Issues in listening第二节How do we gain insights in listening?From Theory to Practice: Issues in Teaching L2 Listening思考题：1.What do you think are the difficulty factors in listening?2.In many Chinese ESL classrooms, teachers are mostly “testing”ratherthan teaching listening. What is your opinion about this phenomenon?What can the teachers do to “teach” the students how to listen?第十课 Speaking and Pronunciation课时：第十周，共2课时教学内容第一节What are Speaking and Pronunciation?Issues in SpeakingIssues in Pronunciation第二节Implications for Pedagogy思考题：1.Should speaking activities focus on texts or sentences?2.What procedures are there specifically for pronunciation teaching?第十一课 Reading课时：第十一周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is Reading?Reading in a Second LanguageL2 Reading vs L1 Reading第二节Issues in L2 ReadingImplications of L2 Research for Instruction思考题：1.Discuss the contributing role of vocabulary knowledge for L2 readingabilities.2.It is generally agreed that extensive reading should be a componentof almost any reading program. To what extent should extensive reading be balanced with an intensive reading program containing well-considered reading instruction (for example, in reading strategies, in vocabulary, etc.)?第十二课 Writing课时：第十二周，共2课时教学内容第一节Demystifying WritingAspects of Writing第二节Second Language Writing: Theory, Research, and Pedagogy思考题：ment on the three L2 writing approaches: controlled composition,the paragraph pattern approach and the process approach.第十三课 Assessment课时：第十三周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is Language Assessment?Fundamental Issues in Language Assessment第二节Language Assessment and Language Teaching思考题：1.Define the term “validity”.2.Discuss the relationship between language assessment and languageteaching.模块三（第十四周——第十八周）: Research Methods and Thesis Writing第十四课 Research Methods in Applied linguistics课时：第十四周，共2课时教学内容第一节What is research?Developing research questionsSelecting research designs第二节A survey studyAn experimental studyA case study思考题：1.What tasks does a researcher have to accomplish if a piece of researchis conducted effectively?2.What are the important differences between quantitative andqualitative designs?第十五课 Writing Up a Research Report课时：第十五周，共2课时教学内容第一节The structure of a thesis / research reportWriting an introductionWriting a literature reviewDescribing methodologyReporting results and discussionWriting the conclusion chapter第二节Academic writing styleAPA writing format思考题：1.Try to get a copy of an undergraduate thesis or an MA thesis. Work witha group to comment on its structure, language, format, etc. Reading Week (第十六周)第十七课 Project Report (1)第十八课 Project Report (2)主要参考文献：1.《英语语言学纲要》，丁言仁、郝克，上海外语教育出版社，2001年。
自考英语语言学Chapter_10_Language_Acquisition
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得一、本章纲要二、本章重点Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1)is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。
语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。
有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。
习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。
The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.1.First language acquisition第一语言习得Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。
二语习得引论读书笔记chapter1-2
二语习得引论读书笔记chapter1-2一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语）also commonly called a target language (TL) Scopes Takes place in ExamplesInformal L2 learning Naturalistic contexts “pick up”Interacting Formal L2 learning Classes or courses ClassesL2 learning that involves a mixture of formal and informal learning Naturalistic contextscombined with Classesor coursesInteracting and learning inclasses at the same time3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge3). Why are some learners more successful than othersFields EmphasizeLinguists Characteristics of the differences and similarities in thelanguages that are being learned;The linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) andlinguistic performance (actual production).Psychologists and psycholinguists The mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition; The representation of languages in the brain.Sociolinguists Variability in learner linguistic performance;Communicative competence (pragmatic competence).Social psychologists Group-related phenomena;The interactional and larger social contexts of learning.Applied linguists about SLA Any one or more perspectives above; Theory and research for teaching.4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages. (bilingualism: 2languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only be estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteriafor identification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.Time Children will< 6 months (infant) Produce all of the vowel sounds and most of theconsonant sounds of any language in the world.Learn to discriminate the among the sounds that make adifferent in the meaning of words (the phonemes)< < 3 years old Master an awareness of basic discourse patterns< 3 years old Master most of the distinctive sounds of L1< 5 or 6 years old Control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learn language.2) Reasons:Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.…can understand and create novel utterances; and ar e not limited torepeating what they have heard; the utterances they produceare oftensystematically different from those of the adults around them.There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part of languagestructure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate social experience (includingL1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may have little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and social factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has little effect onthe rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningStates L1 L2Initial state Innate capacity Innate capacity; L1 knowledge;World knowledge; Interaction skillsIntermedia te states BasicprocessesChildgrammarMaturation Learnerlanguage(interlanguage-IL)TransferNecessaryconditionsInputreciprocalinteractionInputFacilitatingconditionsFeedback; aptitude;motivation;instruction…Final state Native competence Multilingual competence2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specificChildren often say things that adults do not.Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.≤1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990sL Structuralism Transformational-GenerativeGrammar Functionalism Principles andParametersModelMinimalistProgramP Behaviroism NeurolinguisticsInformationProcessing HumanisticmodelsConnectionism processabilityS Socioculturaltheory Ethnography ofCommunicationVariation TheoryAcculturationTheoryAccommodationTheoryPsychologyPerspective Focus FrameworkLinguistic Internal Transformational-Generative Grammar;Principles and Parameters Model;Minimalist ProgramExternal FunctionalismPsychological Languagesand the BrianNeurolinguisticsLearning processes Informational Processing; Processability; ConnectionismIndividualdifferencesHumanistic ModelsSocial Microsocial Variation Theory;Accommodation Theory; Sociocultural Theory Macrosocial Ethnography of Communication;Acculturation Theory; Social Psychology。
SLA
What learners know they are doing and can describe
Lead Ss to reflect their behaviors
Help Ss the generalize
Teacher interference and correction
Final stage
Language learning is a process of imitation, accumulation and recreation
Contrastive analysis
• Describing L1 and L2 • Selecting a linguistic feature • Making L1-L2 comparison(not only differences but also similarities) on this feature • Using the result to predict or explain errors in the learners’ L2 performance • Strong form—predict
Reformulates the hypothesis according to the results of such testing
Inter-language hypothesis
• Transfer errors (developmental errors): an indication of learners’ efforts on the L2
Example:
• Do you need a hand? It looks pretty heavy. • No, it doesn’t matter. (I can manage it myself) Question: why Chinese students tend to make such a mistake?
