土木工程外文翻译
土木工程 外文资料翻译(通用)
淮阴工学院毕业设计外文资料翻译学院：建筑工程学院专业：土木工程（路桥方向）姓名：石洋学号：1081401526外文出处：工程力学杂志(用外文写)Journal of Engineering Mechanics 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文Timoshenko 和剪切模型梁的动力学研究Noël Challamel1摘要：古典Timoshenko 梁模型和剪切梁模型常用于建筑行为模型都剪稳定性或动态分析。
该技术关注的是两种模型间的大量弯曲剪切刚度值的问题。
这是以两种模型分析研究了简支梁。
获得大量弯曲剪切刚度值的渐进解。
在一般情况下，实验在考虑大弯剪刚度值参数时证明该剪切梁模型不能从Timoshenko 模型中推断出来，这只是达到特定的几何参数在目前的例子。
作为结论，剪切模型的能力近似Timoshenko 模型，因为大量弯曲剪切刚度参数是坚定的依赖于横截面在边界状态下的材料和几何特性。
关键词：横波，结构力学，动态模型，脑电图仪，比较研究。
引言：经典的Timoshenko 梁模型和剪切梁模型经常被用来模拟建筑物的剪切稳定性和动态特性。
该技术关注的是两种模型间的大量弯曲剪切刚度值的问题。
2004年Aristizabal-Ochoa 通过考虑大量无维参数来比较这两种模型出一种关系，屈服于剪切刚度参数。
这项科学证据表明一个简单的例子这个参数可能不足以联系这两种理论。
Timoshenko 模型动态方程： Timoshenko 模型的控制方程是：x∂θ∂EI -)θ-x ∂y ∂(G A -t ∂θ∂r m 0x∂θ∂G A x ∂y ∂G A -t ∂∂m 22S 222S 22S 2y 2==+ (1) 这种横梁只在杨氏模量和横断面剪切模量下用均匀的弹性材料制成的。
它的横向的横截面是带有一个用A S 和一个重要的惯性矩表示的有效的剪切区域双重对称的I =Ar 2。
土木工程英文文献及翻译
Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: History of structural engineeringEngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7]The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), theAppian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5]The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6]In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[8] The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[9] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[10] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatchin 1905.History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[12]One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[13]Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of thesub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[14]While anUndergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[15]In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[16]This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[17]In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[18] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, thecharge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.CareersThere is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering toresidential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。
土木工程专业英语词汇(整理版)
土木工程专业英语词汇(整理版)第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语 Specialty English3 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程 Civil Engineering5 地下工程 Underground Engineering6 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程 Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程 Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程 Traffic Engineering12 港口工程 Port Engineering13 安全性 safety17木结构 timber structure18 砌体结构 masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构 steelstructure21 钢 - 混凝土复合结构 steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土 plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋 rebar25 预应力混凝土 pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构 statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构 truss structure29 空间网架结构 spatial grid structure30 近海工程 offshore engineering31 静力学 statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁 simply supported beam35 固定支座 fixed bearing36弹性力学 elasticity37 塑性力学 plasticity38 弹塑性力学 elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学 fracture Mechanics40 土力学 soil mechanics41 水力学 hydraulics42 流体力学 fluid mechanics精品文库43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力 concentrated force45 压力 pressure46 静水压力 hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力 uniform pressure48 体力 body force49 重力 gravity50 线荷载 line load51 弯矩 bending moment52 扭矩 torque53 应力 stress54 应变 stain55 正应力 normal stress56 剪应力 shearing stress57 主应力 principal stress58 变形 deformation59 内力 internal force60 偏移量挠度 deflection61 沉降settlement62 屈曲失稳 buckle63 轴力 axial force64 允许应力 allowable stress65 疲劳分析 fatigue analysis66 梁 beam67 壳 shell68 板 plate69 桥 bridge70 桩 pile71 主动土压力 active earth pressure72 被动土压力 passive earth pressure73 承载力 load-bearing capacity74 水位 water Height75 位移 displacement76 结构力学 structural mechanics77 材料力学 material mechanics78 经纬仪 altometer79 水准仪level80 学科 discipline81 子学科 sub-discipline82 期刊 journal periodical83 文献literature84 国际标准刊号ISSN International Standard Serial Number精品文库85 国际标准书号ISBN International Standard Book Number86 卷 volume87 期 number88 专著 monograph89 会议论文集 Proceeding90 学位论文 thesis dissertation91 专利 patent92 档案档案室 archive93 国际学术会议 conference94 导师 advisor95 学位论文答辩 defense of thesis96 博士研究生 doctorate student97 研究生 postgraduate98 工程索引EI Engineering Index99 科学引文索引SCI Science Citation Index100 科学技术会议论文集索引ISTP Index to Science and Tec hnology Proceedings101 题目 title102 摘要 abstract103 全文 full-text104 参考文献 reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词 Subject107 关键字 keyword108 美国土木工程师协会ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers109 联邦公路总署FHWA Federal Highway Administration110 国际标准组织ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法 analytical method112 数值方法 numerical method113 计算 computation114 说明书 instruction115 规范 Specification Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical engineering 岩土工程2.foundation engineering 基础工程3.soil earth 土4.soil mechanics 土力学5.cyclic loading 周期荷载6.unloading 卸载7.reloading 再加载8.viscoelastic foundation 粘弹性地基9.viscous damping 粘滞阻尼10.shear modulus 剪切模量精品文库11.soil dynamics 土动力学12.stress path 应力路径13.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二.土的分类1.residual soil 残积土 groundwater level 地下水位2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table 地下水位3.clay minerals 粘土矿物4.secondary minerals 次生矿物ndslides 滑坡6.bore hole columnar section 钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation 工程地质勘察8.boulder 漂石9.cobble 卵石10.gravel 砂石11.gravelly sand 砾砂12.coarse sand 粗砂13.medium sand 中砂14.fine sand 细砂15.silty sand 粉土16.clayey soil 粘性土17.clay 粘土18.silty clay 粉质粘土19.silt 粉土20.sandy silt 砂质粉土21.clayey silt 粘质粉土22.saturated soil 饱和土23.unsaturated soil 非饱和土24.fill (soil) 填土25.overconsolidated soil 超固结土26.normally consolidated soil 正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil 欠固结土28.zonal soil 区域性土29.soft clay 软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil 膨胀土31.peat 泥炭32.loess 黄土33.frozen soil 冻土24.degree of saturation 饱和度25.dry unit weight 干重度26.moist unit weight 湿重度45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会精品文库四.渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping 管涌3.flowing soil 流土4.sand boiling 砂沸5.flow net 流网6.seepage 渗透（流）7.leakage 渗流8.seepage pressure 渗透压力9.permeability 渗透性10.seepage force 渗透力11.hydraulic gradient 水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability 渗透系数五.地基应力和变形1.soft soil 软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile 打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress 有效应力4.total stress 总应力5.field vane shear strength 十字板抗剪强度6.low activity 低活性7.sensitivity 灵敏度8.triaxial test 三轴试验9.foundation design 基础设计10.recompaction 再压缩11.bearing capacity 承载力12.soil mass 土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load 集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 半无限弹性体16.homogeneous 均质17.isotropic 各向同性18.strip footing 条基19.square spread footing 方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load 恒载持续荷载22.live load 活载23.short –term transient load 短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load 长期荷载25.reduced load 折算荷载26.settlement 沉降27.deformation 变形28.casing 套管精品文库29.dike=dyke 堤（防）30.clay fraction 粘粒粒组31.physical properties 物理性质32.subgrade 路基33.well-graded soil 级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil 级配不良土35.normal stresses 正应力36.shear stresses 剪应力37.principal plane 主平面38.major (intermediate minor) principal stress 最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition 摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method 有限元法41.limit equilibrium method 极限平衡法42.pore water pressure 孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure 先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility 压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility 压缩系数pression index 压缩指数47.swelling index 回弹指数48.geostatic stress 自重应力49.additional stress 附加应力50.total stress 总应力51.final settlement 最终沉降52.slip line 滑动线六.基坑开挖与降水1 excavation 开挖（挖方）2 dewatering （基坑）降水3 failure of foundation 基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit 基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall 挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution 孔压分布8 dewatering method 降低地下水位法9 well point system 井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point 深井点11 vacuum well point 真空井点12 braced cuts 支撑围护13 braced excavation 支撑开挖14 braced sheeting 支撑挡板七.深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation 桩基础1)cast –in-place 灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile 沉管灌注桩bored pile 钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile 机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock 嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile 夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation 钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation 钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile 预制混凝土桩4)steel pile 钢桩steel pipe pile 钢管桩steel sheet pile 钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile 预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile 预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation 沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall 地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile 摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile 端承桩6.shaft 竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis 波动方程分析8.pile caps 承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile 单桩承载力teral pile load test 单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile 单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile 单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity 单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap 低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap 高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile 单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling 静力压桩18.uplift pile 抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile 抗滑桩20.pile groups 群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups 群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups 群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing 桩基动测技术24.final set 最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile 桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test 桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt 桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe 桩端（头）29.pile spacing 桩距30.pile plan 桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout 桩的布置32.group action 群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance 桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance 桩侧阻35.pile cushion 桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test 拔桩试验38.pile shoe 桩靴39.pile noise 打桩噪音40.pile rig 打桩机九.固结 consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory 太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory 巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil 超固结土6.excess pore water pressure 超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation 多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation 一维固结9.primary consolidation 主固结10.secondary consolidation 次固结11.degree of consolidation 固结度12.consolidation test 固结试验13.consolidation curve 固结曲线14.time factor Tv 时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation 固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure 前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress 有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结十.抗剪强度 shear strength1.undrained shear strength 不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength 残余强度3.long-term strength 长期强度4.peak strength 峰值强度5.shear strain rate 剪切应变速率6.dilatation 剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory 莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction 内摩擦角11.cohesion 粘聚力12.failure criterion 破坏准则13.vane strength 十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression 无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop 有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter 有效应力强度参数十一.本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model 弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model 非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model 弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model 粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model 边界面模型6.Du ncan-Chang model 邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 刚塑性模型8.cap model 盖帽模型9.work softening 加工软化10.work hardening 加工硬化11.Cambridge model 剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model 理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion 莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface 屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model 弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus 弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model 文克尔地基模型十二.地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure 冲剪破坏2.general shear failure 整体剪切破化3.local shear failure 局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium 极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure 临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil 地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基容许承载力十三.土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure 主动土压力2.passive earth pressure 被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest 静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory 库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theory 朗金土压力理论十四.土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose 休止角2.Bishop method 毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope 边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices 费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method 瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 条分法十五.挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall 挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall 基础墙3.counter retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall 悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall 锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall 锚定板板桩墙十六.板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile 钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile 钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles 钢桩4.wooden sheet pile 木板桩5.timber piles 木桩十七.浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation 箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation 片筏基础3.strip foundation 条形基础4.spread footing 扩展基础pensated foundation 补偿性基础6.bearing stratum 持力层7.rigid foundation 刚性基础8.flexible foundation 柔性基础9.emxxxxbedded depth of foundation 基础埋置深度 foundation pressure 基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis 上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八.土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils 动强度2.wave velocity method 波速法3.material damping 材料阻尼4.geometric damping 几何阻尼5.damping ratio 阻尼比6.initial liquefaction 初始液化7.natural period of soil site 地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils 动剪切模量9.dynamic ma二十.地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering 地震工程2.soil dynamics 土动力学3.duration of earthquake 地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum 地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity 地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude 震级7.seismic predominant period 地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake 地震最大加速度二十一.室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test 高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结试验3.falling head permeability 变水头试验4.constant head permeability 常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test 固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test 固结排水试验(CD)paction test 击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test 固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test 快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test 慢剪试验12.sieve analysis 筛分析13.geotechnical model test 土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test 离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus 直剪仪16.direct shear test 直剪试验17.direct simple shear test 直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test 三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear 动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test 自(共)振柱试验二十二.原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT) 表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT) 动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test 静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test 螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test 旁压试验11.light sounding 轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement 深层沉降观测13.vane shear test 十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test 原位试验第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语 Specialty English3 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程 Civil Engineering5 地下工程 Underground Engineering6 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程 Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程 Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程 Traffic Engineering12 港口工程 Port Engineering13 安全性 safety17木结构 timber structure18 砌体结构 masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构 steelstructure21 钢 - 混凝土复合结构 steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土 plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋 rebar25 预应力混凝土 pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构 statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构 truss structure29 空间网架结构 spatial grid structure30 近海工程 offshore engineering31 静力学 statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁 simply supported beam35 固定支座 fixed bearing36弹性力学 elasticity37 塑性力学 plasticity38 弹塑性力学 elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学 fracture Mechanics40 土力学 soil mechanics精品文库41 水力学 hydraulics42 流体力学 fluid mechanics43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力 concentrated force45 压力 pressure46 静水压力 hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力 uniform pressure48 体力 body force49 重力 gravity50 线荷载 line load51 弯矩 bending moment52 扭矩 torque53 应力 stress54 应变 stain55 正应力 normal stress56 剪应力 shearing stress57 主应力 principal stress58 变形 deformation59 内力 internal force60 偏移量挠度 deflection61 沉降settlement62 屈曲失稳 buckle63 轴力 axial force64 允许应力 allowable stress65 疲劳分析 fatigue analysis66 梁 beam67 壳 shell68 板 plate69 桥 bridge70 桩 pile71 主动土压力 active earth pressure72 被动土压力 passive earth pressure73 承载力 load-bearing capacity74 水位 water Height75 位移 displacement76 结构力学 structural mechanics77 材料力学 material mechanics78 经纬仪 altometer79 水准仪level80 学科 discipline81 子学科 sub-discipline82 期刊 journal periodical精品文库83 文献literature84 国际标准刊号ISSN International Standard Serial Number85 国际标准书号ISBN International Standard Book Number86 卷 volume87 期 number88 专著 monograph89 会议论文集 Proceeding90 学位论文 thesis dissertation91 专利 patent92 档案档案室 archive93 国际学术会议 conference94 导师 advisor95 学位论文答辩 defense of thesis96 博士研究生 doctorate student97 研究生 postgraduate98 工程索引EI Engineering Index99 科学引文索引SCI Science Citation Index100 科学技术会议论文集索引ISTP Index to Science and Tec hnology Proceedings101 题目 title102 摘要 abstract103 全文 full-text104 参考文献 reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词 Subject107 关键字 keyword108 美国土木工程师协会ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers109 联邦公路总署FHWA Federal Highway Administration110 国际标准组织ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法 analytical method112 数值方法 numerical method113 计算 computation114 说明书 instruction115 规范 Specification Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical engineering 岩土工程2.foundation engineering 基础工程3.soil earth 土4.soil mechanics 土力学5.cyclic loading 周期荷载6.unloading 卸载7.reloading 再加载8.viscoelastic foundation 粘弹性地基精品文库9.viscous damping 粘滞阻尼10.shear modulus 剪切模量11.soil dynamics 土动力学12.stress path 应力路径13.