语言学phonetics解析
现代语言学名词解释
现代语言学名词解释现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics 语言学:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language2 Phonetics语音学 : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology语音体系: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax句法 : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentence s is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics词义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.”Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics社会语言学: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9 Psycholinguistics语言心理学: The study of language withreference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics语音通信学: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology语音体系: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone发声: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.《现代语言学名词解释》。
语言学知识点
语言学知识点语言学是研究语言的科学，旨在理解人类语言的本质和语言的使用方式。
它涉及语音学、语法、语义、语用学等多个领域。
本文将介绍语言学的一些基本知识点。
1. 语音学（Phonetics）语音学研究的是语音的产生、传播和接收。
语音学家使用国际音标来表示语音。
国际音标包含了各种音素的符号，用以表示特定的语音。
2. 语音语调（Intonation）语音语调是对词语和句子的声调、强弱和节奏的研究。
它包括音高（pitch）、音量（volume）、语速（tempo）等方面的表达。
语音语调可以影响对话的意义和情感。
3. 语法（Grammar）语法是语言学中研究句子结构的学科。
它研究句子如何组成、如何变化以及如何表达语义。
语法分为句法（Syntax）和词法（Morphology）两个方面。
4. 句法（Syntax）句法研究句子内部成分的组合规则。
它关注句子的结构、语序以及成分之间的关系。
研究句法可以帮助我们理解和构建正确的句子。
5. 词法（Morphology）词法研究词的内部结构和变化规律。
它关注单词的构成要素（词根、词缀等）以及单词形态的变化。
6. 语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词义和句义的学科。
它关注语言符号与现实世界之间的关系，研究词语和句子的意义。
语义学可以帮助我们理解语言的意义和表达的方式。
7. 语用学（Pragmatics）语用学研究语言在具体语境中的使用和解释。
它关注的是说话人的意图、听者的理解以及背后的非字面意义。
语用学帮助我们理解语言的社交功能和交际规则。
8. 语言变体（Language Variation）语言变体指的是同一语言在不同社会群体之间产生的差异。
这些差异可以体现在发音、词汇、语法以及语用等方面。
语言变体是语言学中一个重要的研究领域。
9. 二语习得（Second Language Acquisition）二语习得研究的是学习第二语言的过程和条件。
它包括语言输入、语言输出和语言环境对第二语言学习的影响等方面。
Phonetics语音学
2. 减音：即省略音素，特别是音节尾音。 3. 增音：给单词增加音素，如在辅音连缀中加 元音，在音节尾加元音等，在唱读中尤显突 出。 4. 词与词的连接：英语话语中同一意群的词与 词之间的关系极为密切，需用同化、连读等 方法使意群的词与词产生联系，语流流畅。 注意不要将连读或同化词组当成生词。
5. 错读重读音节：两个或两个以上音节的单词必有一 个重读音节。单词重音是词汇意义的重要组成部分， 有时重音读错，意义也会错。 6.不会使用句子重音：要词重音，是重读实词还是虚 词取决于句子强调的重点。 7. 话语节律：重音、弱读。音节轻重相见，重读音节 之间时距大致相等。如： I’ll play it tomorrow morning. Ill be playing it tomorrow in the morning. 8. 语调错误：语调变化不影响词汇本身意义，但引发 误会，影响交际节以一元音辅以辅音。 2. 音的组合：元音前可有3个辅音，其后辅音可多达 4个，这种辅音群称为辅音连缀，即CCCVCCCC 结构。 3. 音的连续：将同一意群的词一起说出来，意群的 词与词之间不留空隙。 4. 单词重音：多音节词中一个音节显得重要、响亮 一些，发音时间长一些，音素听起来清晰一些， 此为重音。
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语言学名词解释英语
语言学名词解释英语Language is a complex system of communication used by humans to convey meaning. It consists of various components and structures that allow individuals to understand and generate language. In the field of linguistics, there are several important terms and concepts used to analyze and describe language. Here are explanations of some key linguistic terms in English:1. Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of the sounds of speech. It examines the physical properties of sounds, such as their production, transmission, and perception. Phonetics helps to understand the different speech sounds used in language.2. Phonology: Phonology refers to the organization and patterns of speech sounds in a particular language. It studies the sound system of a language, including the rules and constraints for combining and manipulating sounds.3. Morphology: Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It examines how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units of language. Morphology helps to analyze word formation processes and understand how words are related to each other.4. Syntax: Syntax is the study of the structure and arrangement of words to form meaningful sentences. It investigates the rules for combining words into phrases and sentences. Syntax helps to analyze sentence structure and understand how different grammatical structures are formed.5. Semantics: Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It analyzes how words, phrases, and sentences convey meanings and how different meanings are related. Semantics helps to understand how context, reference, and inference affect the interpretation of language.6. Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context and how meaning is influenced by social and cultural factors. It examines the principles of conversation, politeness, and the interpretation of implicatures and presuppositions. Pragmatics helps to understand the social and cultural aspects of language use.7. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of how language varies and changes in different social groups and communities. It investigates the relationship between language and society, including language variation, language attitudes, and language in multilingual settings.8. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is processed and represented in the mind. It investigates the cognitive processes involved in language production, comprehension, and acquisition. Psycholinguistics helps to understand how we learn and use language.9. Historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time. It examines the historical development of languages, language families, and language relationships. Historical linguistics helps to trace the evolution of languages and reconstruct their ancestral forms.10. Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is the practical application of linguistic theories and principles to real-world problems. It includes areas such as language teaching, language planning, language assessment, and discourse analysis. Applied linguistics helps to address language-related issues in various contexts.These linguistic terms and concepts form the basis of studying and understanding language. Linguists use them to analyze language structure, usage, and evolution, and to gain insights into the intricacies of human communication.。
胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释
胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释1.Phonetics语言学：It studies how speech sounds areproduced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生3.Acoustic phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征4.Perceptual or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知5.Phonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet7.Diacritics变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化8.Consonant辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation当涉及到同时或重合的发音时，这类过程称为协同发音，它分为先期协同发音和后滞协同发音11. Broad and narrow transcription宽式转写与严式转写: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to asnarrow transcription.用简单的符号进行语音转写称为宽式转写，用复杂的符号进行转写称为严式转写 12.Phoneme音位: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.明显的语音对立单位13.Allophone音位变体:any of the different forms of a phoneme音位的变化形式(eg.感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
语言学Lecture4 Phonetics
Clear [l]: 发音时, 舌尖抵住上齿龈根部, 舌前向硬腭抬起, 形成 气流阻碍. 气流从舌的两侧通过, 所以叫做舌侧音. 此时[l] 是浊辅
音, 要振动声带. 这个音与汉语的“乐”有一点相似, 只是汉语的 发音带有元音音素且更清晰.
Dark /l/: 发音时, 舌尖抵住上齿龈根部, 舌面下凹, 舌后部微微上
BROAD transcription (phonemic transcription)
This is often the form used in dictionaries for indicating the general pronunciation of a word. “back slashes”: /…/. NARROW transcription (or phonetic transcription)
Putting Sounds on Paper: transcription
The International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA)
TWO types of transcription: broad and narrow
E.g. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound /l/ in words like leaf /li:f/, feel /fi:l/, build /bild/, and health /helθ/. Question: Is [l] pronounced the same in all these four sound combinations?
Three kinds of pronunciation: the /l/ in /li:f/, occurring before a vowel the /l/ in /fi:l/ and /bild/, occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant the /l/ in /helθ/, followed by an English dental sound
语言学导论-第2章(1)Phonetics
Velar软腭音: back of the tongue raised to soft palate (velum) [k] [g] [ŋ]
Glottal喉音: at the larynx (space between vocal cords) [h]
Labial
Lips
Dental
Teeth
Consonants 辅音 Vowels 元音
Difference: In producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever.
Consonants 辅音
In terms of manner of articulation 发音方式
Pah vs. Bah
•
• • •
b: voiced (bah), p: voiceless (pah) ba: vocal cord vibrates right away, pa has 80 ms delay What happens in between? No hybrids: either ba or pa
[k] [p] [s] (Speech sounds 语音)
What is phonetics 语音学
Phonetics: The study of speech sounds.