二语习得期末复习资料
Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1.SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning alanguage subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Second language:an officially or societally dominant language (not L1) needed foreducation, employment or other basic purposesrmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5.Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have of a language.Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6.Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8.Simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more languages that were auqiredduring early childhood.9.Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1had already been established.1.What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?2.Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1.Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2.Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3.Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4.Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6.Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7.Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8.Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also calledinterference.9.Fossilization:a stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage developmentbefore they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children isimpoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.11.Innate capacity:a natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.1.What is the nature of language learning?(1)Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2)The role of natural abilitya)Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn another language.b)As children mature, so do their language abilities.c)Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there arestages everyone goes through.d)“Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, you'll never learn thelanguage. （关键期假说）(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3)The role of social experiencea)Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them andaround them, no matter what is their language.b)As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and sequenceof development doesn't change.c)The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2.What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1)Similarities between L1 and L2a)Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about language structures and principlesIntermediate State - Basic language developmentFinal State - Outcome of learningb)Necessary conditions: Input(2)Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3.What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4.5.(1)Children begin to learn their language at the same age, and in much the same wayregardless of what the language is.(2)Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and createnovel(新颖) utterance.(3)There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6.Linguists have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition.What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge oflanguage. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1.Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1structure or rule in L2 use.2.Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3.Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4.Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky whichclaims that L1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.nguage faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” thataccounts for children’s innate knowledge of language.6.Principles: properties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomsky’s universalgrammar.7.Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account forgrammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky’s theory ofuniversal grammar.8.Initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9.Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.10.Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions. 11.Grammaticalization(语法化): a developmental process in which a grammaticalfunction(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguisticknowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、The nature of language1.What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic,symbolic and social.二、Contrastive analysis1.What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1)If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonableto focus on the differences between native and target language.(2)Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences betweenyour native language and the target language, you are able to overcome thelinguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the targetlanguage.3.What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1)The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization oferrors.(2)Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3)The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict theoccurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、Error analysis1.What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than onidealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).(1)Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2)Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3)Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、Interlanguage1.What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1)Systematic.(2)Dynamic.(3)Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.(4)Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2.There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including differentcognitive processes involved:(1)Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2)Transfer training.(3)Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4)Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5)Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3.The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a learner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecontroversial.五、Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1.Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of? (课本P45！！！)(1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)Monitor hypothesis(3)Natural order hypothesis(4)Input hypothesis(5)Affective filter hypothesis2.What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3.图示4.What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1)What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2)How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3)Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5.What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the targetlanguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Universal grammar1.Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2.What is UG? (名词解释)3.UG and L1 acquisition(1)What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2)Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4.UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1)What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2)What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; positive/negative evidence(起作用);constructionism; fossilization(3)What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1.What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping;Information organization.2.What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms ofthe interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。
Input__Interaction_and_outputin_SLA
英语1204 柴桦 林玉玲 雷琛 刘冬丽
Input
Language that a learner hears (reads) that has some kind of communicative intent This input must be processed (made comprehensible) for acquisition to take place =>Input => processing=>intake
Foreigner talk
Other less obvious characteristics:
Restating Repeating Elaborating on response
i.e., more information aids comprehension i.e., clarify pronouns i.e., adding or restating subject, auxiliary verb, etc.