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二.土的分类1.residual soil 残积土 groundwater level 地下水位2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table 地下水位3.clay minerals 粘土矿物4.secondary minerals 次生矿物ndslides 滑坡6.bore hole columnar section 钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation 工程地质勘察8.boulder 漂石9.cobble 卵石10.gravel 砂石11.gravelly sand 砾砂12.coarse sand 粗砂13.medium sand 中砂14.fine sand 细砂15.silty sand 粉土16.clayey soil 粘性土17.clay 粘土18.silty clay 粉质粘土19.silt 粉土20.sandy silt 砂质粉土21.clayey silt 粘质粉土22.saturated soil 饱和土23.unsaturated soil 非饱和土24.fill (soil) 填土25.overconsolidated soil 超固结土26.normally consolidated soil 正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil 欠固结土28.zonal soil 区域性土29.soft clay 软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil 膨胀土31.peat 泥炭32.loess 黄土33.frozen soil 冻土24.degree of saturation 饱和度25.dry unit weight 干重度26.moist unit weight 湿重度精品文库45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会四.渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping 管涌3.flowing soil 流土4.sand boiling 砂沸5.flow net 流网6.seepage 渗透（流）7.leakage 渗流8.seepage pressure 渗透压力9.permeability 渗透性10.seepage force 渗透力11.hydraulic gradient 水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability 渗透系数五.地基应力和变形1.soft soil 软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile 打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress 有效应力4.total stress 总应力5.field vane shear strength 十字板抗剪强度6.low activity 低活性7.sensitivity 灵敏度8.triaxial test 三轴试验9.foundation design 基础设计10.recompaction 再压缩11.bearing capacity 承载力12.soil mass 土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load 集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 半无限弹性体16.homogeneous 均质17.isotropic 各向同性18.strip footing 条基19.square spread footing 方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load 恒载持续荷载22.live load 活载23.short –term transient load 短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load 长期荷载25.reduced load 折算荷载26.settlement 沉降精品文库27.deformation 变形28.casing 套管29.dike=dyke 堤（防）30.clay fraction 粘粒粒组31.physical properties 物理性质32.subgrade 路基33.well-graded soil 级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil 级配不良土35.normal stresses 正应力36.shear stresses 剪应力37.principal plane 主平面38.major (intermediate minor) principal stress 最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition 摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method 有限元法41.limit equilibrium method 极限平衡法42.pore water pressure 孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure 先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility 压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility 压缩系数pression index 压缩指数47.swelling index 回弹指数48.geostatic stress 自重应力49.additional stress 附加应力50.total stress 总应力51.final settlement 最终沉降52.slip line 滑动线六.基坑开挖与降水1 excavation 开挖（挖方）2 dewatering （基坑）降水3 failure of foundation 基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit 基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall 挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution 孔压分布8 dewatering method 降低地下水位法9 well point system 井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point 深井点11 vacuum well point 真空井点12 braced cuts 支撑围护13 braced excavation 支撑开挖14 braced sheeting 支撑挡板七.深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation 桩基础1)cast –in-place 灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile 沉管灌注桩bored pile 钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile 机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock 嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile 夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation 钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation 钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile 预制混凝土桩4)steel pile 钢桩steel pipe pile 钢管桩steel sheet pile 钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile 预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile 预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation 沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall 地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile 摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile 端承桩6.shaft 竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis 波动方程分析8.pile caps 承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile 单桩承载力teral pile load test 单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile 单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile 单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity 单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap 低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap 高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile 单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling 静力压桩18.uplift pile 抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile 抗滑桩20.pile groups 群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups 群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups 群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing 桩基动测技术24.final set 最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile 桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test 桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt 桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe 桩端（头）29.pile spacing 桩距30.pile plan 桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout 桩的布置32.group action 群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance 桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance 桩侧阻35.pile cushion 桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test 拔桩试验38.pile shoe 桩靴39.pile noise 打桩噪音40.pile rig 打桩机九.固结 consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory 太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory 巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil 超固结土6.excess pore water pressure 超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation 多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation 一维固结9.primary consolidation 主固结10.secondary consolidation 次固结11.degree of consolidation 固结度12.consolidation test 固结试验13.consolidation curve 固结曲线14.time factor Tv 时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation 固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure 前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress 有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结十.抗剪强度 shear strength1.undrained shear strength 不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength 残余强度3.long-term strength 长期强度4.peak strength 峰值强度5.shear strain rate 剪切应变速率6.dilatation 剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory 莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction 内摩擦角11.cohesion 粘聚力12.failure criterion 破坏准则13.vane strength 十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression 无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop 有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter 有效应力强度参数十一.本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model 弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model 非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model 弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model 粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model 边界面模型6.Du ncan-Chang model 邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 刚塑性模型8.cap model 盖帽模型9.work softening 加工软化10.work hardening 加工硬化11.Cambridge model 剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model 理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion 莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface 屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model 弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus 弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model 文克尔地基模型十二.地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure 冲剪破坏2.general shear failure 整体剪切破化3.local shear failure 局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium 极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure 临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil 地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基容许承载力十三.土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure 主动土压力2.passive earth pressure 被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest 静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory 库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theo ry 朗金土压力理论十四.土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose 休止角2.Bishop method 毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope 边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices 费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method 瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 条分法十五.挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall 挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall 基础墙3.counter retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall 悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall 锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall 锚定板板桩墙十六.板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile 钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile 钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles 钢桩4.wooden sheet pile 木板桩5.timber piles 木桩十七.浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation 箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation 片筏基础3.strip foundation 条形基础4.spread footing 扩展基础pensated foundation 补偿性基础6.bearing stratum 持力层7.rigid foundation 刚性基础8.flexible foundation 柔性基础9.emxxxxbedded depth of foundation 基础埋置深度 foundation pressure 基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis 上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八.土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils 动强度2.wave velocity method 波速法3.material damping 材料阻尼4.geometric damping 几何阻尼5.damping ratio 阻尼比6.initial liquefaction 初始液化7.natural period of soil site 地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils 动剪切模量9.dynamic ma二十.地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering 地震工程2.soil dynamics 土动力学3.duration of earthquake 地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum 地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity 地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude 震级7.seismic predominant period 地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake 地震最大加速度二十一.室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test 高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结试验3.falling head permeability 变水头试验4.constant head permeability 常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test 固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test 固结排水试验(CD)paction test 击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test 固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test 快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test 慢剪试验12.sieve analysis 筛分析13.geotechnical model test 土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test 离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus 直剪仪16.direct shear test 直剪试验17.direct simple shear test 直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test 三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear 动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test 自(共)振柱试验二十二.原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT) 表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT) 动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test 静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test 螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test 旁压试验11.light sounding 轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement 深层沉降观测13.vane shear test 十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test 原位试验。
土木工程外文翻译经典
Design, Construction & Structural Details of Burj DubaiThe goal of the Burj Dubai Tower is not simply to be the world's highest building: it's to embody the world's highest aspirations. The superstructure is currently under construction and as of fall 2007 has reached over 160 stories. The final height of the building is 2,717 feet (828 meters). The height of the multi-use skyscraper will "comfortably" exceed the current record holder, the 509 meter (1671 ft) tall Taipei 101. The 280,000 m2(3,000,000 ft2) reinforced concrete multi-use Burj Dubai tower is utilized for retail, a Giorgio Armani Hotel, residential and office. As with all super-tall projects, difficult structural engineering problems needed to be addressed and resolved。
Structural System DescriptionBurj Khalifa has "refuge floors" at 25 to 30 story intervals that are more fire resistant and have separate air supplies in case of emergency. Its reinforced concrete structure makes it stronger than steel-frame skyscrapersDesigners purposely shaped the structural concrete Burj Dubai - "Y" shaped in plan - to reduce the wind forces on the tower, as well as to keep the structure simple and foster constructibility. The structural system can be described as a "buttressed" core (Figures 1, 2 and 3). Each wing, with its own high performance concrete corridor walls and perimeter columns, buttresses the others via a six-sided central core, or hexagonal hub. The result is a tower that is extremely stiff laterally and torsionally. SOM applied a rigorous geometry to the tower that aligned all the common central core, wall, and column elements。
土木工程专业英语带译文
Chapter 6
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
6. —We shall finish the civil work by the end of the year. 在年底前我们将完成土建工作。 —Cement steel and timber are the most important construction materials used in civil engineering. 水泥、钢材和木材是土建工程中最重要的建筑材料。 7. These are the anchor bolts (rivets, unfinished bolts, high-strength structural bolts) for the structure. 这是用于结构的锚定螺栓（铆钉、粗制螺栓、高强度结构用螺栓）。
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Reinforced Concrete
土木工程专业外文翻译--土木工程
外文原文：Civil EngineeringCivil engineering is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket launching facilities.Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airport, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to self-contained communities.The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Seaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineer has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader.Scope Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills pf many kinds of civil engineer specialties may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who experiment to determine if the earth can bear the weight of project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area, the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the project’s impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists raise preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplied by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantitiesand costs of materials and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.Many civil engineers, among them the top people in the field, work in design. As we have seen, civil engineers work on many different kinds of structures, so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants to architectural or construction firms. Dams, bridges, water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers whose work is coordinated by a system engineer who is in charge of the entire project. In many cases, engineers from other disciplines are involved. In a dam project, for example, electrical and mechanical engineers work on the design of the powerhouse and its equipment. In other cases, civil engineers are assigned to work on a project in another field; in the space program, for instance, civil engineers were necessary in the design and construction of such structures as launching pads and rocket storage facilities.Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computes are used to design the project’s various elements (computer-aided design, or CAD) and to manger it. Computers are a necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project.Structural engineering In this specialty, civil engineers plan and design structures of all types, including bridges dams, power plants, supports for equipment, special structures for offshore projects, the United States space program, transmission towers, giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects.Using computers, structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist, its own weight, wind and hurricane forces temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials, and earthquakes. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials: steel, concrete, plastic, stone, asphalt, brick, aluminum, or other construction materials.Water resources engineering Civil engineers in this specialty deal with all aspects of the physical control of water. Their projects help prevent floods, supply water for cities and for irrigation, manage and control rivers and water runoff, and maintain beaches and other waterfront facilities. In addition, they design and maintain harbors, canals, and locks, build huge hydroelectric dams and smaller dams and water impoundments of all kinds, help design offshorestructures, and determine the location of structures affecting navigation.Geotechnical engineering Civil engineers who specialize in this filed analyze the properties of soils and rocks that support structures and affect structural behavior. They evaluate and work to minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weight on the earth. These engineers also evaluate and determine how to strengthen the stability of slopes and how to protect structures against earthquakes and the effects of groundwater.Environmental engineering In this branch of engineering, civil engineers design, build, and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water and to prevent and control pollution of water supplies, both on the surface and underground. They also design, build, and supervise projects to control or eliminate pollution of the land and air. These engineers build water and wastewaters treatment plants, and design air scrubbers and other devices to minimize or eliminate air pollution caused by industrial processes, incineration, or other smoke-producing activities. They also work to control toxic and hazardous wastes through the construction of special dump sites or the neutralizing of toxic and hazardous substances. In addition the engineers design and manage sanitary landfills to prevent pollution of surrounding land.Transportation engineering Civil engineers working in this specialty build facilities to ensure safe and efficient movement of both people and goods. They specialize in designing and maintaining all types of transportation facilities, highways and streets, mass transit systems, railroads and airfields ports and harbors. Transportation engineers apply technological knowledge as well as consideration of the economic, political, and social factors in designing each project. They work closely with urban planners since the quality of the community is directly related to the quality of the transportation system.Pipeline engineering In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities, which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semi liquids wastes, to water, oil and various types pf highly combustible and noncombustible gases. The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on regions it must traverse, the type pf materials to be used-steel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials, installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of flow of materials being transported. When hazardous materials are being carried, safety is a major consideration as well.Construction engineering Civil engineers in this field oversee the construction of a project from beginning to end. Sometimes called project engineers, they apply both technical and managerial skills, including knowledge of construction methods, planning, organizing, financing, and operating construction projects. They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work: the surveyors, workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps, excavate for the foundation, build the forms and pour the concrete; and workers who build the steel frame-work. These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure.Construction is a complicated process on almost all engineering projects. It involves scheduling the work and utilizing the equipment and the materials so that coats are kept as low as possible. Safety factor must also be taken into account, since construction can be very dangerous. Many civil engineers therefore specialize in the construction phase.Community and urban planning Those engaged in this area of civil engineering may plan and develop communities within a city, or entire cities. Such planning involves far more than engineering considerations; environmental, social, and economic factors in the use and development of land and natural resources are also key elements. They evaluate the kinds of facilities needed, including streets and highways, public transportation systems, airports, and recreational and other facilities to ensure social and economic as well as environmental well-being.Photogrammetry, surveying, and mapping The civil engineers in this specialty precisely measure the Earth’s surface to obtain reliable information for locating and designing engineering projects. This practice often involves high-technology methods such as satellite and aerial surveying, and computer processing of photographic imagery. Radio signals from satellites, scanned by laser and sonic beams, are converted to maps to provide very accurate measurements for boring tunnels, building highways and dams, plotting flood control and irrigation projects, locating subsurface geologic formations that may affect a construction project and a host of other building uses.Other specialties Three additional civil engineering specialties that are not entirely within the scope of civil engineering teaching.Engineering research Research is one of the most important aspects of scientific and engineering practice. A researcher usually works as a member of a team with other scientists and engineers. He or she is often employed in alaboratory that financed by government or industry. Areas of research connected with civil engineering include soil mechanics and soil stabilization techniques, and also the development and testing of new structural materials.Engineering management Many civil engineers choose careers that eventually lead to management. Others are also to start their careers in management positions. The civil engineer manager combines technical knowledge with an ability to organize and coordinate worker power, materials, machinery, and money. These engineers may work in government municipal, county, state, or federal; in the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers as military or civilian management engineers; or in semiautonomous regional or city authorities or similar organization. They may also manage private engineering firms ranging in size from a few employees to hundreds.Engineering teaching The civil engineer who chooses a teaching career usually teaches both graduate and undergraduate students in technical specialties. Many teaching civil engineers engage in basic research that eventually leads to technical innovations in construction materials and methods. Many also serve as consultants on engineering projects, or on technical boards and commissions associated with major projects.中文译文：土木工程土木工程是指对建成环境的规划、设计、建造、管理等一系列活动。
土木工程专业常用英语词汇
土木工程专业常用英语词汇第一节普通术语3. 房屋建造工程building engineering4. 土木工程civil engineering除房屋建造外，为新建、改建或扩建各类工程的建造物、构筑物和相关配套设施等所举行的勘察、计划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
5. 马路工程highway engineering10. 建造物（构筑物）construction works房屋建造或土木工程中的单项工程实体。
11. 结构structure12. 基础foundation13. 地基foundation soil; subgrade; subbase; ground14. 木结构timber structure16. 钢结构steel structure17. 混凝土（砼）结构concrete structure18. 特种工程结构special engineering structure22. 马路highway24. 高速马路freeway27. 铁路（铁道）railway; railroad28. 标准轨距铁路standard gauge railway29. 宽轨距铁路broad gauge railway第四节桥、涵洞和隧道术语1. 桥bridge2. 简支梁桥simple supported girder bridge3. 延续梁桥continuous girder bridge5. 斜拉（斜张）桥cable stayed bridge6. 悬索（吊）桥suspension bridge7. 桁架桥trussed bridge9．刚构（刚架）桥rigid frame bridge10．拱桥arch bridge13．正交桥right bridge14．斜交桥skew bridge16．高架桥viaduct17．正（主）桥main span18．引桥approach span19．弯桥curved bridge21．马路铁路两用桥combined bridge; highway and railway transit bridge 25．桥跨结构（上部结构）bridge superstructure26．桥面系bridge floor system27．桥支座bridge bearing; bridge support28．桥下部结构bridge substructure29．索塔（桥塔）bridge tower30．桥台abutment31．桥墩pier32．涵洞culvert第六节结构构件和部件术语1．构件member2．部件component; assembly parts3．截面section4．梁beam; girder5．拱arch6．板slab; plate8．柱column10．桁架truss11．框架frame12．排架bent frame13．刚架（刚构）rigid frame14．简支梁simply supported beam15．悬臂梁cantilever beam16．两端固定梁beam fixed at both ends17．延续梁continuous beam19．桩pile20．板桩sheet pile34. 钢轨rail第七节地基和基础术语1. 扩展(扩大)基础spread foundation2. 刚性基础rigid foundation3. 自立基础single footing4. 联合基础combined footing5. 条形基础strip foundation6. 壳体基础shell foundation7. 箱形基础box foundation8. 筏形基础raft foundation9. 桩基础pile foundation10. 沉井基础open caisson foundation11. 管柱基础cylinder pile foundation ; cylinder caisson foundation12. 沉箱基础caisson foundation1. 可靠性reliability2. 安全性safety3. 适用性serviceability4. 耐久性durability5. 基本变量basic variable6. 设计基准期design reference period7. 可靠概率probability of survival8. 失效概率probability of failure9. 可靠指标reliability index12. 概率设计法probabilistic method13. 容许应力设计法permissible (allowable) stresses method14. 破坏强度设计法ultimate strength method15. 极限状态设计法limit states method16. 极限状态limit states17. 极限状态方程limit state equation18. 承载能力极限状态ultimate limit states19. 正常使用极限状态serviceability limit states20. 分项系数partial safety factor21. 设计情况design situation22. 持久情况persistent situation23. 短暂情况transient situation24. 偶尔情况accidental situation1. 作用action2. 荷载load3. 线分布力force per unit length4. 面分布力force per unit area5. 体分布力force per unit volume6. 力矩moment of force7. 永远作用permanent action8. 可变作用variable action9. 偶尔作用accidental action10．固定作用fixed adtion11．自由(可动)作用. Free action12. 静态作用static action13. 动态作用dynamic action14. 多次重复作用repeated action; cyclic action16. 自重self weight17. 施工荷载site load18. 土压力earth pressure19. 温度作用temperature action20. 地震作用earthquake action22．风荷载wind load23．风振wind vibration24. 雪荷载snow load27．桥（桥梁）荷载load on bridge28．桥（桥梁）恒荷载dead load on bridge29．桥（桥梁）活荷载live load on bridge30．马路车辆荷载标准Standard highway vehicle load31．中国铁路标准活载Standard Railway Live Load Specified by the People’sRepublic of China44．作用代表值representative value of an action45．作用标准值characteristic value of an action46．作用准永远值quasi-permanent value of an action47．作用组合值combination value of actions48．作用分项系数partial safety factor for action49．作用设计值design value of an action50．作用组合值系数coeffcient for combination value of actions 51．作用效应effects of actions52．作用效应系数coefficient of effects of actions53．轴向力normal force\axial force54．剪力shear force55．弯矩bending moment57．扭矩torque58．应力stress59．正应力normal stress60．剪应力shear stress; tangential stress61．主应力principal stress62．预应力prestress63．位移displacement64．挠度deflection65．变形deformation66．弹性变形elastic deformation67．塑性变形plastic deformation70．应变strain71．线应变linear strain72．剪应变shear strain; tangential strain73．主应变principal strain74．作用效应组合combination for action effects75．作用效应基本组合fundamental combination for action effects 77．短期效应组合combination for short-term action effects 78．持久效应组合combination for long-term action effects 79．设计限值limiting design value1．抗力resistance2．强度strength3．抗压强度compressive strength4．抗拉强度tensile strength5．抗剪强度shear strength6．抗弯强度flexural strength7．屈服强度yield strength8．疲劳强度fatigue strength9．极限应变ultimate strain10．弹性模量modulus of elasticity11.剪变模量shear modulus12．变形模量modulus of deformation13．泊松比Poisson ratio14．承载能力bearing capacity15．受压承载能力compressive capacity16．受拉承载能力tensile capacity17．受剪承载能力shear capacity18．受弯承载能力flexural capacity19．受扭承载能力torsional capacity20．疲劳承载能力fatigue capacity21．刚度stiffness; rigidity22．抗裂度crack resistance23．极限变形ultimate deformation24．稳定性stability26．脆性破坏brittle failure27．延性破坏ductile failure30．材料性能分项系数partial safety factor for property of material。
土木工程--外文文献翻译
土木工程--外文文献翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1学院：专业：土木工程姓名：学号：外文出处： Structural Systems to resist (用外文写)Lateral loads附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。
确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。
这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。
实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。
如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1.抗弯矩框架。
2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。
3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。
4.筒中框架。
5.筒中筒结构。
6.核心交互结构。
7. 框格体系或束筒体系。
特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。
而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。
将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。
其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。
这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。
正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。
无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。
虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。
设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。
土木工程 专业外语词汇大全中英翻译
土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译1. 综合类大地工程geotechnical engineering1. 综合类反分析法back analysis method1. 综合类基础工程foundation engineering1. 综合类临界状态土力学critical state soil mechanics1. 综合类数值岩土力学numerical geomechanics1. 综合类土soil, earth1. 综合类土动力学soil dynamics1. 综合类土力学soil mechanics1. 综合类岩土工程geotechnical engineering1. 综合类应力路径stress path1. 综合类应力路径法stress path method2. 工程地质及勘察变质岩metamorphic rock2. 工程地质及勘察标准冻深standard frost penetration2. 工程地质及勘察冰川沉积glacial deposit2. 工程地质及勘察冰积层（台）glacial deposit2. 工程地质及勘察残积土eluvial soil, residual soil2. 工程地质及勘察层理beding2. 工程地质及勘察长石feldspar2. 工程地质及勘察沉积岩sedimentary rock2. 工程地质及勘察承压水confined water2. 工程地质及勘察次生矿物secondary mineral2. 工程地质及勘察地质年代geological age2. 工程地质及勘察地质图geological map2. 工程地质及勘察地下水groundwater2. 工程地质及勘察断层fault2. 工程地质及勘察断裂构造fracture structure2. 工程地质及勘察工程地质勘察engineering geological exploration 2. 工程地质及勘察海积层（台）marine deposit2. 工程地质及勘察海相沉积marine deposit2. 工程地质及勘察花岗岩granite2. 工程地质及勘察滑坡landslide2. 工程地质及勘察化石fossil2. 工程地质及勘察化学沉积岩chemical sedimentary rock2. 工程地质及勘察阶地terrace2. 工程地质及勘察节理joint2. 工程地质及勘察解理cleavage2. 工程地质及勘察喀斯特karst2. 工程地质及勘察矿物硬度hardness of minerals2. 工程地质及勘察砾岩conglomerate2. 工程地质及勘察流滑flow slide2. 工程地质及勘察陆相沉积continental sedimentation2. 工程地质及勘察泥石流mud flow, debris flow2. 工程地质及勘察年粘土矿物clay minerals2. 工程地质及勘察凝灰岩tuff2. 工程地质及勘察牛轭湖ox-bow lake2. 工程地质及勘察浅成岩hypabyssal rock2. 工程地质及勘察潜水ground water2. 工程地质及勘察侵入岩intrusive rock2. 工程地质及勘察取土器geotome2. 工程地质及勘察砂岩sandstone2. 工程地质及勘察砂嘴spit, sand spit2. 工程地质及勘察山岩压力rock pressure2. 工程地质及勘察深成岩plutionic rock2. 工程地质及勘察石灰岩limestone2. 工程地质及勘察石英quartz2. 工程地质及勘察松散堆积物rickle2. 工程地质及勘察围限地下水（台）confined ground water 2. 工程地质及勘察泻湖lagoon2. 工程地质及勘察岩爆rock burst2. 工程地质及勘察岩层产状attitude of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩浆岩magmatic rock, igneous rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩脉dike, dgke2. 工程地质及勘察岩石风化程度degree of rock weathering 2. 工程地质及勘察岩石构造structure of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩石结构texture of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩体rock mass2. 工程地质及勘察页岩shale2. 工程地质及勘察原生矿物primary mineral2. 工程地质及勘察云母mica2. 工程地质及勘察造岩矿物rock-forming mineral2. 工程地质及勘察褶皱fold, folding2. 工程地质及勘察钻孔柱状图bore hole columnar section3. 土的分类饱和土saturated soil3. 土的分类超固结土overconsolidated soil3. 土的分类冲填土dredger fill3. 土的分类充重塑土3. 土的分类冻土frozen soil, tjaele3. 土的分类非饱和土unsaturated soil3. 土的分类分散性土dispersive soil3. 土的分类粉土silt, mo3. 土的分类粉质粘土silty clay3. 土的分类高岭石kaolinite3. 土的分类过压密土（台）overconsolidated soil3. 土的分类红粘土red clay, adamic earth3. 土的分类黄土loess, huangtu(China)3. 土的分类蒙脱石montmorillonite3. 土的分类泥炭peat, bog muck3. 土的分类年粘土clay3. 土的分类年粘性土cohesive soil, clayey soil3. 土的分类膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil3. 土的分类欠固结粘土underconsolidated soil3. 土的分类区域性土zonal soil3. 土的分类人工填土fill, artificial soil3. 土的分类软粘土soft clay, mildclay, mickle3. 土的分类砂土sand3. 土的分类湿陷性黄土collapsible loess, slumping loess3. 土的分类素填土plain fill3. 土的分类塑性图plasticity chart3. 土的分类碎石土stone, break stone, broken stone, channery, chat, crushed stone, deritus 3. 土的分类未压密土（台）underconsolidated clay3. 土的分类无粘性土cohesionless soil, frictional soil, non-cohesive soil3. 土的分类岩石rock3. 土的分类伊利土illite3. 土的分类有机质土organic soil3. 土的分类淤泥muck, gyttja, mire, slush3. 土的分类淤泥质土mucky soil3. 土的分类原状土undisturbed soil3. 土的分类杂填土miscellaneous fill3. 土的分类正常固结土normally consolidated soil3. 土的分类正常压密土（台）normally consolidated soil3. 土的分类自重湿陷性黄土self weight collapse loess4. 土的物理性质阿太堡界限Atterberg limits4. 土的物理性质饱和度degree of saturation4. 土的物理性质饱和密度saturated density4. 土的物理性质饱和重度saturated unit weight4. 土的物理性质比重specific gravity4. 土的物理性质稠度consistency4. 土的物理性质不均匀系数coefficient of uniformity, uniformity coefficient4. 土的物理性质触变thixotropy4. 土的物理性质单粒结构single-grained structure4. 土的物理性质蜂窝结构honeycomb structure4. 土的物理性质干重度dry unit weight4. 土的物理性质干密度dry density4. 土的物理性质塑性指数plasticity index4. 土的物理性质含水量water content, moisture content4. 土的物理性质活性指数4. 土的物理性质级配gradation, grading4. 土的物理性质结合水bound water, combined water, held water4. 土的物理性质界限含水量Atterberg limits4. 土的物理性质颗粒级配particle size distribution of soils, mechanical composition of soil 4. 土的物理性质可塑性plasticity4. 土的物理性质孔隙比void ratio4. 土的物理性质孔隙率porosity4. 土的物理性质粒度granularity, grainness, grainage4. 土的物理性质粒组fraction, size fraction4. 土的物理性质毛细管水capillary water4. 土的物理性质密度density4. 土的物理性质密实度compactionness4. 土的物理性质年粘性土的灵敏度sensitivity of cohesive soil4. 土的物理性质平均粒径mean diameter, average grain diameter4. 土的物理性质曲率系数coefficient of curvature4. 土的物理性质三相图block diagram, skeletal diagram, three phase diagram4. 土的物理性质三相土tri-phase soil4. 土的物理性质湿陷起始应力initial collapse pressure4. 土的物理性质湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility4. 土的物理性质缩限shrinkage limit4. 土的物理性质土的构造soil texture4. 土的物理性质土的结构soil structure4. 土的物理性质土粒相对密度specific density of solid particles4. 土的物理性质土中气air in soil4. 土的物理性质土中水water in soil4. 土的物理性质团粒aggregate, cumularpharolith4. 土的物理性质限定粒径constrained diameter4. 土的物理性质相对密度relative density, density index4. 土的物理性质相对压密度relative compaction, compacting factor, percent compaction, coefficient of compaction4. 土的物理性质絮状结构flocculent structure4. 土的物理性质压密系数coefficient of consolidation4. 土的物理性质压缩性compressibility4. 土的物理性质液限liquid limit4. 土的物理性质液性指数liquidity index4. 土的物理性质游离水（台）free water4. 土的物理性质有效粒径effective diameter, effective grain size, effective size4. 土的物理性质有效密度effective density4. 土的物理性质有效重度effective unit weight4. 土的物理性质重力密度unit weight4. 土的物理性质自由水free water, gravitational water, groundwater, phreatic water4. 土的物理性质组构fabric4. 土的物理性质最大干密度maximum dry density4. 土的物理性质最优含水量optimum water content5. 渗透性和渗流达西定律Darcy s law5. 渗透性和渗流管涌piping5. 渗透性和渗流浸润线phreatic line5. 渗透性和渗流临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient5. 渗透性和渗流流函数flow function5. 渗透性和渗流流土flowing soil5. 渗透性和渗流流网flow net5. 渗透性和渗流砂沸sand boiling5. 渗透性和渗流渗流seepage5. 渗透性和渗流渗流量seepage discharge5. 渗透性和渗流渗流速度seepage velocity5. 渗透性和渗流渗透力seepage force5. 渗透性和渗流渗透破坏seepage failure5. 渗透性和渗流渗透系数coefficient of permeability5. 渗透性和渗流渗透性permeability5. 