Articulatory(发音的)phonetics: how speech sounds are made. Acoustic(声学的)phonetics: physical properties of speech. Auditory(听觉的)phonetics: perception of speech sounds.
Phonetics 语言学方面
2.1 Phonetics
• Three Branches of phonetics
1. Articulatory phonetics 2. Acoustic phonetics 3. Auditory phonetics
Phonetics
----A branch of linguistics which studies the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.
Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology
语音学与音系学
Main Contents of the Lecture：
I. Phonetics语音学
II. Phonology音系学
Revision
1. The major branches of linguistics
2. Some important distinctions in linguistics
The diagram of speech organs 4. Hard palate 5. Soft palate (velum) 6. Uvula 小舌
The diagram of speech organs
7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 舌面
9. Back of tongue 舌背
Articulatory phonetics
• 发音语音学： 研究语音的发生。
• Acoustic phonetics---deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.
Acoustic phonetics
语言学 Phonetics & phonology
5. Trills （颤音）and taps （触音） Trill: involves a series of rapid repetition of one articulator striking another. E.g., English 'r' in some Scottish accents. Tap (or 'flap' or 'flick'): a momentary variant of the trill. It involves a single rapid contact between one articulator and another without repetition. E.g. /r/ in AmE better.
English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation
Fricatives (摩擦音) A fricative is the type of consonant that is formed by forcing air through a narrow gap so that a hissing sound is created. /f/ in fin, / θ / in thin, / ʃ / in shin. /v/ in van, /s/ in sin, /h/ in hat, / θ / in that, /z/ in zoo and / ʒ / sound in genre.
语言学知识_语音学
语音学一．语音学（Phonetics）定义：语音学主要研究的是言语语音的特点，并提供对它们进行描写、分类和转写方法的科学。
言语表达过程通常分为三个部分：说话者、空气媒介以及受话者，因此语音学可以分为三个分支：1.发音语音学（articulatory phonetics）2.声学语音学（acoustic phonetics）3.听觉语音学（auditory phonetics）二．发音器官（Speech Organ）：人类的发音器官主要包含三个区域，分别是咽腔（pharyngeal cavity），口腔（oral cavity）以及鼻腔（nasal cavity）。
三．语言语音的正字表征（Orthographic Representation）：正字表征（Orthographic Representation）指的是某一种语言的标准化书写系统，也指规定性的拼写系统。
19世纪末诞生了国际音标（IPA），它同时为学者们提供了另外一套符号，称为变音符（diacritics）。
现今的音标分为两种：一种是宽式音标（broad transcription），另一种是严式音标（narrow transcription）。
宽式音标（broad transcription）指的是一种使用字母来表示音素的方法；而严式音标（narrow transcription）指的是一种使用字母和变音符（diacritics）同时来表示音素及细微语音特征的方法。
四．英语语音的分类（Classification of English Speech Sounds）：英语中语音有两种分类方式，首先可以分为分为元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）。
其次，英语中的语音还可以分为清音（voiceless sound）和浊音（voiced sound）。
1. 元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）：1.1 什么是元音元音指的是，在发音过程中，气流通过声道时不受到任何阻碍。
linguistics的分类
linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。
它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。
2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。
它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。
它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。
4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。
它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。
它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。
它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。
7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。
它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。
8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。
它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。
9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。
它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。
这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。
不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。
语言学名词解释
Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sound s in the world’s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds f rom the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help ofa conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head an d termed suncategorization.16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. move α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages. tense.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly. 19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items arecalled relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below. 21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult].30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context.(03)5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and per formed in saying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal, and frozen Chapter 7: Language Change1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose.3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.zen.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes tounderstand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech: Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier.10. negative transfer: the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence.24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies: learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned.32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F)19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.。
现代语言学名词解释