Vygotsky – Zone of proximal development (ZPD) i + 1 (expanded, it means, the level of interlanguage plus 1 level beyond) Comprehension is sufficient and there is no necessity for production (exposure to data will along work is the innatist position but Krashen‟s position is different from the innatist position in the sense that what Krashen proposes is not exposure to any data but to data that are simple and comprehensible)
Part 4 social aspect
Michael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis
interaction
instruction
Learning
Input (i + 1)
Learned system
Acquisitim
output
Michael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis
Let’s recap…
• Although all theories of SLA acknowledge the need for input, they differ greatly in the importance that is attached to it. Views on input in language acquisition
The functions of motherese 1. An aid to communication 2. A language teaching aid 3. A socialization function Brown (1977): the primary motivation is “ to communicate, to understand and to be understood, to keep two minds focused on the same topic”. The effects of motherese • Little is known about the relationship between motherese and the route
第二语言习得博士论文开题
第二语言习得博士论文开题篇一：二语习得开题报告毕业设计（论文）开题报告毕业设计（论文）题目：二语习得中的情感因素研究综述及其对外语学习的启示学院：系：专业：学生姓名：学号：指导教师：课题的背景与意义研究的背景：近年来，众多研究者对学习者因素进行了深入的研究，并一致认为学习者因素对于外语和二语学习的成功至关重要。
其中，对学习成效产生重大影响的当属情感因素，如态度、动机、焦虑、性格、移情等。
大量调查研究已充分证实了这一点。
任如意运用克拉申的情感过滤假说理论，归纳了影响外语学习的主要情感障碍，并提出了相应的解决措施。
孟建新，张宗胜通过论述焦虑、抑制、性格的内向和外向、自尊心以及动机这五个方面与二语习得的关系，探讨了个人情感因素如何对二语习得产生影响。
王尚峰阐述了情感因素对二语习得的影响，并指出了在外语教学中怎样运用情感因素。
易红波分析了二语习得中的个人情感因素，并就外语教学中如何处理情感因素提出了一些尝试性建议。
自己的见解：情感因素是影响第二语言习得成效的重要因素，它在语言学习中的作用不亚于认知技能。
前人的研究多聚焦于教师应该怎样认识学生第二语言学习中的情感因素及教师应该采取何种措施解决这些因素带来的问题，而很少有人以学生的角度，归纳分析情感因素与第二语言习得的关系，并从中得到作为学生学习第二语言的启示。
故本论文试对第二语言学习中的情感因素的研究与所得到的启示做扼要评述与分析，以便更深刻的了解情感因素与二语习得的关系，促进大学生第二语言的习得。
研究的意义：影响学习者二语习得过程与结果的重要因素——情感因素的研究已引起国内越来越多人的重视。
通过对二语习得过程中情感因素的研究，如对学习者的学习动机、学习态度、个人性格和语言焦虑的调查与研究，可以促进外语教师提高外语教学质量，同时学生也可以通过对二语习得中情感因素的了解与学习促进自身外语学习的效果。
2、课题研究的基本内容与拟解决的主要问题研究的主要内容：本文分析和评述了情感因素与第二语言学习的关系，首先阐述了二语习得中情感因素的界定与类型并分析了其与二语习得的关系，其次从定义、类型、成因、影响及应对措施方面详细论述了第二语言习得中的三大重要的情感因素：动机、焦虑以及态度，最后他把套了对二语习得中的情感因素的研究对大学生外语学习的启示。
输入-互动-输出在二语习得的重要性
输入-互动-输出在二语习得的重要性发布时间：2022-08-29T06:44:57.403Z 来源：《教学与研究》2022年4月第8期作者：刘闻楚[导读] 第二语言习得(SLA)理论是语言教学的基础。
本文通过分析第二语言学习中输入、互动和输出的刘闻楚惠州市华罗庚中学 516005摘要：第二语言习得(SLA)理论是语言教学的基础。
本文通过分析第二语言学习中输入、互动和输出的影响，指出这三者都是不可缺少的组成部分，在第二语言习得中发挥着积极的作用。
同时，也将反映英语教学的挑战。
关键词：语言输入；互动；语言输出；第二语言习得随着国际交流越来越频繁，全球第二语言学习的趋势日益增长。
为了促进第二语言学习，教育领域的研究人员几十年来一直在发展SLA理论，并探索有效的学习方法，如：Gass和Mackey（2006）认为语言习得是一个从输入到输出的语言过程，语言输入、交互和语言输出是SLA过程中的三个关键部分，并强调了第二语言学习在输入、交互和输出中的重要性。
因此，课程改革对培养学习者第二语言习得能力提出了一些新的要求，如加强对学习者的语言投入。
接下来，本文从理论和课堂实践的角度探讨输入、互动和输出在第二语言学习中的重要性。
一、输入是第二语言学习的基础在行为理论的影响下，Krashen提出了完整的SLA系统，而输入假设是他的理论的核心。
Krashen（1982）强调，语言习得是隐式学习而不是教学的结果。
足够的可理解的输入将促进自然语言的习得。
可理解的输入意味着学习者阅读或听到的语言应该略高于他们当前的语言水平。
如果将学习者的当前级别定义为“i”，则输入必须处于“i+1” 级别，以便学习者能够通过增加复杂性获得新的语言知识。
同时，他还描述了可理解的输入促进语言习得的方式。
虽然缺乏语言资源，但学习者可以依靠语境和教师提供的简化输入来促进习得。
学习者可以用来增强理解上下文信息的能力包括语言外知识、世界知识和语言能力。
二语习得复习汇总
A General ReviewⅠ. Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture.The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meanings for the “same”lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker ’totals communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA?a) L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic competence & communicative competence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammaticallycorrect expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studieslinguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by-listener“an ideal”. speakCommunicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to“ whateakerspneeds to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” , such as a language user's grammaticalsyntaxknowledge, o morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4. Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learningmay be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5. What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation?Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammaticalcomplexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learnersmay acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6. Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback providedto students?. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuliand feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input anecessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not onlynecessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency ofinput structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c)From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners withthe quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that theirusage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for“ correctness” . While children rarely rece negative evidence in L1, and don’ t require it to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that isthe desired goal.7.Explain ZPD. How would scaffolding put a student in ZPD?Zone of Proximal Development, this is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potentialonly with assistance. Mental functions that are beyond an individual's current level must be performed in collaborationwith other people before they are achieved independently. One way in which others help the learner in language development within the ZPD is through scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides tohelp a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be toodifficult for any one of them individually. It is not something that happens to learners as a passive recipient, buthappens with a learner as an active participant.8.Explain why some learners are more successful than others from the perspective of S-C theory?The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their levelof access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from expertsor peers, and because of how well they make use of that help.9.What are the macrosocial factors that influence SLA?