渗透性和渗流势函数potential function5. 渗透性和渗流水力梯度hydraulic gradient6. 地基应力和变形变形deformation6. 地基应力和变形变形模量modulus of deformation6. 地基应力和变形泊松比Poisson s ratio6. 地基应力和变形布西涅斯克解Boussinnesq s solution6. 地基应力和变形残余变形residual deformation6. 地基应力和变形残余孔隙水压力residual pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形沉降settlement6. 地基应力和变形沉降比settlement ratio6. 地基应力和变形次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement6. 地基应力和变形次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation6. 地基应力和变形地基沉降的弹性力学公式elastic formula for settlement calculation 6. 地基应力和变形分层总和法layerwise summation method6. 地基应力和变形负孔隙水压力negative pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形附加应力superimposed stress6. 地基应力和变形割线模量secant modulus6. 地基应力和变形固结沉降consolidation settlement6. 地基应力和变形规范沉降计算法settlement calculation by specification6. 地基应力和变形回弹变形rebound deformation6. 地基应力和变形回弹模量modulus of resilience6. 地基应力和变形回弹系数coefficient of resilience6. 地基应力和变形回弹指数swelling index6. 地基应力和变形建筑物的地基变形允许值allowable settlement of building6. 地基应力和变形剪胀dilatation6. 地基应力和变形角点法corner-points method6. 地基应力和变形孔隙气压力pore air pressure6. 地基应力和变形孔隙水压力pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形孔隙压力系数Apore pressure parameter A6. 地基应力和变形孔隙压力系数Bpore pressure parameter B6. 地基应力和变形明德林解Mindlin s solution6. 地基应力和变形纽马克感应图Newmark chart6. 地基应力和变形切线模量tangent modulus6. 地基应力和变形蠕变creep6. 地基应力和变形三向变形条件下的固结沉降three-dimensional consolidation settlement 6. 地基应力和变形瞬时沉降immediate settlement6. 地基应力和变形塑性变形plastic deformation6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性变形elastic deformation6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性模量elastic modulus6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium6. 地基应力和变形体积变形模量volumetric deformation modulus6. 地基应力和变形先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure6. 地基应力和变形压缩层6. 地基应力和变形压缩模量modulus of compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩系数coefficient of compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩性compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩指数compression index6. 地基应力和变形有效应力effective stress6. 地基应力和变形自重应力self-weight stress6. 地基应力和变形总应力total stress approach of shear strength6. 地基应力和变形最终沉降final settlement7. 固结巴隆固结理论Barron s consolidation theory7. 固结比奥固结理论Biot s consolidation theory7. 固结超固结比over-consolidation ratio7. 固结超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure7. 固结次固结secondary consolidation7. 固结次压缩（台）secondary consolidatin7. 固结单向度压密（台）one-dimensional consolidation7. 固结多维固结multi-dimensional consolidation7. 固结固结consolidation7. 固结固结度degree of consolidation7. 固结固结理论theory of consolidation7. 固结固结曲线consolidation curve7. 固结固结速率rate of consolidation7. 固结固结系数coefficient of consolidation7. 固结固结压力consolidation pressure7. 固结回弹曲线rebound curve7. 固结井径比drain spacing ratio7. 固结井阻well resistance7. 固结曼代尔－克雷尔效应Mandel-Cryer effect7. 固结潜变（台）creep7. 固结砂井sand drain7. 固结砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground7. 固结时间对数拟合法logrithm of time fitting method7. 固结时间因子time factor7. 固结太沙基固结理论Terzaghi s consolidation theory7. 固结太沙基－伦杜列克扩散方程Terzaghi-Rendulic diffusion equation7. 固结先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure7. 固结压密（台）consolidation7. 固结压密度（台）degree of consolidation7. 固结压缩曲线cpmpression curve7. 固结一维固结one dimensional consolidation7. 固结有效应力原理principle of effective stress7. 固结预压密压力（台）preconsolidation pressure7. 固结原始压缩曲线virgin compression curve7. 固结再压缩曲线recompression curve7. 固结主固结primary consolidation7. 固结主压密（台）primary consolidation7. 固结准固结压力pseudo-consolidation pressure7. 固结K0固结consolidation under K0 condition8. 抗剪强度安息角（台）angle of repose8. 抗剪强度不排水抗剪强度undrained shear strength8. 抗剪强度残余内摩擦角residual angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度残余强度residual strength8. 抗剪强度长期强度long-term strength8. 抗剪强度单轴抗拉强度uniaxial tension test8. 抗剪强度动强度dynamic strength of soils8. 抗剪强度峰值强度peak strength8. 抗剪强度伏斯列夫参数Hvorslev parameter8. 抗剪强度剪切应变速率shear strain rate8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度shear strength8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度参数shear strength parameter8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度有效应力法effective stress approach of shear strength 8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度总应力法total stress approach of shear strength8. 抗剪强度库仑方程Coulomb s equation8. 抗剪强度摩尔包线Mohr s envelope8. 抗剪强度摩尔－库仑理论Mohr-Coulomb theory8. 抗剪强度内摩擦角angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度年粘聚力cohesion8. 抗剪强度破裂角angle of rupture8. 抗剪强度破坏准则failure criterion8. 抗剪强度十字板抗剪强度vane strength8. 抗剪强度无侧限抗压强度unconfined compression strength8. 抗剪强度有效内摩擦角effective angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度有效粘聚力effective cohesion intercept8. 抗剪强度有效应力破坏包线effective stress failure envelope8. 抗剪强度有效应力强度参数effective stress strength parameter8. 抗剪强度有效应力原理principle of effective stress8. 抗剪强度真内摩擦角true angle internal friction8. 抗剪强度真粘聚力true cohesion8. 抗剪强度总应力破坏包线total stress failure envelope8. 抗剪强度总应力强度参数total stress strength parameter9. 本构模型本构模型constitutive model9. 本构模型边界面模型boundary surface model9. 本构模型层向各向同性体模型cross anisotropic model9. 本构模型超弹性模型hyperelastic model9. 本构模型德鲁克－普拉格准则Drucker-Prager criterion9. 本构模型邓肯－张模型Duncan-Chang model9. 本构模型动剪切强度9. 本构模型非线性弹性模量nonlinear elastic model9. 本构模型盖帽模型cap model9. 本构模型刚塑性模型rigid plastic model9. 本构模型割线模量secant modulus9. 本构模型广义冯·米赛斯屈服准则extended von Mises yield criterion 9. 本构模型广义特雷斯卡屈服准则extended tresca yield criterion9. 本构模型加工软化work softening9. 本构模型加工硬化work hardening9. 本构模型加工硬化定律strain harding law9. 本构模型剑桥模型Cambridge model9. 本构模型柯西弹性模型Cauchy elastic model9. 本构模型拉特－邓肯模型Lade-Duncan model9. 本构模型拉特屈服准则Lade yield criterion9. 本构模型理想弹塑性模型ideal elastoplastic model9. 本构模型临界状态弹塑性模型critical state elastoplastic model9. 本构模型流变学模型rheological model9. 本构模型流动规则flow rule9. 本构模型摩尔－库仑屈服准则Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion9. 本构模型内蕴时间塑性模型endochronic plastic model9. 本构模型内蕴时间塑性理论endochronic theory9. 本构模型年粘弹性模型viscoelastic model9. 本构模型切线模量tangent modulus9. 本构模型清华弹塑性模型Tsinghua elastoplastic model9. 本构模型屈服面yield surface9. 本构模型沈珠江三重屈服面模型Shen Zhujiang three yield surface method 9. 本构模型双参数地基模型9. 本构模型双剪应力屈服模型twin shear stress yield criterion9. 本构模型双曲线模型hyperbolic model9. 本构模型松岗元－中井屈服准则Matsuoka-Nakai yield criterion9. 本构模型塑性形变理论9. 本构模型谈弹塑性模量矩阵elastoplastic modulus matrix9. 本构模型谈弹塑性模型elastoplastic modulus9. 本构模型谈弹塑性增量理论incremental elastoplastic theory9. 本构模型谈弹性半空间地基模型elastic half-space foundation model9. 本构模型谈弹性变形elastic deformation9. 本构模型谈弹性模量elastic modulus9. 本构模型谈弹性模型elastic model9. 本构模型魏汝龙－Khosla－Wu模型Wei Rulong-Khosla-Wu model9. 本构模型文克尔地基模型Winkler foundation model9. 本构模型修正剑桥模型modified cambridge model9. 本构模型准弹性模型hypoelastic model10. 地基承载力冲剪破坏punching shear failure10. 地基承载力次层（台）substratum10. 地基承载力地基subgrade, ground, foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基承载力bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基允许承载力allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基稳定性stability of foundation soil10. 地基承载力汉森地基承载力公式Hansen s ultimate bearing capacity formula10. 地基承载力极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium10. 地基承载力加州承载比（美国）California Bearing Ratio10. 地基承载力局部剪切破坏local shear failure10. 地基承载力临塑荷载critical edge pressure10. 地基承载力梅耶霍夫极限承载力公式Meyerhof s ultimate bearing capacity formula 10. 地基承载力普朗特承载力理论Prandel bearing capacity theory10. 地基承载力斯肯普顿极限承载力公式Skempton s ultimate bearing capacity formula 10. 地基承载力太沙基承载力理论Terzaghi bearing capacity theory10. 地基承载力魏锡克极限承载力公式V esic s ultimate bearing capacity formula10. 地基承载力整体剪切破坏general shear failure11. 土压力被动土压力passive earth pressure11. 土压力被动土压力系数coefficient of passive earth pressure11. 土压力极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium11. 土压力静止土压力earth pressue at rest11. 土压力静止土压力系数coefficient of earth pressur at rest11. 土压力库仑土压力理论Coulomb s earth pressure theory11. 土压力库尔曼图解法Culmannn construction11. 土压力朗肯土压力理论Rankine s earth pressure theory11. 土压力朗肯状态Rankine state11. 土压力谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium11. 土压力土压力earth pressure11. 土压力主动土压力active earth pressure11. 土压力主动土压力系数coefficient of active earth pressure12. 土坡稳定分析安息角（台）angle of repose12. 土坡稳定分析毕肖普法Bishop method12. 土坡稳定分析边坡稳定安全系数safety factor of slope12. 土坡稳定分析不平衡推理传递法unbalanced thrust transmission method12. 土坡稳定分析费伦纽斯条分法Fellenius method of slices12. 土坡稳定分析库尔曼法Culmann method12. 土坡稳定分析摩擦圆法friction circle method12. 土坡稳定分析摩根斯坦－普拉斯法Morgenstern-Price method12. 土坡稳定分析铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope12. 土坡稳定分析瑞典圆弧滑动法Swedish circle method12. 土坡稳定分析斯宾赛法Spencer method12. 土坡稳定分析泰勒法Taylor method12. 土坡稳定分析条分法slice method12. 土坡稳定分析土坡slope12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定分析slope stability analysis12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定极限分析法limit analysis method of slope stability 12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定极限平衡法limit equilibrium method of slope stability 12. 土坡稳定分析休止角angle of repose12. 土坡稳定分析扬布普遍条分法Janbu general slice method12. 土坡稳定分析圆弧分析法circular arc analysis13. 土的动力性质比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity13. 土的动力性质波的弥散特性dispersion of waves13. 土的动力性质波速法wave velocity method13. 土的动力性质材料阻尼material damping13. 土的动力性质初始液化initial liquefaction13. 土的动力性质地基固有周期natural period of soil site13. 土的动力性质动剪切模量dynamic shear modulus of soils13. 土的动力性质动力布西涅斯克解dynamic solution of Boussinesq13. 土的动力性质动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor13. 土的动力性质动力性质dynamic properties of soils13. 土的动力性质动强度dynamic strength of soils13. 土的动力性质骨架波akeleton waves in soils13. 土的动力性质几何阻尼geometric damping13. 土的动力性质抗液化强度liquefaction stress13. 土的动力性质孔隙流体波fluid wave in soil13. 土的动力性质损耗角loss angle13. 土的动力性质往返活动性reciprocating activity13. 土的动力性质无量纲频率dimensionless frequency13. 土的动力性质液化liquefaction13. 土的动力性质液化势评价evaluation of liquefaction potential13. 土的动力性质液化应力比stress ratio of liquefaction13. 土的动力性质应力波stress waves in soils13. 土的动力性质振陷dynamic settlement13. 土的动力性质阻尼damping of soil13. 土的动力性质阻尼比damping ratio14. 挡土墙挡土墙retaining wall14. 挡土墙挡土墙排水设施14. 挡土墙挡土墙稳定性stability of retaining wall14. 挡土墙垛式挡土墙14. 挡土墙扶垛式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall14. 挡土墙后垛墙（台）counterfort retaining wall14. 挡土墙基础墙foundation wall14. 挡土墙加筋土挡墙reinforced earth bulkhead14. 挡土墙锚定板挡土墙anchored plate retaining wall14. 挡土墙锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙锚杆式挡土墙anchor rod retaining wall14. 挡土墙悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙悬壁式挡土墙cantilever sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall15. 板桩结构物板桩sheet pile15. 板桩结构物板桩结构sheet pile structure15. 板桩结构物钢板桩steel sheet pile15. 板桩结构物钢筋混凝土板桩reinforced concrete sheet pile15. 板桩结构物钢桩steel pile15. 板桩结构物灌注桩cast-in-place pile15. 板桩结构物拉杆tie rod15. 板桩结构物锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall15. 板桩结构物锚固技术anchoring15. 板桩结构物锚座Anchorage15. 板桩结构物木板桩wooden sheet pile15. 板桩结构物木桩timber piles15. 板桩结构物悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall16. 基坑开挖与降水板桩围护sheet pile-braced cuts16. 基坑开挖与降水电渗法electro-osmotic drainage16. 基坑开挖与降水管涌piping16. 基坑开挖与降水基底隆起heave of base16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑降水dewatering16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑失稳instability (failure) of foundation pit16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑围护bracing of foundation pit16. 基坑开挖与降水减压井relief well16. 基坑开挖与降水降低地下水位法dewatering method16. 基坑开挖与降水井点系统well point system16. 基坑开挖与降水喷射井点eductor well point16. 基坑开挖与降水铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope 16. 基坑开挖与降水砂沸sand boiling16. 基坑开挖与降水深井点deep well point16. 基坑开挖与降水真空井点vacuum well point16. 基坑开挖与降水支撑围护braced cuts17. 浅基础杯形基础17. 浅基础补偿性基础compensated foundation17. 浅基础持力层bearing stratum17. 浅基础次层（台）substratum17. 浅基础单独基础individual footing17. 浅基础倒梁法inverted beam method17. 浅基础刚性角pressure distribution angle of masonary foundation 17. 浅基础刚性基础rigid foundation17. 浅基础高杯口基础17. 浅基础基础埋置深度embeded depth of foundation17. 浅基础基床系数coefficient of subgrade reaction17. 浅基础基底附加应力net foundation pressure17. 浅基础交叉条形基础cross strip footing17. 浅基础接触压力contact pressure17. 浅基础静定分析法（浅基础）static analysis (shallow foundation)17. 浅基础壳体基础shell foundation17. 浅基础扩展基础spread footing17. 浅基础片筏基础mat foundation17. 浅基础浅基础shallow foundation17. 浅基础墙下条形基础17. 浅基础热摩奇金法Zemochkin s method17. 浅基础柔性基础flexible foundation17. 浅基础上部结构－基础－土共同作用分析structure- foundation-soil interactionanalysis 17. 浅基础谈弹性地基梁（板）分析analysis of beams and slabs on elastic foundation 17. 浅基础条形基础strip footing17. 浅基础下卧层substratum17. 浅基础箱形基础box foundation17. 浅基础柱下条形基础18. 深基础贝诺托灌注桩Benoto cast-in-place pile18. 深基础波动方程分析Wave equation analysis18. 深基础场铸桩（台)cast-in-place pile18. 深基础沉管灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile18. 深基础沉井基础open-end caisson foundation18. 深基础沉箱基础box caisson foundation18. 深基础成孔灌注同步桩synchronous pile18. 深基础承台pile caps18. 深基础充盈系数fullness coefficient18. 深基础单桩承载力bearing capacity of single pile18. 深基础单桩横向极限承载力ultimate lateral resistance of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗拔极限承载力vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗压容许承载力vertical ultimate carrying capacity of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗压极限承载力vertical allowable load capacity of single pile18. 深基础低桩承台low pile cap18. 深基础地下连续墙diaphgram wall18. 深基础点承桩（台）end-bearing pile18. 深基础动力打桩公式dynamic pile driving formula18. 深基础端承桩end-bearing pile18. 深基础法兰基灌注桩Franki pile18. 深基础负摩擦力negative skin friction of pile18. 深基础钢筋混凝土预制桩precast reinforced concrete piles18. 深基础钢桩steel pile18. 深基础高桩承台high-rise pile cap18. 深基础灌注桩cast-in-place pile18. 深基础横向载荷桩laterally loaded vertical piles18. 深基础护壁泥浆slurry coat method18. 深基础回转钻孔灌注桩rotatory boring cast-in-place pile18. 深基础机挖异形灌注桩18. 深基础静力压桩silent piling18. 深基础抗拔桩uplift pile18. 深基础抗滑桩anti-slide pile18. 深基础摩擦桩friction pile18. 深基础木桩timber piles18. 深基础嵌岩灌注桩piles set into rock18. 深基础群桩pile groups18. 深基础群桩效率系数efficiency factor of pile groups18. 深基础群桩效应efficiency of pile groups18. 深基础群桩竖向极限承载力vertical ultimate load capacity of pile groups 18. 深基础深基础deep foundation18. 深基础竖直群桩横向极限承载力18. 深基础无桩靴夯扩灌注桩rammed bulb ile18. 深基础旋转挤压灌注桩18. 深基础桩piles18. 深基础桩基动测技术dynamic pile test18. 深基础钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation18. 深基础钻孔扩底灌注桩under-reamed bored pile18. 深基础钻孔压注桩starsol enbesol pile18. 深基础最后贯入度final set19. 地基处理表层压密法surface compaction19. 地基处理超载预压surcharge preloading19. 地基处理袋装砂井sand wick19. 地基处理地工织物geofabric, geotextile19. 地基处理地基处理ground treatment, foundation treatment19. 地基处理电动化学灌浆electrochemical grouting19. 地基处理电渗法electro-osmotic drainage19. 地基处理顶升纠偏法19. 地基处理定喷directional jet grouting19. 地基处理冻土地基处理frozen foundation improvement19. 地基处理短桩处理treatment with short pile19. 地基处理堆载预压法preloading19. 地基处理粉体喷射深层搅拌法powder deep mixing method19. 地基处理复合地基composite foundation19. 地基处理干振成孔灌注桩vibratory bored pile19. 地基处理高压喷射注浆法jet grounting19. 地基处理灌浆材料injection material19. 地基处理灌浆法grouting19. 地基处理硅化法silicification19. 地基处理夯实桩compacting pile19. 地基处理化学灌浆chemical grouting19. 地基处理换填法cushion19. 地基处理灰土桩lime soil pile19. 地基处理基础加压纠偏法19. 地基处理挤密灌浆compaction grouting19. 地基处理挤密桩compaction pile, compacted column19. 地基处理挤淤法displacement method19. 地基处理加筋法reinforcement method19. 地基处理加筋土reinforced earth19. 地基处理碱液法soda solution grouting19. 地基处理浆液深层搅拌法grout deep mixing method19. 地基处理降低地下水位法dewatering method19. 地基处理纠偏技术19. 地基处理坑式托换pit underpinning19. 地基处理冷热处理法freezing and heating19. 地基处理锚固技术anchoring19. 地基处理锚杆静压桩托换anchor pile underpinning19. 地基处理排水固结法consolidation19. 地基处理膨胀土地基处理expansive foundation treatment19. 地基处理劈裂灌浆fracture grouting19. 地基处理浅层处理shallow treatment19. 地基处理强夯法dynamic compaction19. 地基处理人工地基artificial foundation19. 地基处理容许灌浆压力allowable grouting pressure19. 地基处理褥垫pillow19. 地基处理软土地基soft clay ground19. 地基处理砂井sand drain19. 地基处理砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 19. 地基处理砂桩sand column19. 地基处理山区地基处理foundation treatment in mountain area19. 地基处理深层搅拌法deep mixing method19. 地基处理渗入性灌浆seep-in grouting19. 地基处理湿陷性黄土地基处理collapsible loess treatment19. 地基处理石灰系深层搅拌法lime deep mixing method19. 地基处理石灰桩lime column, limepile19. 地基处理树根桩root pile19. 地基处理水泥土水泥掺合比cement mixing ratio19. 地基处理水泥系深层搅拌法cement deep mixing method19. 地基处理水平旋喷horizontal jet grouting19. 地基处理塑料排水带plastic drain19. 地基处理碎石桩gravel pile, stone pillar19. 地基处理掏土纠偏法19. 地基处理天然地基natural foundation19. 地基处理土工聚合物Geopolymer19. 地基处理土工织物geofabric, geotextile19. 地基处理土桩earth pile19. 地基处理托换技术underpinning technique19. 地基处理外掺剂additive19. 地基处理旋喷jet grouting19. 地基处理药液灌浆chemical grouting19. 地基处理预浸水法presoaking19. 地基处理预压法preloading19. 地基处理真空预压vacuum preloading19. 地基处理振冲法vibroflotation method19. 地基处理振冲密实法vibro-compaction19. 地基处理振冲碎石桩vibro replacement stone column19. 地基处理振冲置换法vibro-replacement19. 地基处理振密、挤密法vibro-densification, compacting19. 地基处理置换率（复合地基）replacement ratio19. 地基处理重锤夯实法tamping19. 地基处理桩式托换pile underpinning19. 地基处理桩土应力比stress ratio20. 动力机器基础比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity20. 动力机器基础等效集总参数法constant strain rate consolidation test20. 动力机器基础地基固有周期natural period of soil site20. 动力机器基础动基床反力法dynamic subgrade reaction method20. 动力机器基础动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor20. 动力机器基础隔振isolation20. 动力机器基础基础振动foundation vibration20. 动力机器基础基础振动半空间理论elastic half-space theory of foundation vibr ation20. 动力机器基础基础振动容许振幅allowable amplitude of foundation vibration 20. 动力机器基础基础自振频率natural frequency of foundation20. 动力机器基础集总参数法lumped parameter method20. 动力机器基础吸收系数absorption coefficient20. 动力机器基础质量－弹簧－阻尼器系统mass-spring-dushpot system21. 地基基础抗震地基固有周期natural period of soil site21. 地基基础抗震地震earthquake, seism, temblor21. 地基基础抗震地震持续时间duration of earthquake21. 地基基础抗震地震等效均匀剪应力equivalent even shear stress of earthquake 21. 地基基础抗震地震反应谱earthquake response spectrum21. 地基基础抗震地震烈度earthquake intensity21. 地基基础抗震地震震级earthquake magnitude21. 地基基础抗震地震卓越周期seismic predominant period21. 地基基础抗震地震最大加速度maximum acceleration of earthquake21. 地基基础抗震动力放大因数dynamic magnification factor21. 地基基础抗震对数递减率logrithmic decrement21. 地基基础抗震刚性系数coefficient of rigidity21. 地基基础抗震吸收系数absorption coefficient22. 室内土工试验比重试验specific gravity test22. 室内土工试验变水头渗透试验falling head permeability test22. 室内土工试验不固结不排水试验unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验常规固结试验routine consolidation test22. 室内土工试验常水头渗透试验constant head permeability test22. 室内土工试验单剪仪simple shear apparatus22. 室内土工试验单轴拉伸试验uniaxial tensile test22. 室内土工试验等速加荷固结试验constant loading rate consolidatin test22. 室内土工试验等梯度固结试验constant gradient consolidation test22. 室内土工试验等应变速率固结试验equivalent lumped parameter method22. 室内土工试验反复直剪强度试验repeated direct shear test22. 室内土工试验反压饱和法back pressure saturation method22. 室内土工试验高压固结试验high pressure consolidation test22. 室内土工试验各向不等压固结不排水试验consoidated anisotropically undrained test 22. 室内土工试验各向不等压固结排水试验consolidated anisotropically drained test 22. 室内土工试验共振柱试验resonant column test22. 室内土工试验固结不排水试验consolidated undrained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验固结快剪试验consolidated quick direct shear test22. 室内土工试验固结排水试验consolidated drained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验固结试验consolidation test22. 室内土工试验含水量试验water content test22. 室内土工试验环剪试验ring shear test22. 室内土工试验黄土湿陷试验loess collapsibility test22. 室内土工试验击实试验22. 室内土工试验界限含水量试验Atterberg limits test22. 室内土工试验卡萨格兰德法Casagrande s method22. 室内土工试验颗粒分析试验grain size analysis test22. 室内土工试验孔隙水压力消散试验pore pressure dissipation test22. 室内土工试验快剪试验quick direct shear test22. 室内土工试验快速固结试验fast consolidation test22. 室内土工试验离心模型试验centrifugal model test22. 室内土工试验连续加荷固结试验continual loading test22. 室内土工试验慢剪试验consolidated drained direct shear test22. 室内土工试验毛细管上升高度试验capillary rise test22. 室内土工试验密度试验density test22. 室内土工试验扭剪仪torsion shear apparatus22. 室内土工试验膨胀率试验swelling rate test22. 室内土工试验平面应变仪plane strain apparatus22. 室内土工试验三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test22. 室内土工试验三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test22. 室内土工试验砂的相对密实度试验sand relative density test22. 室内土工试验筛分析sieve analysis。