现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The s tudy of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example:“John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,: The seal c ould not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$is best} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to createa word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.{$is best}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Chomsky def ines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i.e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed byrules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning ofa sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers ofa language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act perfo rmed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. {$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in whicha word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves asa medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 taboo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemisms, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. {$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is known as the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers toa period in one’s life extending fr om about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
英语语言学语言学知识点
英语语言学语言学知识点语言学是一门研究语言的学科。
它涵盖了多个领域，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学和语言变化等。
下面将简要介绍一些语言学的重要知识点。
一、语音学（Phonetics）语音学是研究语音的学问。
它关注语音的产生、传播和感知等方面。
在语音学中，语音被分为音素（phoneme）和音位（allophone）。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位，可以在语言中起到区分意义的作用。
而音位是相同意义的不同实现方式，即同一音素的不同发音形式。
在语音学中，还有一些重要概念，如元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）。
元音是语音学中最基本、最重要的音类，它们的发音不受任何阻塞或摩擦的干扰。
而辅音则需要通过口腔或喉头的阻塞或摩擦才能产生。
二、语音语调学（Phonology）语音语调学是研究语音和语调现象的学问。
它研究语音和语音的组织方式和相互关系。
在语音语调学中，音位和音位组成规则是核心概念之一、音位组成规则决定了在一个语言中哪些音位可以成为合法的音节。
此外，在语音语调学中还有音变（phonological variation）的概念。
音变指的是在其中一种语言中，一个特定音位的发音方式会随着不同的语音环境而发生变化的现象。
音变是语言变化的一种重要表现。
三、语法学（Grammar）语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的学问。
在语法学中，句子是一个重要的研究对象。
句子结构可以划分为短语（phrase）和句子成分（sentence constituents），如名词短语、动词短语和介词短语等。
语法学还涉及到句子的成分顺序和组成规则。
在语法学中，句法树（syntactic tree）是一种图形表示方式，用于描述句子的结构。
句法树由句子的各个成分和它们之间的关系构成。
四、语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词汇和句子意义的学问。
它关注词语和句子的语义性质、意义的产生机制以及词义的转换等。
在语义学中，可以通过语义角色（semantic role）和逻辑关系（logical relation）来描述词语和句子之间的关系。
语言学 第二章
《Summary》特刊语言学第二章总结编辑：孙波任冲校对：汪燕华老师康亮亮一、Phonetics 语音学1、definition：Studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.研究语音是如何产生，传递和感知。
2、Articulatory Phonetics、Acoustic Phonetics、Perceptual Phonetics发音语言学、声学语言学、感知语言学3、二、Phonology 音系学the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages 研究语音模式和语音系统三、Voiceless & Voiced Sounds 清音和浊音1、Voiceless sounds：The sounds produced without causing vibration of the vocal cords. 在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动。
2、Voiced sounds：The sounds produced with causing vibration of the vocal cords. 在发音过程中，发音时声带振动。
四、Consonants & vowels 辅音和元音1、Consonants：sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞所发出的音。
2、Vowels：sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 发音时，声道不受到任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流的紊乱或停滞所发出的音。
英语语言学名词解释
Phonetics: the study of speech sounds, which is part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds, and it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. Phonology is concerned with the linguistic knowledge of speech and the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language.Consonants: produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.Vowels: produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes have free variants （自由变体）.Phonological process: a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contextsAssimilation: is often used synonymously with coarticulation.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation(先期协同发音).If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（后滞协同发音）, as is the case of map.suprasegmental features超音段特征: the aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.Morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.E.g. inter-nation-al-ism, friend lyAn affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).E.g. para-lingu al, pseudo-nym, real-ize, book s etc.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.E.g. friend s, friendship s, girlfriend s etc.Inflectional affixes: only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final.Compound: it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.Syntax is the study of how sentences are structured or how words are combined with others to form sentences and in what order.The syntactic rules in a grammar must at least account for:•the grammaticality of sentences•word order•structural ambiguity•grammatical relations•whether different structures have differing meanings or the same meaning•the creative aspect of languageBracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.It is easier to see the parts and subparts of the sentence in a tree diagram.Semantics Semantics is generally considered to be the studyof meaning in language. Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular. Connotative meaning: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.Thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.There are some difficulties in the approach to analyze the meaning of a word in terms of semantic component s：One difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning; consequently they will have different sets of semantic components Secondly, some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.Thirdly, the examples we have seen are only concerned with the neatly organized parts of the vocabulary. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.Meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.Reference: how language refers to this external world.Sense: the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation in meaning.Hyponymy is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate (上义词), and the lower terms, the members, hyponyms（下义词). The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality(组合性原则). Idioms: cannot be built up as the sum of its parts. Idioms are phrases derived by metaphor and other types of semantic extension.Entailment 蕴含Sometimes knowing the truth of one sentence entails or necessarily implies the truth of another sentence.Contradiction is negative entailment, that is, where the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.presupposition 预设In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or ps) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.⏹Semantic meaning:⏹the more constant, inherent side of meaning⏹Pragmatic meaning:⏹the more indeterminate, the more closely related to contextA locutionary act以言指事is the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act以言行事is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.A perlocutionary act以言成事is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.The difference between vowels and consonants : In order to produce consonants you have to set up an obstalce course inside your mouth to block the airstream.Vowels are made with more or less open mouth and without blocking the airstream In all languages there are vowels and consonants. Consonants are created through pulmonic utterance that is created by stopped or obstructed air flow through the mouth. Vowels are created through unobstructed air flow through the mouth. (Lynden Rodriguez)Conversational implicature: as a type of implied meaningdeduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context under the guidance of the CP and its maxims。
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1.2 Three Phases in Communication process
speaker encodes meaning into sounds and utters strings of sounds
Articulatory phonetics:
（发音语音学）
speech production by
1. the place of articulation 2. the manner of articulation
1.7.1 The place of articulation
▪ Bilabial 双唇音 e.g. [p], [m]. ▪ Labio-dental 唇齿音 e.g. [f]. ▪ Dental 齿音 e.g. [ð] ▪ Alveolar 齿龈音 e.g. [t] ▪ Palatal 腭音 e.g. [j] ▪ Palato-alveolar 腭龈音 e.g. [ʃ] ▪ Velar 软腭音 e.g. [k] ▪ Glottal 声门音，喉音 e.g. [h] ▪ Retroflex 卷舌音 ▪ Uvular 小舌音 ▪ Pharyngeal 咽音ory phonetics
1.3 The process of producing speech
air breathed in lungs
air pressed out
Pharynx 咽
Larynx 喉 trachea (windpipe)
nasal cavity 鼻腔
Articulatory phonetics: （发音语音学）
speech production by speech organs
Acoustic phonetics: （声学语音学） physical properties of speech sounds
Auditory phonetics: （听觉语音学） perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system
1.2 Three Phases in Communication process
speaker encodes meaning into sounds and utters strings of sounds
sounds are transmitted in the air
listener perceives sounds and decodes them into meaning
1.5 Diagram of the speech cavities ▪ The principal cavities
1. the pharyngeal cavity （咽腔） 2. the oral cavity （口腔） 3. the labial cavity （唇腔） 4. the nasal cavity （鼻腔）
▪ The vocal tract （声道）
-- the long tubular structure formed by the cavities， functioning as a resonance box. Changing the shape of the box gives different speech sounds.
➢ natural sounds no systematic meaning
➢ speech sounds a code system.
Phonetics: The science of speech sounds, which aims to provide the
set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human language.
Cavities and organs the upper end of a person’s windpipe that can be
made to move rapidly by the passing of air and thus produce sound. Other organs involved in the production of speech evolved originally for the basic biological needs of breathing and eating, though phoneticians also call them speech organs.
oral cavity 口腔
1.4 Articulation
▪ Man’s selection of a sound language came too late that there have hardly been any human organs evolving specifically for verbal articulation except the vocal cords – thin bands of muscle in the larynx at
1.6 Diagram of the speech organs
齿龈
硬腭 舌尖
软腭 小舌
舌面 舌根
咽 会厌
声带
食道 喉
气管
1.7 Consonants
Consonants: The sounds in the production of
which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract .
Lecture 3
Speech Sounds and Their Systems
Coming…
Phonetics Phonology
1. Phonetics 语音学
1.1 Definition Sound: the most widely used medium in human language.