(1)Global and national status of L1 and L2(2)Boundaries and identities(3)Institutional forces and constraints(4)Social categories(5)Circumstances of learning10. What are the advantages of young learners and old learners respectively?Young L2 learners are more likely to acquire the language in a naturalistic setting; they are more likely to use the L2in highly contextualized face-to-face situation. Older learners succeed in SLA t o the level of being able to “ pass ” native speaker when social motivation is strong enough.11. What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and socialpsycholinguists?（ 1） Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) oflearners at various stages of acquisition.（2） Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition,and the representation of languages in the brain.（3） Sociolinguists emphasize variability communicative competence (underlying competence).in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic（4） Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.12.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliary language?（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak anotherlanguage natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2） A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3） A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4） An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediatepolitical setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.13. Why are some learners more (or less) successful than others?The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “ learners ” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences innegotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.14.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age.The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:Invasion or conquest of one’ s country by speakers of another language;A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiency in another language;A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies orliteratures.15.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning?（1） The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2） The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, forlanguage-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language arepreprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possiblehuman languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is usedwith them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter whattheir linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience,including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.16.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively?The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.17.How does intermediate states process?The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “ correct in ”the L2; and (2) negativetransfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use isinappropriate and considered an“ error”.18.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)?Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Childrenadditionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals toreach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.19.What is a facilitating condition for language learning?While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development inL2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.20.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language.The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition was prominently espoused byNoam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children ’ s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receive: Childrenoften hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehowable to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for allof the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset ofpossible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which allowthem to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2) Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children access ’to generals constraints and principles whichgovern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for thefact that it does so systematically and without any “ wild divergences”. This could be so because innateprinciples lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to thelack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a firstlanguage at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles arethus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3) Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: In spite of the surfacedifferences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theoriesand analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’ s mind.21. Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the differencebetween the two?Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes theinformation content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.22.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective?(1)Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentiallyunlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2)Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstractionof rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.23.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective?(1)Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use inimmediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction.(2)Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broaderecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.24.What are the characteristics of an interlanguage?1)Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is governed by rules which constitute thelearner ’ s internal grammar.2)Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes frequently, or is in a state of flux,resulting in a succession of interim grammars.3)Variable. Although IL is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use.4)Reduced system, both in form and function.25.What are the five components of language knowledge?Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis:(1)vocabulary(lexicon)(2)morphology(word structure)(3)phonology(sound system) (4)syntax(grammar)(5)discourse(ways to connect sentences and organize information)Please do3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25 (共 17 题)in your exercisebooks.