土木工程外文翻译资料
Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture ofcement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption ofthe moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concretesection lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available hecan make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³ struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1)Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2)Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3)Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1)Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4)Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1)Initial cost of the construction;(2)Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3)Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4)Adverse impact on society;(5)Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .。
土木工程翻译
土木工程翻译Civil Engineering Translation (700 words)土木工程是一门涉及设计、建造、维护和改善人类建筑环境和基础设施的工程学科。
它是为满足人们的基本需求和提供公共服务而设计的。
土木工程师负责规划、设计和监督建筑物、道路、桥梁、隧道、机场、港口、水利工程和其他基础设施的建设。
土木工程是一门广泛而多样化的学科，涵盖了很多不同的领域和技术。
土木工程的起源可以追溯到古代，当时人们开始建设井、城墙和水道系统。
随着时间的推移，土木工程越来越复杂，需要更高级的技术和专业知识来应对挑战。
现代土木工程包括使用计算机和其他先进技术来设计和建造复杂的基础设施项目。
作为土木工程师，必须具备广泛的知识和技能。
他们需要了解结构工程、水力学、土力学和材料科学等学科，并能将这些知识应用于实际项目中。
他们还需要具备计划、预算、管理和协调项目的能力。
在一项目中，土木工程师需要与建筑师、环境科学家、城市规划师和政府机构合作，确保项目能够按照要求完成。
土木工程涵盖了各种各样的项目。
道路和桥梁建设是其中最常见的项目之一。
道路的设计需要考虑交通流量、土壤条件和周围环境的影响。
桥梁的设计必须能够承受车辆和行人的重量，并抵御自然灾害和其他不可预测的因素。
水利工程是土木工程的另一个重要领域。
它涉及设计和建造大坝、水库、排水系统和污水处理厂等设施。
水利工程的目标是管理和控制水资源，确保供水和防洪措施的有效性。
土木工程也与环境保护紧密相关。
工程师需要考虑项目对环境的影响，并采取措施减少生态破坏。
例如，在道路建设中，可以采用生态通道和雨水收集系统来减少土壤侵蚀和水污染。
在建筑物设计中，可以采用节能技术和可再生材料来减少能源消耗和碳排放。
总之，土木工程是一门充满挑战和机遇的学科。
通过将科学和技术应用于实际项目中，土木工程师能够改善人们的生活质量，并为未来的可持续发展做出贡献。
土木工程外文翻译
英文翻译1外文原文出处：School of Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering Materials Unit (CEMU), University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UKReceived 10 February 2000;原文1Compatibility of repair mortars with concrete in a hot-dryenvironmentAbstractStrengthening, maintenance and repair of concrete structures are becoming more recognised in the field of civil engineering. There is a wide range of repair mortars with varying properties, available in the market and promoted by the suppliers, which makes the selection of the most suitable one often difficult. A research programme was conducted at Leeds University to investigate the properties of cementitious, polymer and polymer modified (PMC) repair mortars. Following an earlier publication on the intrinsic properties of the materials, this paper presents results on the compatibility of these materials with concrete. The dimensional stability is used in this study to investigate the compatibility of the repair mortars and the parent concrete. Composite cylindrical specimens (half repair mortar/half concrete)were prepared and used for the measurements of modulus of elasticity and shrinkage. The results of the different combined systems were obtained and compared to those calculated using a composite model. The variations between the measured and calculated values were less than 10%. The paper attempts to quantify the effect of indirect differential shrinkage on the permeability and diffusion characteristics of the different combined systems.Author Keywords:Compatibility; Concrete; Dimensional stability; Modulus of elasticity; Oxygen diffusion; Oxygen permeability; Repair mortars; Shrinkage1. IntroductionDeterioration of concrete structures is a major problem in civil engineering, which is mainly associated with contamination, cracks and spalling of the cover concrete. In many instances, the serviceability of the deteriorated structure becomes an important issue and therefore the most cost-effective solution is often to use patch repair, which involves the removal of the deteriorated parts and reinstatement with a fresh repair mortar . The effectiveness of this approach is influenced by the intrinsic properties of the selected repair material (to eliminate the cause of initial deterioration), the chloride contamination level of the concrete adjacent to the repaired zone [1 and 2] and the compatibility of the combined system (concrete/repair).Compatibility in a repair system is the combination of properties between the repair material and the existing concrete substrate which ensures that the combined system withstands the applied stresses and maintains its structural integrity and protective properties in a certain exposure environment over a designated service life [3and 4]. Dimensional stability, chemical, electrochemical, and transport properties of the repair material and the parent concrete are the main aspects of compatibility.The dimensional stability is probably the most important factor which controls the volume changes due to shrinkage, thermal expansion, and the effects of creep and modulus of elasticity [5, 6and 7]. The chemical and electrochemical properties include attack due to alkali silica reaction, sulphate content, pH, electrical resistivity, chloride and carbonation induced corrosion, whereas the permeability and diffusion characteristics of both materials and at the interface between them are the main consideration for a durable combined system.Previous studies [5 and 6] compared properties of various repair mortars and then used finite elements analysis to study the performance of axially loaded reinforced concrete.In this study the compatibility of five repair mortars and concrete,in terms of modulus of elasticity and shrinkage, was investigated . The paper reviews a simple model describing the modulus and shrinkage behaviour of composite materials and presents an experimental programme on the application of the model. It emphasises the indirect effect of differential shrinkage on the transport properties of the different combined systems.2. Model theoryLet the combined system of parent concrete and repair mortar be subjected to an external stress (σ0), have a modulus of elasticity –E0, Poisson's ratio –μ0and shrinkage –S0. The corresponding properties of the two phases are shown in (parent concrete:symbol ―c‖ and repair mortar: ―m‖).3. Experimental work3.1. Parent concreteThe control concrete mix had the composition of OPC:sand:gravel in the weight ratio of 1:2.33:3.5, with a cement content of 325 kg/m3. The sand grading conformed to zone M of BS 882 [9], and the gravel had a maximum size of 10 mm. The w/c used was 0.55, which resulted in a slump value of 55 mm.Cylindrical specimens (150 mm diameter and 300 mm height, and 75 mm diameter and 265 mm height) were cast for the dimensional stability study. Additional cubes (100 mm) and slabs (400×250×40 mm3) were also cast for studying the properties of the parent concrete.The specimens were demoulded after 24 h and cured in a fog room maintained at 20°C and 99% relative humidity (RH). The properties of the control concrete substrate, measured at the age of 28 days, are given in.The cylindrical concrete specimens were kept in the fog room for 3 months. This long curing period was chosen to provide a relatively old concrete substrate for the repair mortars. The cylinders were then split along their longitudinal axis into two halves following the procedure of BS 1881: Part 117 [10] for tensile splitting strength. The loose particles were removed and the fractured surfaces were cleaned using a wire brush. The split cylinders were transferred to the hot dry environmental chamber controlled at 35°C, 45% RH and 3 m/s wind velocity, and kept there for 7 days beforecasting the repair mortars.3.2. Repair mortarsFive repair materials were selected in this investigation. These include: conventional cementitious, epoxy resin (EP) and polymer modified mortars (PMC). Table 1gives details of the repair materials. The repair mortars used in the study are the same investigated in [11], where their intrinsic properties are reported.3.3. Combined specimensThe half cylinder specimens were sprayed with water and placed again into their original moulds. The other halves of the moulds were cast with the different repair mortars to produce combined specimens. The specimens were compacted and kept covered overnight with wet hessian and polyethylene sheets. After 24 h, the combined specimens were demoulded and cured for 27 days in the same hot dry environment (35°C, 45% RH and 3 m/s wind velocity).The 75-mm diameter cylinders were used for the measurements of shrinkage strains between 3 and 28 days. Demec points were attached to the combined cylinders, on both sides (concrete/repair material), at a gauge length of 200 mm. After 28 days, cores (50-mm diameter) were drilled to have one half of the repair mortar and the other of the parent concrete.These cores were used for studying the effect of differential shrinkage on the transport properties of the combined systems. shows details of the shrinkage cylinder with locations of the Demec points and the drilled cores.The (150-mm) cylinders were used for the measurements of compressive modulus of elasticity and strength at 28 days. Flat loading surfaces were produced by grinding the opposite faces of each cylinder. Strain gauges (20-mm length) were fixed on each side of the repair mortar and the parent concrete as shown in Fig. 4. The specimens were tested using the Tonipact-3000 (cube crushing machine), with a loading rate of 0.2 N/mm2/s. The top loading plate of the machine is initially free to level with the test specimens (up to 5 kN load), then locked automatically to minimise the effect of load eccentricity. Load-strain readings were recorded automatically using a computer data acquisition system.Duplicate specimens were used for each test and the average values were used in presenting the results. The variation of results was less than 10% for the engineering and shrinkage properties, and less than 25% for the transport properties. The testing procedures used for measuring shrinkage, modulus of elasticity and transport properties were similar to those used for testing the individual repair materials in [11].4. Presentation of results4.1. Modulus of elasticityThe modulus of elasticity is the property which controls the load distribution of a combined system composed of two materials. The elastic stress–strain behaviour (up to 1/3 of the failure load) of the individual repair mortars, concrete,and the average values of the combined systems (labelled as Comb) are presented in Figs. 5(a)–(e). The individual values are given in Table 3together with the measured average of the combined systems. Table 3gives also the moduli for the different combined systems (E0), as calculated from Eq. (8) using the individual values of E c and E m.Fig. 5. Stress–strain relationships for the different combined systems: (a) OPC/ concrete system; (b) FA/concrete system, the comb curve falls behind the conc curve; (c) SF/concrete system; (d) PMC/concrete system; (e) EP/concrete system.The results show that, except for the PMC and EP, the modulus values of the cementitious repair mortars are quite similar to that of the parent concrete. Consequently, when combined together, the modulus of OPC, FA and SF combined systems did not change much, indicating only a slight effect on the load distribution of the combined systems and hence modulus compatibility. In contrast to the cementitious mortars, the PMC and the EP mortars had different modulus values to that of the concrete.As a result of the combined action, the PMC repair mortar increased the modulus of concrete,whereas the EC mortar caused a reduction in the concrete modulus.When the values of modulus are compared, the combined (measured) modulus agreeswith the average modulus of the individual materials (E0) to within 10%. This is in compliance with the theory of combined modelling when there is no discontinuity of strain at the interface, for example, cracking and a transitional zone effect. It also suggests that the effect of Poisson's ratio as considered in the derivation of Eq. (6a) is not significant for the materials used.4.2. Compressive strengthFig. 6 shows the stress–strain relationships for the different combined cylinders up to failure, whereas the numerical values of the 28 days compressive strength for the individual repair mortars and the combined cylinders are given in Table 4. Although the PMC showed a relatively higher modulus than that of the concrete, its stress–strain behaviour when combined with the parent concrete was found to be quite similar to those of the cementitious mortars. In fact the compressive strength value for the PMC/concrete was slightly higher than that of the parent concrete. The EP/concrete system showed a different behaviour and exhibited a strength value of 38.4 MPa. This value is relatively low when compared with the individual materials and also when compared to the other combined systems. However, its strain capacity was the greatest .4.3. ShrinkageShrinkage is another important property regarding the dimensional stability of combined systems. Incompatibility due to drying shrinkage causes internal stresses, which might lead to failure at the interface or within the lower strength material. The shrinkage results of the different combined systems are presented in Figs. 7(a)–(e), where the average combined values (Comb) are plotted with values of the individual materials.The results indicate that long moist curing (3 months) significantly reduces the shrinkage of the control concrete even when exposed to the hot dry environment. Most of the shrinkage strains developed within the first 2 weeks, after which it levelled off to show an overall low shrinkage value at the age of 28 days. In contrast to the modulus results, the EP/concrete system (Fig. 7(e)) showed similar behaviour to that of the parent concrete indicating compatibility of shrinkage behaviour. The PMC repair mortars usually incorporate expanding additives whichreduce the shrinkage at early age. This can be seen in Fig. 7(d), where the PMC/ concrete system showed low shrinkage values within the first 10 days, after which the rate of shrinkage development was relatively higher than that of the parent concrete.Incompatibility of shrinkage can be seen clearly from comparing the combined systems with the cementitious repair mortars. Table 5 gives the 28-day shrinkage for the individual materials (S c, S m) together with the average combined measured values (S0) and as calculated from Eq. (9). It should be noted that the values of E in Eq. (2) should strictly be effective values to account for creep. In the present analysis, the difference in creep between the repair material and the parent concrete was neglected. Also, it was assumed that no moisture transfer occurred across the interface since the fractured surface of the substrate was sprayed with water prior to the repair materials being cast.Table 5. Shrinkage strain at 28 days (Microstrains)The highest differential shrinkage was found with the OPC/concrete system. The FA and SF combined systems showed similar behaviour to that of the OPC/ concrete.Similar to the modulus results, the combined shrinkage values (calculated and measured) agree to within 10%, confirming the validity of the combined model proposed and the small influence of Poisson's ratio as considered in the derivation of Eq. (7).4.4. Transport propertiesThe transport properties are of great importance when considering the durability of the repair system. The combined specimens were conditioned and tested in a similar manner to the individual materials used in [11] following the procedure described in [12and 13], which involve the removal of the evaporable water to eliminate the effect of moisture on the measured transport properties. The effect of differential shrinkage on the intrinsic coefficient of oxygen permeability of the combined systems is presented , whereas gives the coefficient of oxygen diffusionresults.By comparing the results of the combined systems, it can be seen that the OPC/ concrete system exhibited the highest permeability value whereas the lowest value was found with the EP/concrete system. This trend is similar to that obtained from the shrinkage results. In fact the permeability of the OPC/concrete and the FA/ concrete systems were about one order of magnitude higher than the individual materials (OPC, FA mortars and parent concrete).The results of oxygen diffusion agree with those obtained from the permeability results. The shrinkage compatibility of the EP/concrete system reduces the diffusion value to be similar to that of the parent concrete.The performance of the PMC/concrete system was adequate when compared with the EP/concrete system.In general the trend of the transport properties of the combined specimens appears to be associated with the differential shrinkage found with the different systems. This would be expected since any weakening at the interface, and consequent increase in permeability and diffusion, would be greater for a higher differential shrinkage. show the coefficients of permeability and diffusion plotted against the relative shrinkage (S m/S c) for the tested combined systems. The general linear relationships obtained indicate that higher differential shrinkage results in higher transport properties and therefore lower resistance to the penetration of harmful substances from aggressive environments.5. DiscussionCompatibility of concrete and repair materials involves matching of different properties between the two systems, as mentioned earlier. Dimensional stability under load application (modulus) was one of the issues considered in this study for the different systems investigated.Mismatch in the modulus of elasticity becomes of great concern in repairs when the applied load is parallel to the bond line in a combined system. The material with the lower modulus deforms more and, therefore, transfers the load, through the interface, to the higher modulus material [14]. If the transferred load exceeds theload-carrying capacity of the material or the bond at the interface, fracture occurs. For the design of an efficient repair,it has been recommended that the repair material should have greater modulus (>30%) than the concrete substrate [15]. Within the different repair mortars used in the study the cementitious mortars provided almost similar moduli values to that of the parent concrete,whereas the mismatch can be seen clearly with the epoxy (polymer) mortar used ( Table 3). Due to the high bond strength of epoxy mortars [16], it forces the concrete to deform more under load application ( Fig. 5and Fig. 6), leading to an early concrete fracture and consequently failure of the combined system.Drying shrinkage was the other parameter used to study the dimensional stability in repair systems. It is mainly influenced by the composition of the materials and the surrounding environments, and achieves a great part of its ultimate value at early ages considering the small size of the samples tested [17]. Larger specimens with a higher volume-to-surface ratio will definitely take more time to shrink. As the fresh repair material tends to shrink, the parent concrete(relatively old) restrains it. The differential movements cause tensile stresses in the repair mortar balanced by compressive stresses within the concrete.Creep in such a situation is an advantage, as it releases part of these stresses. As shrinkage proceeds, the stresses accumulate, which might cause cracks and failure if exceeded the tensile capacity of the repair material or the bond strength at the interface.In contrast to the modulus results, the shrinkage incompatibility is more associated with the cementitious mortars, which reduces sharply with the use of PMC to reach minimum for polymer (EP) mortars. Similar trend of results was found with the transport properties of the different systems, suggesting their dependence on the dimensional stability of combined systems. A general correlation appears to exist between transport properties and differential shrinkage.In general, the results obtained in this investigation indicate that in spite of the superior properties of the epoxy mortar, its compatibility with concrete is mainly affected by the low modulus. The high shrinkage of the cementitious mortars, especially when exposed to hot dry environments limits their compatibility. The most appropriate performance was obtained for the PMC mortar, which showed adequate compatibility in modulus and shrinkage with improved engineering and transportproperties.6. ConclusionsFor the repair materials used in this study and stored under a hot-dry environment, the conclusions can be summarised as follows:1. High shrinkage strains of the cementitious repair mortars affected their compatibility with concrete,and increased indirectly the permeability at the interface of the combined system by one order of magnitude.2. The mismatch in modulus of elasticity between concrete and the epoxy mortar used in the study reduced the load carrying capacity of the combined system.3. Transport properties (namely permeability and diffusion) correlated fairly well with differential shrinkage of the repair material and parent concrete.4. The PMC repair mortar showed the most appropriate properties in terms of dimensional stability with concrete due to similar elastic modulus and low shrinkage strains when compared to the parent concrete.Future research should investigate the dimensional compatibility, including creep and autogenous shrinkage, of repair materials with microstructural studies of the interface and transition zoneCopyright © 1996 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.K. E. Hassan,, J. J. Brooks and L. Al-Alawi中文翻译1在干燥环境下砂浆和混凝土修复的兼容性摘要:在民用工程领域中，建筑物的加固、维护和修理将被更多得关注到。
土木工程英文翻译
【例1.1】Civil engineering offers a particular challenge , because almost every structure orsystem that is designed and built by civil engineers is unique.One structure rarely duplicatesanother exactly.译文:土木工程提出了特殊的挑战,因为由土木工程师设计建造的每个结构或系统几乎都是唯一的。
一个结构几乎不能完全复制另一个【例1.5】If the structure is saved or returned to its original state , additional foundationsupport must be provided.译文:假如建筑物要加以补救或恢复原貌,对基础做支护加固则是非常必要的。
为了使句子简洁精炼,专业英语中大量使用不定式.动名词、分词。
【例1.6】The total weight being less , it is possible to build much taller buildings.译文:由于总重量减轻,就有可能建造更高的楼房。
【例1.7】All the material forming the crust of the earth likely to be affected by the pressureof structures is divided by engineers into two major groups : rocks and soils.译文:受建筑物压力作用的地壳材料被工程人员分成两组,即岩石和土。
【例1.8】Compared with structural materials , such as steel and timber , soil is difficult to investigate scientifically.译文:与钢材、木材等建筑材料相比较,土研究起来颇为困难。
Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems -土木工程外文翻译
Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems -土木工程外文翻译3Building Engineering Ⅱ: Building Structures and SeismicResistance3.1Text3.1.1PassageEarthquake ResistantStructural Systems1Rigid Frame StructuresRigid frame structures typically comprise floor diaphragms supported on beams which link to continuous columns (Figure 3-1). The joints between beam and columns are usually considered to be “rigid”. The frames are expected to carry the gravity loads through the flexural action of the beams and the prop ping action of the columns. Negative moments are induced in the beam adjacent to the columns causing the mid-span positive moment to be significantly less than in a simply supported span. In structures in which gravity loads dictate the design, economies in member size that arise from this effect tend to be offset by the higher cost of the rigid joints.Figure 3-1 Rigidframe structureLateral loads, imposed within the plane of the frame, are resisted through the development of bending moments in the beams and columns. Framed buildings often employ moment resistant frames in two orthogonal directions, in which case the column elements are common to both frames.Rigid frame structures are well suited to accommodate high levels of inelastic deformation. When a capacity design approach is employed, it is usual to assign the end zones of the flexural beams to accept the post-elastic deformation expected, and to design the column members such that their dependable strength is in excess of the over-strength capacity of the beam hinges, thereby ensuring they remain within their elastic response range regardless of the intensity of ground shaking. Rigid frame structures are, however, often quite flexible. When they aredesigned to be fully ductile, special provisions are often needed to prevent the premature onset of damage to non-structural components.Rigid frame construction is ideally suited for reinforced concrete building because of the inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete joints. The rigid frame form is also used for steel framebuildings. But moment resistant connections in steel tend to be costly. The sizes of the columns and girders at any level of a rigid-frame are directly influenced by the magnitude of the external shear at that level, and they therefore increase toward the base. Consequently, the design of the floor framing can not be repetitive as it is in some braced frames. A further result is that sometimes it is not possible in the lowest storeys to accommodate the required depth of girder within the normal ceiling space.While rigid frames of a typical scale that serve alone to resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of about 25 storeys, smaller scale rigid frames in the form of a perimeter tube, or typically scaled rigid frames in combination with shear walls or braced bents, can be economic up to much greater heights.2Infilled Frame StructuresInfilled frames (Figure 3-2) are the most usual form of construction for tall buildings of up to 30 storeys in height. Column and girder framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is infilled by panels of brickwork, or cast-in-place concrete.Figure 3-2 InfilledframeWhen an infilled frame is subjected to lateral loading, the infill behaves effectively as a strut along its compression diagonal to brace the frame. Because the infills serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure.The complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather random quality of masonry, had made it difficult to predicate with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an infilled frame. For these reasons, the use of the infills for bracing buildings has mainly been supplementary to the rigid frame action of concrete frames.3Shear WallsA shear wall is a vertical structural element that resists lateral forces in the plane of the wall through shear and bending. The high in planstiffness and strength of concrete and masonry walls make them ideally suitable for bracing building as shear walls.A shear wall acts as a beam cantilevered out of the ground or foundation9 and, just as with a beam, part of its strength derives from its depth. Figure 3-3 shows two examples of a shear wall, one in a simple one-storey building and another in a multistorey building. In Figure 3-3a, the shear walls are oriented in one direction, so only lateral forces in this direction can be resisted. The roof serves as the horizontal diaphragm and must also be designed to resist the lateral loads and transfer them to the shear walls.a) End shear walls and interior shear wall b)Interior shear walls forbracing in two directionFigure 3-3 Shear wallFigure 3-3a also shows an important aspect of shear walls in particular and vertical elements in general. This is the aspect of symmetry that has a bearing on whether torsional effects will be produced. The shear walls in Figure 3-3a show the shear walls symmetrical in the plane of loading.Figure 3-3b illustrates a common use of shear walls at the interior of a multi-storey building. Because walls enclosing stairways, elevator shafts, and mechanical chases are mostly solid and run the entire height of the building, they are often used for shear walls. Although not as efficient from a strictly structural point of view, interior shear walls do leave the exterior of the building open for windows.Notice that in Figure 3-3b there are shear walls in both directions, which is a more realistic situation because both wind and earthquake forces need to be resisted in both directions. In this diagram, the two shear walls are symmetrical in one direction, but the single shear wall produces a nonsymmetric condition in the other since it is off center. Shear walls do not need to be symmetrical in a building, but symmetry is preferred to avoid torsional effects. If, in low-to medium-rise building, shear walls are combined with frames, it is reasonable to assume that the shear wall attract all the lateral loading so that the frame may be designed for only gravity loading. It is essentially important in shear wall structures to try to plan the wall layout so that the lateral load tensile stresses are suppressed by the gravity load stresses. This allows them to be designed to have only the minimum reinforcement.Since shear walls are generally both stiff and can be inherently robust, it is practical to design them to remain nominally elastic under design intensity loadings, particularly in regions of low or moderate seismicity. Under increased loadingintensities, post-elastic deformations will develop within the lower portion of the wall (generally considered to extend over a height of twice the wall length above the foundation support system).Good post-elastic response can be readilyachieved within this region of reinforced concrete or masonry shear walls through the provision of adequate confinement of the principal reinforcing steel and the prohibition oflap splices of reinforcing bars. Shear wall structures are generally quite stiff and, as such interstorey drift problems are rare and generally easily contained. The shear wall tends to act as a rigid body rotating about a plastic hinge which forms at the base of the wall. Overall structural deformation is thus a function of the wall rotation. Inter-storey drift problems which do occur are limited to the lower few floors.A major shortcoming with shear walls within buildings is that their size provides internal (or external) access barriers which may contravene the architectural requirements. This problem canbe alleviated by coupling adjacent more slender shear walls so a coupled shear wall structure is formed. The coupling beams then become shear links between the two walls and with careful detailing can provide a very effective, ductile control mechanism (Figure 3-4).Figure 3-4 Coupled shear wallstructure4Braced FramesA braced frame is a truss system of the concentric or eccentric type in which the lateral forces are resisted through axial stresses in the members. Just as with a truss, the braced frame depends on diagonal members to provide a load path for lateral forces from each building element to the foundation. Figure 3-5 shows a simple one-storey braced frame. At one end of the building two bays are braced and at the other end only one bay is braced. This building is only braced in one direction and the diagonal member may be either in tension or compression,depending on which way the force is applied.a)Single story braced buildingb) Multistory bracedbuilding Figure 3-5Braced frameFigure 3-5b shows two methods of bracing a multistorey building. A single diagonal compression member in one bay can be used to brace against lateral loads coming from either direction. Alternately, tension diagonals can be used to accomplish the same result, but they must be run both ways to account for the load coming from either direction.Braced framing can be placed on the exterior or interior of a building, and may be placed in one structural bay or several. Obviously, a braced frame can present design problems for windows and doorways, but it is a very efficientand rigid lateral force resisting system.Two major shortcomings of braced systems are that their inclined diagonal orientation oftenconflicts with conventional occupancy use patterns; and secondly they often require careful detailing to avoid large local torsional eccentricities being introduced at the connections with the diagonal brace being offset from the frame node.5Wall-frame StructuresWhen shear walls are combined with rigid frames (Figure 3-6), the walls, which tend to deflect in a flexural configuration, and the frames, which tend to deflect in a shear mode, are constrained to adopt a common shape by the horizontal rigidity of the girders and slabs. As a consequence, the walls and frames interact horizontally, especially at the top, to produce a stiffer and stronger structure. The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for buildings in the 40-to-60-storey range, well beyond of rigid frame or shear wall alone.Figure 3-6Wall-frame structureIn addition, less well-known feature of the wall- frame structure is that, in a carefully “tuned” structure, the shear in the frame can be made approximately uniform over the height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive. Although the wall-frame structure is usually perceived as a concrete structural form, with shear walls and concrete frames, a steel counterpart using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefit of horizontal interaction. The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact with the shear mode of the rigid frames.6Framed-Tube StructuresThe lateral resistance of framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment resisting frames that form a “tube” around the perimeter of the building. The frames consist of closely spaced column, 2~4m between centers, joined by deep spandrel girders (Figure 3-7). Although the tube carries all the lateral loading, the gravity load is shared between the tube and interior columns or walls. When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frames aligned in thedirection of loading act as the “web” of the massive tube cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the “flanges”.Figure 3-7Frame-tube structureThe close spacing of the columns throughout the height of the structures is usually unacceptable at the entrance level. The columns are therefore merged, or terminated on a transfer beam, a few storeys above the base so that only a few, larger, more widely spaced columns continue to the base. The tube form was developed originally for buildings of rectangular plan; however, for other plan shapes, and has occasionally been used in circular and triangular configurations.The tube is suitable for both steel and reinforced construction and has been used for buildings ranging from 40 to more storeys. The highly repetitive pattern of the frames lends itself to prefabrication in steel, and to the use of rapidly gang forms in concrete, which make for rapid construction.The framed tube has been one of the most significant modern developments in high-rise structural form. It offers a relatively efficiently, easily constructed structure, appropriate for use up to the greatest of heights. Aesthetically, the tube’s externally evident form is regarded with mixed enthusiasm: some praise the logical clearly expressed structure while others criticize the girder-like façade as small-windowed and uninteresting repetitious.The tube structure’s structural efficiency, although high, still leaves scope for improvement because the “flange” frames tend to suffer from “shear lag”; this result in mid-face “flange” columns being less stresses than the corner columns and, therefore, not contributing as fully as they could to the flange action.7Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core