Ⅱ.Definition1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learninga language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2. First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood,usually because it is the primary language of a child’ s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual s have more than one“ first” language.3. Second language (L2) : A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primarylanguage of a child ’familys. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “ first ”language.4. Target language :The language that is the aim or goal of learning.5. Foreign language :A second language that is not widely used in the learners ’ immediate social context, but ratherone that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.6. Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books andjournals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’ s L1.7. Auxiliary language:A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first languageserves most other needs in their lives.8. Linguistic competence:The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomskydistinguishes this from linguistic performance.9. Linguistic performance:The use of language knowledge in actual production.10. Communicative competence: A basic tenet ( 原则、信条、教条) of sociol inguistics defined as“ what a speakerneeds to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community-Troike 2003)” (Saville11.Pragmatic competence:Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning withincommunicative situations.12. Multilingualism : The ability to use more than one language.13. Monolingualism :The ability to use only one language.14. Simultaneous multilingualism :Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.15. Sequential multilingualism :Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already beenestablished.16. Innate capacity :A natural ability, usually referring to children ’ s natural ability to learn or acquire langua17. Child grammar :Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of productionand comprehension.18.Initial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge aboutlanguage structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.19. Intermediate state:I t includes the maturational changes which take place in “ child grammar” ,and the L2developmental sequence which is known as learner language.20.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.21.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.22.Negative transfer: I nappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.23.Phonology : The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.24.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering andagreement.25.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.26.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.27. Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’ sTransformational-Generative Grammar . It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a UniversalGrammar.28. Minimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’ sPrinciples andParameters model. This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.29.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner productionwhich depend on contexts of use.30. Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usuallyunconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.31.Sociocultural theory (SCT) : An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitateslanguage learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a socialprocess which is grounded in sociocultural settings.nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.2.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from languageaddressed to native or very fluent speakers.3.Interaction Hypothesis: The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in social interationfacilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.4. Symbolic mediation: A link between a person ’ s current mental state and higher order functions that is providedprimarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part ofVygosky ’ s Sociocultural Theory.5. Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.6. Microsocial context: features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events withinwhich language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.7. ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential development where the learner can only achieve thatpotential with assistance. Part of Vygosky al’TheorysSociocultur.8.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbalcollaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individualperformance.9. Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as asociocultural phenomen.10.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.11.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize thelife of people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.12.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.13.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions thatare established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.need to interact with —speakers of another language.1.Contrastive Analysis (CA) : an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learnerproblems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement (S-R-R): learners respond to the stimulus (linguistic input), and reinforcement strengthens the response; they imitate and repeat the language that they hear, and when they are reinforced for that response, learning occurs.3.Interference:There will be transfer in learning of elements acquired in L1 to L2. When the L1 structure is used inappropriately in the L2, the transfer is called interference.4. Error Analysis (EA):the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learnersability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of the actual learner errors in L2.6. Interlanguage (IL):is the intermediate state of a learner’ s language as it moves toward the target L2. It has the following characteristics: systematic; dynamic; variable; reduced system, both in form and function.Ⅲ. Final exam questions1.Choose the best answer from the three possible choices（.每小题 2 分，共 20 分）2.Define the following terms （每小题 5 分，共 25 分）3.Short & Long answers （每小题 8 分，共 40 分）4.Answer the following questions, you should write at least 200 words. （每小题 15 分，共 15 分）。