StructuresThis variation of the framed tube consists of an outer framed tube, the “hull” together with an internal elevator and service core (Figure 3-8). The hull and the inner core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading. In a steel structure the core may consist of braced frames, whereas in a concrete structure it wouldconsist of an assembly of shear walls.Figure 3-8Tube-in-tubeTo some extent, the outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall-frame structure, with the benefit of increase lateral stiffness. However, the structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of its much greater structural depth.8Braced-Tube StructuresAnother way of improving the efficiency of the framed tube, thereby increasing its potential for greater heights as well as allowing greater spacing between the columns, is to add diagonal bracing to the faces of the tube. This arrangement was first used in a steel structure in 1969, in Chicago’s John Hancock Building (Figure 3-9). Because the diagonal of a braced tube are connected to the columns at each intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange and web frames.As a result, the structure behaves under lateral loading more like a braced frame, with greatly diminished bending in the members of the frames. Consequently, the spacing of the columns can be larger and the depth of the spandrels less, thereby allowing larger size windows than in the conventional tube structure.Figure 3-9Braced-TubeStructuresIn the braced-tube structure the bracing contributes also to the improved performance of the tube in carrying gravity loading: differences between gravity load stresses in the columns are evened out by the braces transferring loading from the more highly to the less highly stressed columns.9Bundled-Tube StructuresThis structural form has been used for the Sears Tower in Chicago. The Sears Tower consists of four parallel rigid steel frames in each orthogonal direction, interconnected to form nine “bundled” tubes. As in the single-tube structure, the frames in the direction of lateral loading serves as “webs” of the vertical cantilever, with the normal frame acting as “flanges”.The introduction of internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges; consequently their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single-tube structure, and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is great. This allows columns of the frames to be spaced further apart and to be less obtrusive. In the Sears Tower, advantage was taken of the bundled form to discontinue some of the tubes, and so reduce the plan of the building at stages up to the height.3.1.2New Words and Expressionsbraced frame支撑框架braced-tube桁架筒bundled-tube束筒couplingbeam 连梁coupledshear wall 联肢墙framedtube 框筒inter-storeydrift 层间位移propping[ 'prɔpiŋ ] n. 支撑rigid frame框架shear lag 剪力滞后spandrel [ 'spændrəl ] n.上下层窗间墙stairway [ 'stεəwei ] n.楼梯transfer beam 转换粱tube-in-tube / hull-core 筒中筒wall-frame structure 框架-剪力墙结构3.1.3Exercises1Please name the types of earthquake resistant structural systems.2How does a rigid frame structureresist the gravity load and lateralload? 3 Why are shear walls in both directions preferred?4 How are the loads shared between frame and tube in a framed-tube structure?3.2Reading Materials3.2.1Passage OneReinforced ConcreteStructuresConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from thewide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.1Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage or temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In the plain concrete beam, the moments due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a form or mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place during the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed.2Factors Affecting Choice of Concrete for aStructureThe choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions.(1)EconomyFrequently, the foremost consideration is the overall cost of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building isready for occupancy. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. Any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important considerations.(2)Suitability of Material for Architectural andStructural FunctionA reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shape and texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements as flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete wails can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size or shape is governed by the designer and not bythe availability of standard manufactured members.(3)Fire ResistanceThe structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished.A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must befireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.(4)RigidityThe occupants of a building may be disturbed if their building oscillates in the wind or the floors vibrate as people walk by. Due to the greater stiffness and mass of a concrete structure, vibrations are seldom a problem.(5)Low MaintenanceConcrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure.(6)Availability of MaterialsSand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are very widely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include: (1)Low Tensile StrengthAs stated earlier, the tensile strength of concrete is much lower than its compressive strength (about 1/10), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water.(2)Forms and ShoringThe construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are the construction of the forms, the removal of these forms, and propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and/or materials which are not necessary with other forms of construction.(3)Relatively Low Strength per Unit of Weightor VolumeThe compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5% to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does acomparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.(4)Time-dependent Volume ChangesBoth concrete and steel undergo approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of Steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better conductor than concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes drying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.3Building CodesThe first set of building regulations for reinforced concrete were drafted under the leadership of Professor Morsch of the University of Stuttgart and were issued in Prussia in 1904. Design regulations were issued in Britain, France, Austria, and Switzerland between 1907 and 1909.The American Railway Engineering Association appointed a Committee on Masonry in 1890. In 1903 this committee presented specifications for Portland cement concrete. Between 1908 and 1910 a series of committee reports led to the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete published in 1910 by the National Association of Cement Users which subsequently became the American Concrete Institute.A Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete was established in 1904 by the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Railway Engineering Association, and the Association of American Portland Cement Manufactures. This group was later joined by the American Concrete Institute. Between 1904 and 1910 the Joint Committee carried out research. A preliminary report issued in 1913 lists the more important papers and books on reinforced concrete published between 1898 and 1911. The final report of this committee was published in 1916. The history of reinforced concrete building codes in the United States wasreviewed in 1954 by Kerekes and Reid.The design and construction of buildings is regulated by municipal bylaws called building codes. These exist to protect the public health and safety. Each city and town is free to write or adopt its own building code, and in that city or town, only that particular code has legal status. Because of the complexity of building code writing, cities in the United States generally base their building codes on one of three model codes: the Uniform Building Code, the Standard Building Code, or the Basic Building Code. These codes cover such things as use and occupancy requirements, fire requirements, heating and ventilating requirements, and structural design.The definitive design specification for reinforced concrete buildings in North America is the Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-318-95), which is explained in a Commentary.This code, generally referred to as the ACI Code, has been incorporated in most building codes in the United States and serves as the basis for comparable codes in Canada, New Zealand,Australia, and parts of Latin America. The ACI Code has legal status only if adopted in a local building code.Each nation or group of nations in Europe has its own building code for reinforced concrete. The CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures is intended to serve as the basis for future attempts to unify European codes. This code and the ACI Code are similar in many ways.3.2.2Passage TwoEarthquake Induced Vibration ofStructures1Seismicity and Ground MotionsThe most common cause of earthquakes is thought to be the violent slipping of rock masses along major geological fault lines in the Earth’s crust, or lithosphere. These fault lines divide the global crust into about 12 major tectonic plates, which are rigid, relatively cool slabs about 100km thick. Tectonic plates float on the molten mantle of the Earth and move relative to one another at the rate of 10 to 100mm/year.The basic mechanism causing earthquakes inthe plate boundary regions appears to be that the continuing deformation of the crustal structure eventually leads to stresses which exceed the material strength. A rupture will then initiate at some critical point along the fault line and willpropagate rapidly through the highly stressed material at the plate boundary. In some cases, the plate margins are moving away from one another. In those cases, molten rock appears from deep in the Earth to fill the gap, often manifesting itself as volcanoes. If the plates are pushing together, one plate tends to dive under the other and, depending on the density of the material, it may resurface in the form of mountains and valleys. In both these scenarios, there may be volcanoes and earthquakes at the plate boundaries, both being caused by the same mechanism of movement in the Earth's crust. Another possibility is that the plate boundaries will slide sideways past each other, essentially retaining the local surface area of the plate. It is believed that about three quarters of the world's earthquakes are accounted for by this rubbing-striking-slipping mechanism, with ruptures occurring on faults on boundaries between tectonic plates. Earthquake occurrence maps tend to outline the plate boundaries. Such earthquakes are referred to as interplate earthquakes.Earthquakes also occur at locations away。
土木工程外文翻译
外文翻译Reinforced concrete structure of the basic ideologicalearthquakeSummary :Greater resistance to mainly rely on extensive structural role of the non-seismic deformation flexibility, the role of the earthquake, the structure of the piping and structural strength are equally important significance. Lower coefficient of earthquake seismic intensity of the security role in the decision to lower the overall structure of the yield of standard size and structure of the extensive demand. Currently, the law has design capacity for universal acceptance, through capacity design law, a rational energy mechanism for plasticity pair appeared in remote parts easy assurance; Ensure that the structure does not meet the extensive needs of the former does not lapse sheared; Construction and the adoption of measures to ensure remote parts of the full play.Keywords :Extensive seismic intensity earthquake capacity factorEarthquake disaster facing humanity is one of the serious natural disasters. Earthquake characteristics are outbursted, so far predictability in remains low. Strong earthquakes often cause tremendous personal and property losses. China is earthquake-prone countries, the need to consider our earthquake-proof cover a vast area, and therefore the structure of the earthquake research in the country with full performance of the need.To better implement norms on earthquake norms must be clearly formulated basic idea, the basic principles of clear earthquake design. The emphasis is in the following a- reas to be addressed.1 role in the earthquake, the intensity and structure of blindly pursuing undesirable, the piping structure is very importantEarthquake is divided into small ,tremendous, and intermediate. Often refers to the so-called small Zhen earthquake, the probability is about 50 years in 63%, again for 50 years. China Zhen is a probability that 50 years is about 10%, again for 475 years. A-nd the second refers to the rare event of an earthquake, the probability of a 50-year 2%～３％, again for 1641～2475 years. For students and the random nature of a great earthquake load, the intensity will be greater than the structure response, almost imposs-ible, but it is not the economy. The ability to bear the expense of social and economic f-actors constraining, we can only from the perspective of probability, the probability that the structure of a certain safety function properly. This determines the basic principles of earthquake design in our more commonly known as the "small tremors are not bad,i-ntermediate earthquake may repair, not just turkey."Small earthquake is role, without injury or without structural repairs will be able to use. From the perspective of the analysis of structural earthquake, the structure is ca-lled "small earthquake " role of a quasi-state response flexibility, without access to the b-uildings had been used and non-structural components of the non-flexible response to the state; At the same time the structure of the lateral deformation within a reasonable limit should be controlled within the purpose of enabling the structure had enough pow-er to resist lateral rigidity.China earthquake roughly equivalent of to our security intensity earthquake, when encountered, earthquake role,buildings can be a certain degree of damage, the repair or restoration can continue to use without. From an economic perspective, the maintenance costs can not be too high.Very small probability of occurrence of an earthquake Ying Han ( "second" high -intensity than once about security intensity around). When asked structures encounter-ed in the "second" role, not a life-threatening collapse or serious damage.Such a goal is very reasonable economic earthquake security. Because the earthq-ake occurred too casually, if we blindly pursue structural strength to ensure that the role of the earthquake tremors or even not bad structure, which would make a very large am-ount of material in most of the time, even in the whole life are not fully play its role in t-he state, this is unwise.The guiding principle in the design of the structure in such a situation requires : When small Zhen season, should ensure that all components of the structure in earthq-uake resistance effort, sufficient strength to make it essentially a flexible state. And thr-ough who checked the small role of the flexible shift Zhen common structure to ensure not bad. At this stage will not happen obvious structural components nonlinear distorti-on, without the need for special construction measures. earthquake role in China, the st-ructure of certain key strength than flexibility, entered into, and there is a greater defor- mation, to the non-linear stage, then, we will make extensive special requirements (rem- ote that when the earthquake occurred force structure larger nonlinear distortion, struc- ture still maintain its initial intensity capacity is a flexible structure over the stage defor- mation capacity It is a sign of strength structural earthquake capacity. It includes the ab- ility to withstand extreme deformation and energy absorption characteristics by sluggish back capacity, it is a very important earthquake design of the character). These Zhen ar- rival time because of a non-structural characteristics of flexibility, some of the key areas over its roundsSexual intensity goes into plasticity state. Because it some remote, it can be assu- med nonlinear plasticity deformation, it can spend in the deformationAnd absorb earthquake energy. Cost is likely to lead to a broad cracks, the conc- rete epidermis of carcasses, off may have some residual deformation, but does not lead to security failures to meet the security objectives, Zhen may repair. At this stage the st- ructure, piping will make corresponding requirements, and extensive detail on the cons- truction depends on the measures designed to guarantee. When the second season when the structure of the very large nonlinear distortion may occur irreparably damaged. At this stage the structure requires the adoption of its structure would not collapse to ensure Tansuxing deformation.Therefore, we usually only with small effects and other load Zhen role of the basic effect combinations, who checked the structure and components of what cross-sectionof earthquake flexible deformation. And the effect of Zhen role requires a certain struc- ture on the plasticity deformation capacity (remote) resistance. So extensive structure of the building earthquake is extremely important.2 earthquakes of the size reduction coefficient determines the design of earthq- uake choose size to determine the size of the piping requirements On the basis of the above, the seismic design for what could be the role for small level of the earthquakes, when the advent of greater earthquakes, depending on the str- ucture of the piping to resist. Therefore, we do not access security intensity earthquake effort to structure what design and the security needs of a lower coefficient of intensity earthquakes, known as seismic capacity factor.Seismic capacity factor greater access is on a smaller role in the design of earthq- uake; Obtain lower coefficient of smaller earthquakes, seismic design on a greater role. In the same security intensity of earthquakes of greater access to lower coefficient, the more the role