第二语言习得中的输入研究综述
第二语言习得中的输入研究综述摘要：在第二语言习得中，输入的作用是不可忽视的。
本文综述了国内外有关二语习得中的输入的研究，总结了输入在二语习得中的作用，并将国内外的研究进行了比较,在此基础上提出了以往研究的不足，以及对今后此类研究的展望。
关键词：二语习得；输入第二语言习得简称二语习得（second language acquisition，简称SLA)，近年来已成为应用语言学研究领域中一个异常活跃的分支。
早期的二语习得研究专门指对第二语言学习的研究，与外语习得（foreign language acquisition/FLA）研究是相区别的。
近年来，二语习得研究的内涵不断扩大，已被用来泛指除第一语言学习以外的任何语言学习，包括第二语言和外语的学习。
［1］笔者讨论的二语习得包括第二语言（含外语），而输入（input）是二语习得研究中的一个重要内容。
无论是国外还是国内有关输入的研究都取得了十分丰硕的成果。
一、综述在二语习得范畴内，研究者们对输入概念的界定各有侧重。
R. Ellis的定义是讲母语者或二语者对其他二语者所说的语言。
［2］他的定义只有口头输入，没有包含书面输入。
Richards等人认为输入是指学习者听到或接受到的并能作为其学习对象的语言。
［3］该定义比较全面。
国内学者给出的输入定义和Richards等人的接近［47］，兼顾口头输入和书面输入，这也是本文采用的输入概念。
最初的输入概念是Coder在“学习者的错误的意义”一文中作为一个理论话题提出来的。
［8］最早引起语言学界重视的是Krashen提出的“输入假说”（the input hypothesis）。
他提出了“可理解输入”(comprehensive input)的概念。
这一概念的基本公式是“i+1”。
“i”代表学习者现有的语言知识，“1”代表略高于学习者现有的语言知识部分。
［9］Krashen和Terrell随后又论述了“输入假说”有四个方面的含义：（1）可理解的输入理论与习得（acquisition），而不是与学得(learning)有关；（2）习得是通过理解稍微超出已有的语言知识而完成的，需要借助于语境和非语言信息；（3）当交际成功时，当输入得以理解时，也自然就有了可理解性输入；（4）口语表达的流畅性不是直接教出来的，而是经过一段时间以后逐渐显现出来的。
读书笔记(RodEllisSecondLanguageAcquisition)
/s/blog_4b92bfc0010006f2.html（Oct. 22, 2007）读书笔记—Second Language Acquisition（Rod Ellis, 上海外语教育出版社）2006-12-03 20:15:41这本书用简洁的语言概述了第二语言习得的研究状况，通俗易懂，对于刚入门的读者来说会有很大帮助。
我认为该书在编排上最大的优点是在书的末尾有与正文有关的一些小案例，可以帮助读者更好的理解和掌握作者在书中讲到的理论。
在读完这本书后，我自己感觉收获颇丰。
——Second Language Acquisition（Rod Ellis, 上海外语教育出版社）1. What’s ‘Second Language Acquisition’?1) Introduction: describing and explaining L2 acquisitionL2 is fairly a recent phenomenon, belonging to the second half of the twentieth century. ‘L2 acquisition’ can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue ,inside or outside of a classroom, and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) as the study of this.2) What are the goals of SLA?In general, SLA has not focused on the communicative aspects of language development but on the formal features of language that linguists have traditionally concentrated on. One of the goals of SLA description of L2 acquisition. Another is explanation : identifying the external and internal factors that account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they to . One of the external factors is the social milieu in which learning takes place. Another external factor is the input that learners receive, that is , the samples of language to which a learner exposed. The internal factors are as follows: (1) Learners possess cognitive mechanisms which enable them to extract information about the L2 from the input ;(2)L2 learners bring an enormous amount of knowledge to task of learning an L2；（3）L2 learners possess general knowledge about the world which they can draw on to help them understand L2 input; (4) L2 learners possess communication strategies that can help them take effective use of their L2 knowledge.The goals of SLA , then , are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at is than others.2. The nature of learner language1) The main way of investigating L2 acquisitionThe main way of investigating L2 acquisition is by collecting and describing samples of learner language . The description may focus on the kinds of errors learners make and how these errors change over time, or it may identify developmental patterns by describing the stages in the acquisition of particular grammatical features such as past tense, or it may examine the variability found in learner language.2) Errors and error analysis(1) The first step in analyzing learner errors is to identify them. It is difficult to identify errors because of two reasons: firstly, it is often difficult to identifythe exact errors that learners make. secondly, it’s hard to distinguish errors and mistakes.(2) The second step is describing errors. Once all the errors have been identified , they can be described and classified into types. There are several ways of doing this . One way is to classify general ways in which the learners utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterance. Such ways include ‘omission’, ‘misinformation’ and ‘disordering’.(3) Explaining errors: the identification and description of errors are preliminaries to the much more interesting task of trying to explain why they occur.(4) Error evaluation3) Development patterns(1) The early stages of L2 acquisition : in the circumstances which L2 learners learna language as a natural, untutored process, they undergo a silent period. When learners do begin to speak in the L2 their speech is likely to manifest two particular characteristics. One is the kind of formulaic chunks. The second characteristic of early speech is propositional simplification.(2) The order of acquisition: accuracy order and the order of acquisition(3) Sequence of acquisition4) Variability in learner languageLearner’s language is systematic, but it is also variable. These two characteristics are not contradicted because it is possible that variability is also systematic.(1) It appears that learners vary in their use of the L2 according to linguistic context.(2) Learners also vary the linguistic forms they use in accordance with the situational context.(3) Another important factor that accounts for the systematic nature of variability is the psycholinguistic context.But it would seem that at least some variability is ‘free’. Learners do sometimes use two or more forms in free variation.3. Interlanguage1) Behaviorist learning theory2) A mentalist of language learningIn the 1960 and 1970 , a mentalist theory first language (L1) acquisition emerged. According to this theory:(1) Only human beings are capable of learning language.(2) The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning language, referred to as a Language Acquisition Device. This is separate from the faculties responsible for other kinds of cognitive activity ( for example, logical reasoning).(3) This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition(4) Input is needed, but only to ‘trigger’ the operation of the language acquisition device.The conception of interlanguage drew directly on these mentalist views of L1 acquisition.3) What’s ‘interlanguage’?The term ‘interlanguage’ was coined by the American linguist, Larry Selinker, in recognition of the fact that L2 learners construct a linguistic system that draws, in part, on the learner’s L1 but it also different from it and also from the target language. A learner’s interlanguage is, therefore, a unique linguistic system. The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises about L2 acquisition: (1) The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a ‘mental grammar’ and is referred to as an ‘interlanguage’.(2) The learner’s grammar is permeable.(3) The learner’s grammar is transitional.(4) Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules.(5) Learners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlanguages.(6) The learner’s grammar is likely to fossilize.4)A computational model of L2 acquisitionInput →intake→L2 knowledge →output4.Social aspects of interlanguageThree rather different approaches to incorporating a social angle on the study of L2 acquisition can be identified. The first views interlanguage as consisting of different ‘styles’ which learners call upon under different conditions of language use. The second concerns how social factors determine the input that learners use to construct their interlanguage. The third considers how the social identities that learners negotiate in their interactions with native speakers shape their opportunities to speak and, thereby , to learn an L2.1) Interlanguage as a stylistic continuumDrawing on work on variability in learner language, Elaine Tarone has proposed that interlanguage involves a stylistic continuum.Another theory that also draws on the idea of stylistic variation but which is more obviously social is Howard Gile’s accommodation theory.2) The acculturation model of L2 acquisitionA similar perspective on the role of social factors in L2 acquisition can be found in John Schumann’s acculturation model.3) Social identity and investment in L2 learningThe notions of ‘subject to’ and ‘subject of’ are central to Bonny Peirce’s view of the relationship between social context and L2 acquisition.5 Discourse aspects of interlanguageThe study of learner discourse in SLA has been informed by two rather different goals. On the one hand there have been attempts to discover how L2 learners acquire the ‘rules’ of discourse that inform native-speaker language use. On the other hand, a number of researchers have sought to show how interaction shapes interlanguage development.1) Acquiring discourse rules2) The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition(1) According to Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis, L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at ‘i+1’. According to Krashen , L2 acquisition depends on comprehension input.Michael Long’s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning.(2) Another perspective on the relationship between discourse and L2 acquisition is provided by Evelyn Hatch. Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavors of the learners and their interlocutors in constructing discourse and suggests that syntactic structures can grow out of the process of building discourse.(3) Other SLA theorists have drawn on the theories of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist , to explain how interaction serves as the bedrock of acquisition.3) The role of output in L2 acquisitionKrashen argues that ‘Speaking is the result of acquisition not it’s cause’. In contrast, Merrill Swain has argued that comprehensible output also plays a part in L2 acquisition.6 Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage1) L1 transferIt is clear that the transfer is governed by learners perceptions about what is transferable and by their stage of development.2) The role of consciousness in L2 acquisitionStephen Krashen has argued the need to distinguish ‘acquired’L2 knowledge and ‘learned’ Ls knowledge . He claims that the former is developed subconsciously through comprehending input while communicating, while the latter is developed consciously through deliberate study of the L2.Richard Schmidt has pointed out that the term ‘consciousness’ is often used very loosely in SLA and argues that there is a need to standardize the concepts that underlie its use.Schmidt argues that no matter whether learning is intentional or incidental, it involves conscious attention to features in the input.3) Processing operations(1) Operating principlesThe study of the L1 acquisition of many different languages has led to the identification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segment linguistic information from the language they hear. Dan Slobin has referred to these strategies as operation principles. Roger Anderson describes a number of operating principles for L2acquisition, and he claims that his principles are ‘macro principles’.4) Processing constraints5) Communicative strategies6) Two types of computational modelOne type involves the idea of ‘serial processing’. The alternative type of apparatus involves the idea of parallel distributed processing.7. Linguistic aspects of interlanguage1) Typological universals: relative clausesA good example of how linguistic enquiry can shed light on interlanguage development can be found in the study of relative clauses.2) Universal GrammarChomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provides parameters which are given particular settings in different languages.3)learnabilityChomsky has claimed that children learning their L1 must rely on innate knowledge of language because otherwise the task facing them is an impossible one.4) The critical period hypothesisThe critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete.5) Access to UGWe will briefly examine a number of theoretical positions.a) Complete access: An assumption is that full target-language competence is possible and that there is no such thing as a critical period.b) No access : The argument here is that UG is not available to adult L2 learners.c) Partial access: Another theoretical possibility is that learners have access to part of UG but not others.d) Dual accessAccording to this position, adult L2 learners make use of both UG and general learning strategies.6) Markedness7) Cognitive versus linguistic explanations8. Individual differences in L2 acquisition1) Language aptitudeEarly work by John Carroll led to the identification of a number of components of language aptitude. These are:(1) Phonemic coding ability.(2) Grammatical sensitivity.(3) Inductive language learning ability.(4) Rote learning ability.2) MotivationVarious kinds of motivation have been identified: instrumental, integrative, resultative and intrinsic.3) Learning strategiesDifferent kinds of learning strategies have been identified.Cognitive strategies are those that are involved in the analysis, synthesis, or transformation of learning materials.Metacognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning.Social/ affective strategies concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other speakers.9.Instruction and L2 acquisitionSome researchers have studied what impact teaching has on L2 learning. In this chapter we will consider three branches of this research. The first concerns whether teaching learners grammar has any effect on their interlanguage development. The second draws on the research into individual learner differences. The third branch looks at strategy training.1) Form-focused instruction2) Does form-focused instruction work?3) What kind of form-focused instruction works best?Given that instruction can work, it becomes important to discover whether some kinds of instruction work better than others. To illustrate this we will consider a number of options in form-focused instruction. The first concerns the distinction between input-based and production-based practice.The second issue concerns conscious-raising.4) Learner-Instruction matchingA distinct possibility is that the same instructional option is not equally for all L2 learners.5) Strategy strainingMost of the research on strategy training has focused on vocabulary learning.。
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Case study： The study of a single individual is a kind of ethnography in terms of its method and its concern for studying the phenomena in context; however the qualitative methods of ethnography can be supplemented by quantitative data and statistical analyses. The method of data collection is normally naturalistic and longitudinal.
1) Experimental and pseudoexperimental studies These studies are designed to investigate the effect of specific variables on input and interaction.
Quasi-experiments: It has both pre-and posttests and experimental and control groups, but no random assignment of subjects. (Nunan 1992: 41)
2) Introspective technique Introspection is the process of observing and reflecting on one’ s thoughts, feelings, motives, reasoning processes, and mental states with a view to determining the ways in which these processes and state determine our behavior.
A number of researchers have warned of the dangers of making assumptions about the nature of the input that is addressed to language learners on the basis of descriptions of the abstract system of the target language.
Experiments: Two minimal criteria: At least two groups must be included. The subjects must be randomly assigned to one of the groups.
Two goals: To establish cause-effect relationships; to extend the explanations/ predictions of the results of the study to the broader population. (Brown& Gonzo 2006:4-5)
(1) Some early introspective methods: Free association task: Subjects were required to say the first word they thought of in response to a stimulus word (Nunan 1992:116).
7.2.2 Input discourse: the description of modified input
1) Definition Input discourse: the special kind of “register” that is used when speakers address language learners.
Discourse analysis: In its most general sense, discourse analysis focuses on the analysis of whole texts (oral or written) rather than discrete sentences. The language data can be naturally occurring elicited, or invented. The procedures used in the analysis of language include both qualitative measures and quantitative measures such as coding and counting.
7.2 Types of input to language learners
7.2.1 Input text: native-speaker usage A number of studies have examined what might be called “input text” by trying to establish what native speakers actually say or write.
Thinking –aloud techniques: Are those in which subjects complete a task or solve a problem and verbalize their thought processes as they do so.
(2) Some introspective methods used nowadays (Brown& Gonzo 2006:7) Diaries: Diaries are first-person accounts of language learning or teaching.
(2) Characteristics Style: Caretakers adjust their speech formally so that the input that children receive is both clearer and linguistically simpler then the speech they address to other adults.
7.1 Methods for investigating input and interaction
7.1.1 The data collected to study learner language These data consisted of transcriptions of the interactions in which the learners took part, involving both detailed linguistic analyses and discourse and conversational analysis.
7.1.Байду номын сангаас Research methods
Experimental research seeks to predict and explain behavior out of context; ethnographic research seeks to provide a contextually rich interpretation of behavior that leads to a grounded understanding of the phenomena that are being studied. (Brown& Gonzo 2006:7)
Input: What is available to the learner. Input is the language offered to the learner by native speakers or other learners. (Albakri: 110)
Intake: What is actually internalized by the learner. Production (output) is the language spoken by the language learners themselves. (Albakri: 110) Feedback is the response given by the conversational partners to the production of the learner. (Albakri: 110)
“互动主义观点”(interactionist view) ,即二 语习得是学习者智力与语言环境共同作用 的结果,学习者的加工机制决定并受到输入 的影响;同样地,输入的质量也受到学习者内 部机制的影响。 （杨党玲 2004）
Three aspects of verbal interaction: Interaction: Ellis (1985) defines interaction as the discourse jointly constructed by the learner and his interlocutors（对话者、谈话者） and input is the result of interaction.
Particularly contentious is the assumption made by researchers that the verbal reports obtained through the introspection carried out by their subjects accurately reflects the underlying cognitive processes giving rise to behavior. (Nunan 1992: 115)