of small earthquakes, then this small earthquakes role designed structure more low-yield standard means that the corresponding structure in a strong degree of non-seismic deformation greater flexibility, This requires a larger structure to ensure its larger non-ductile deformation of achieving flexibility, and thus to the request for more extensive. This extensive grading structure is lower seismic design requirements of the remote choose two higher "high extensive hierarchical" structure. Earthquake power to obtain lower coefficientSmaller, the greater the role of the earthquake, then this big earthquake role desi- gned structure on the higher yield levels, means that the corresponding structure in the strong earthquakes of a level of the non-flexible deformation more small, which only need a structure for the smaller piping to ensure it smaller non-realization of a flexible deformation, and thus to remote request gets. This extensive grading structure is a hig- her power choose two lower extensive seismic design requirements "low extensive hie- archical" structure. In the same security intensity of the earthquake is in the middle of lwer coefficient for the earthquake role for the middle, resulting in extensive request for the middle. This extensive grading structure for the middle of choose mdium extenve seismic design requirements of the "middle-class remote" structure. Thus, the earthqua-ke of the size factor in the decision to reduce the size of the design seismic forces choo-se to determine the size of piping required.3 several kind of basic earthquake resistances systems performance3.1 Frame construction system: According to the above ability design mentality, t-hrough the reasonable design, may make the portal frame construction the ductility fra-me. The ductility frame under the big quake function, after appears beam hinge first, ap-pears the column articulation such one kind to consume energy the organization diffuse-on massive earthquakes energy, the structure can withstand the certain lateral deformati-on. Therefore the pure portal frame construction is one kind of earthquake resistance pe-rformance very good structure. But at the same time us also saw to as a result of pure fr-ame anti- side rigidity small, creates the side moves the value quite in a big way, thereo-fre the constructive height not suitable too is high. Non- structural unit for instance pac-king wall under earthquake function, also possibly appears the crack and the destruction. Between the frame and the packing wall rigid joint creates the rigidity increases the ef-fect also possibly to create designs on had not considered to increases side force. If is h-alf high packing wall, but also can cause to form the short stump, the rigidity increases, the withstanding very big shearing force, creates the pillar the shearing failure.3.2 Shear wall structure system: Shearing force wall structure supporting capacity and rigidity all very big, the side moves distorts slightly, therefore its use scope may be higher than the pure portal frame construction. Is suitable also may use in the shearing force wall in the portal frame construction component non- linear earthquake resistance performance principle overall, also may design into the shearing force wall the ductility shearing force wall, also may come the diffusion earthquake energy by the stable way. But, in shearing force wall no matter is wall extremity binding beam, its section characteristic is short but high, this kind of component to detrusion quite sensitive, is easy to appear the crack, is easy to appear the brittle shearing failure. Therefore must carry on the careful reasonable design, only then can enable the shearing force wall to have the good earthquake resistance performance and the good ductility ability. The shearing force wall destruction shape if cuts steps compared to have the very big relations, to cuts steps compared to the very small low wall, by the shearing failure shape primarily, the plastic deformation ability is very bad, therefore should avoid in the anti-seismic structure using the low wall. Regarding the bracket wall energy aerodynamic, mainly is leaves the articulation through the wall bottom to carry on. But regarding the joint extremity wall, passes through reasonably supposes as follows the hole position, enable its energy aerodynamic mechanism with to have the strong column weak bream's bream articulation organization to be similar, forms strong wall weak bream, namely binding beam the bream end leaves the articulation, the wall bottom leaves the articulation, but the wall other places, do not appear the plastic hinge. Otherwise, if binding beam stronger than wall extremity, then can appear with the column articulation organization same level distortion organization. Regarding the long bracket wall, usually through artificial opens the hole to cause it to turn the joint extremity wall, because the bracket wall took calmly decides the structure, once has a section destruction to expire, can cause the structure to expire and to collapse, but unites the extremity wall then may design Cheng Qiangqiang weak bream, leaves the articulation number to be many, consumes energy in a big way. Cuts weakly with frame design is curved same, bindingbeam pole strength the extremity also needs to pass "strongly cuts weakly is curved" enhances its anti- cuts the bearing capacity, postpones the shearing failure, thus improves its ductility. But its own section characteristic influence, the component still cannot guarantee does not have the shearing failure, specially binding bea m, in the ordinary circumstances ordinary matches when muscl binding beamis difficult to realizes the high ductility, the design, must specially take the measure to change its performance.3.3frame shear walls structure system: Is the frame and the shearing force wall unifies in together resists vertical and the horizontal load one kind of system together, it uses the shearing force wall the high anti- lateral force rigidity and the supportingcapacity, makes up the portal frame construction anti- side rigidity to be bad, distortion big weakness. As a result of the shearing force wall and the frame joint operation, improved the pure frame and the pure shear wall distortion performance, always distorts reduces, the level distorts reduces, moreover about tends to evenly, about the frame various story posts stress quite is also even. Moreover, under the earthquake function, the shearing force wall undertook the majority of shearing force, the frame has undertaken very small part of shearing force only, usually all was the shearing force wall submits first, after the shearing force wall will submit has the endogenic force redistribution, the frame assignment shearing force can increase, if the earthquake function continued to increase, the portal frame construction also could submit, causes it to form the curve distribution to tally well.钢筋混凝土结构的基本抗震思想摘要：结构主要靠延性来抵抗较大地震作用下的非弹性变形，因此，地震作用下，结构的延性与结构的强度具有同等重要的意义。
土木施工外文翻译
土木施工外文翻译Lesson 1 Civil Engineering——土木工程土木工程是最古老的工程专业之一，它包括对建筑外界的规划、设计、施工以及管理。
建筑外界包括从灌溉排水系统到火箭发射设施在内的所有按科学原理建造的结构物。
土木工程师修建道路、桥梁、隧道、大坝、港口、发电厂、给排水系统、医院、学校、公共交通等公共设施，这些是现代社会和人口密集地所必需的。
他们也修建私有设施，如飞机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼等工业、商业或居住用的大型结构物。
另外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城镇，最近还设计了设备齐全的空间站。
单词“ civil”来自于拉丁文中的“citizen”。
1872年，英国人John Smeaton 采用这一术语把他的民用工程与那时占主导地位的的军事工程区别开来。
从此，“土木工程”经常用于指修建公共设施的工程师的工作领域，虽然“土木工程”所包含的领域要宽广得多。
——范围土木工程工作范围很广，因此可以把土木工程细分为许多技术专业。
不同类型的项目可能需要许多技术专业土木工程师的技术合作。
开始一个项目时，负责功能（给水、排水、电力管线）布置的工程师对工地进行测量并绘制成图；土工专家进行土壤试验以确定泥土是否可以承受得住结构物重量；环境专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物的影响以及如何设计以达到政府旨在保护环境的要求；交通工程专家选择交通设施类型以缓解项目竣工时对当地道路和其它交通网络所增加的负担；同时，结构专家利用初步数据进行细部设计、整体设计和工程说明制定。
从工程开始到完工，由工程管理专家统一管理、协调这些土木工程师的工作。
在其他专家提供的信息的基础上，工程管理人员预算人工、材料的数量和费用，安排所有的工作进度，订购材料和设备，雇佣承包人和分包人，以及其它的工程管理以确保工程保质保量按时完成。
任何项目中土木工程师都广泛应用到计算机。
计算机（指计算机辅助设计或CAD）被用于设计工程的各种单元和管理工程。
土木工程 专业外语词汇大全中英翻译
土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译1. 综合类大地工程geotechnical engineering反分析法back analysis method基础工程foundation engineering临界状态土力学critical state soil mechanics数值岩土力学numerical geomechanics土soil, earth土动力学soil dynamics土力学soil mechanics岩土工程geotechnical engineering应力路径stress path应力路径法stress path method2. 工程地质及勘察变质岩metamorphic rock标准冻深standard frost penetration冰川沉积glacial deposit冰积层（台）glacial deposit残积土eluvial soil, residual soil层理beding长石feldspar沉积岩sedimentary rock承压水confined water次生矿物secondary mineral地质年代geological age地质图geological map地下水groundwater断层fault断裂构造fracture structure工程地质勘察engineering geological exploration海积层（台）marine deposit海相沉积marine deposit花岗岩granite滑坡landslide化石fossil化学沉积岩chemical sedimentary rock阶地terrace节理joint解理cleavage喀斯特karst矿物硬度hardness of minerals砾岩conglomerate流滑flow slide陆相沉积continental sedimentation泥石流mud flow, debris flow年粘土矿物clay minerals凝灰岩tuff牛轭湖ox-bow lake浅成岩hypabyssal rock潜水ground water侵入岩intrusive rock取土器geotome砂岩sandstone砂嘴spit, sand spit山岩压力rock pressure深成岩plutionic rock石灰岩limestone石英quartz松散堆积物rickle围限地下水（台）confined ground water 泻湖lagoon岩爆rock burst岩层产状attitude of rock岩浆岩magmatic rock, igneous rock岩脉dike, dgke岩石风化程度degree of rock weathering 岩石构造structure of rock岩石结构texture of rock岩体rock mass页岩shale原生矿物primary mineral云母mica造岩矿物rock-forming mineral褶皱fold, folding钻孔柱状图bore hole columnar section3. 土的分类饱和土saturated soil超固结土overconsolidated soil冲填土dredger fill充重塑土冻土frozen soil, tjaele非饱和土unsaturated soil分散性土dispersive soil粉土silt, mo粉质粘土silty clay高岭石kaolinite过压密土（台）overconsolidated soil红粘土red clay, adamic earth黄土loess, huangtu(China)蒙脱石montmorillonite泥炭peat, bog muck年粘土clay年粘性土cohesive soil, clayey soil膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil欠固结粘土underconsolidated soil区域性土zonal soil人工填土fill, artificial soil软粘土soft clay, mildclay, mickle砂土sand湿陷性黄土collapsible loess, slumping loess素填土plain fill塑性图plasticity chart碎石土stone, break stone, broken stone, channery, chat, crushed sto ne, deritus未压密土（台）underconsolidated clay无粘性土cohesionless soil, frictional soil, non-cohesive soil岩石rock伊利土illite有机质土organic soil淤泥muck, gyttja, mire, slush淤泥质土mucky soil原状土undisturbed soil杂填土miscellaneous fill正常固结土normally consolidated soil正常压密土（台）normally consolidated soil自重湿陷性黄土self weight collapse loess4. 土的物理性质阿太堡界限Atterberg limits饱和度degree of saturation饱和密度saturated density饱和重度saturated unit weight比重specific gravity稠度consistency不均匀系数coefficient of uniformity, uniformity coefficient触变thixotropy单粒结构single-grained structure蜂窝结构honeycomb structure干重度dry unit weight干密度dry density塑性指数plasticity index含水量water content, moisture content活性指数级配gradation, grading结合水bound water, combined water, held water界限含水量Atterberg limits颗粒级配particle size distribution of soils, mechanical composi tion of soil可塑性plasticity孔隙比void ratio孔隙率porosity粒度granularity, grainness, grainage粒组fraction, size fraction毛细管水capillary water密度density密实度compactionness年粘性土的灵敏度sensitivity of cohesive soil平均粒径mean diameter, average grain diameter曲率系数coefficient of curvature三相图block diagram, skeletal diagram, three phase diagram三相土tri-phase soil湿陷起始应力initial collapse pressure湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility缩限shrinkage limit土的构造soil texture土的结构soil structure土粒相对密度specific density of solid particles土中气air in soil土中水water in soil团粒aggregate, cumularpharolith限定粒径constrained diameter相对密度relative density, density index相对压密度relative compaction, compacting factor, percent compa ction, coefficient of compaction絮状结构flocculent structure压密系数coefficient of consolidation压缩性compressibility液限liquid limit液性指数liquidity index游离水（台）free water有效粒径effective diameter, effective grain size, effective size有效密度effective density有效重度effective unit weight重力密度unit weight自由水free water, gravitational water, groundwater, phreatic water 组构fabric最大干密度maximum dry density最优含水量optimum water content5. 渗透性和渗流达西定律Darcy s law管涌piping浸润线phreatic line临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient流函数flow function流土flowing soil流网flow net砂沸sand boiling渗流seepage渗流量seepage discharge渗流速度seepage velocity渗透力seepage force渗透破坏seepage failure渗透系数coefficient of permeability渗透性permeability势函数potential function水力梯度hydraulic gradient6. 地基应力和变形变形deformation变形模量modulus of deformation泊松比Poisson s ratio布西涅斯克解Boussinnesq s solution残余变形residual deformation残余孔隙水压力residual pore water pressure超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure沉降settlement沉降比settlement ratio次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation地基沉降的弹性力学公式elastic formula for settlement calculation 分层总和法layerwise summation method负孔隙水压力negative pore water pressure附加应力superimposed stress割线模量secant modulus固结沉降consolidation settlement规范沉降计算法settlement calculation by specification回弹变形rebound deformation回弹模量modulus of resilience回弹系数coefficient of resilience回弹指数swelling index建筑物的地基变形允许值allowable settlement of building剪胀dilatation角点法corner-points method孔隙气压力pore air pressure孔隙水压力pore water pressure孔隙压力系数Apore pressure parameter A孔隙压力系数Bpore pressure parameter B明德林解Mindlin s solution纽马克感应图Newmark chart切线模量tangent modulus蠕变creep三向变形条件下的固结沉降three-dimensional consolidation settl ement瞬时沉降immediate settlement塑性变形plastic deformation谈弹性变形elastic deformation谈弹性模量elastic modulus谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium体积变形模量volumetric deformation modulus先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure压缩层压缩模量modulus of compressibility压缩系数coefficient of compressibility压缩性compressibility压缩指数compression index有效应力effective stress自重应力self-weight stress总应力total stress approach of shear strength最终沉降final settlement7. 固结巴隆固结理论Barron s consolidation theory比奥固结理论Biot s consolidation theory超固结比over-consolidation ratio超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure次固结secondary consolidation次压缩（台）secondary consolidatin单向度压密（台）one-dimensional consolidation多维固结multi-dimensional consolidation固结consolidation固结度degree of consolidation固结理论theory of consolidation固结曲线consolidation curve固结速率rate of consolidation固结系数coefficient of consolidation固结压力consolidation pressure回弹曲线rebound curve井径比drain spacing ratio井阻well resistance曼代尔－克雷尔效应Mandel-Cryer effect潜变（台）creep砂井sand drain砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 时间对数拟合法logrithm of time fitting method时间因子time factor太沙基固结理论Terzaghi s consolidation theory太沙基－伦杜列克扩散方程Terzaghi-Rendulic diffusion equation先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure压密（台）consolidation压密度（台）degree of consolidation压缩曲线cpmpression curve一维固结one dimensional consolidation有效应力原理principle of effective stress预压密压力（台）preconsolidation pressure原始压缩曲线virgin compression curve再压缩曲线recompression curve主固结primary consolidation主压密（台）primary consolidation准固结压力pseudo-consolidation pressureK0固结consolidation under K0 condition8. 抗剪强度安息角（台）angle of repose不排水抗剪强度undrained shear strength残余内摩擦角residual angle of internal friction残余强度residual strength长期强度long-term strength单轴抗拉强度uniaxial tension test动强度dynamic strength of soils峰值强度peak strength伏斯列夫参数Hvorslev parameter剪切应变速率shear strain rate抗剪强度shear strength抗剪强度参数shear strength parameter抗剪强度有效应力法effective stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法total stress approach of shear strength库仑方程Coulomb s equation摩尔包线Mohr s envelope摩尔－库仑理论Mohr-Coulomb theory内摩擦角angle of internal friction年粘聚力cohesion破裂角angle of rupture破坏准则failure criterion十字板抗剪强度vane strength无侧限抗压强度unconfined compression strength有效内摩擦角effective angle of internal friction有效粘聚力effective cohesion intercept有效应力破坏包线effective stress failure envelope有效应力强度参数effective stress strength parameter有效应力原理principle of effective stress真内摩擦角true angle internal friction真粘聚力true cohesion总应力破坏包线total stress failure envelope总应力强度参数total stress strength parameter9. 本构模型本构模型constitutive model边界面模型boundary surface model层向各向同性体模型cross anisotropic model超弹性模型hyperelastic model德鲁克－普拉格准则Drucker-Prager criterion邓肯－张模型Duncan-Chang model动剪切强度非线性弹性模量nonlinear elastic model盖帽模型cap model刚塑性模型rigid plastic model割线模量secant modulus广义冯·米赛斯屈服准则extended von Mises yield criterion广义特雷斯卡屈服准则extended tresca yield criterion加工软化work softening加工硬化work hardening加工硬化定律strain harding law剑桥模型Cambridge model柯西弹性模型Cauchy elastic model拉特－邓肯模型Lade-Duncan model拉特屈服准则Lade yield criterion理想弹塑性模型ideal elastoplastic model临界状态弹塑性模型critical state elastoplastic model流变学模型rheological model流动规则flow rule摩尔－库仑屈服准则Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion内蕴时间塑性模型endochronic plastic model内蕴时间塑性理论endochronic theory年粘弹性模型viscoelastic model切线模量tangent modulus清华弹塑性模型Tsinghua elastoplastic model屈服面yield surface沈珠江三重屈服面模型Shen Zhujiang three yield surface method双参数地基模型双剪应力屈服模型twin shear stress yield criterion双曲线模型hyperbolic model松岗元－中井屈服准则Matsuoka-Nakai yield criterion塑性形变理论谈弹塑性模量矩阵elastoplastic modulus matrix谈弹塑性模型elastoplastic modulus谈弹塑性增量理论incremental elastoplastic theory谈弹性半空间地基模型elastic half-space foundation model谈弹性变形elastic deformation谈弹性模量elastic modulus谈弹性模型elastic model魏汝龙－Khosla－Wu模型Wei Rulong-Khosla-Wu model文克尔地基模型Winkler foundation model修正剑桥模型modified cambridge model准弹性模型hypoelastic model10. 地基承载力冲剪破坏punching shear failure次层（台）substratum地基subgrade, ground, foundation soil地基承载力bearing capacity of foundation soil地基极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil地基允许承载力allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil地基稳定性stability of foundation soil汉森地基承载力公式Hansen s ultimate bearing capacity formula极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium加州承载比（美国）California Bearing Ratio局部剪切破坏local shear failure临塑荷载critical edge pressure梅耶霍夫极限承载力公式Meyerhof s ultimate bearing capacity formula 普朗特承载力理论Prandel bearing capacity theory斯肯普顿极限承载力公式Skempton s ultimate bearing capacity formula太沙基承载力理论Terzaghi bearing capacity theory魏锡克极限承载力公式Vesic s ultimate bearing capacity formula 整体剪切破坏general shear failure11. 土压力被动土压力passive earth pressure被动土压力系数coefficient of passive earth pressure极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium静止土压力earth pressue at rest静止土压力系数coefficient of earth pressur at rest库仑土压力理论Coulomb s earth pressure theory库尔曼图解法Culmannn construction朗肯土压力理论Rankine s earth pressure theory朗肯状态Rankine state谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium土压力earth pressure主动土压力active earth pressure主动土压力系数coefficient of active earth pressure12. 土坡稳定分析安息角（台）angle of repose分析毕肖普法Bishop method分析边坡稳定安全系数safety factor of slope分析不平衡推理传递法unbalanced thrust transmission method分析费伦纽斯条分法Fellenius method of slices分析库尔曼法Culmann method分析摩擦圆法friction circle method分析摩根斯坦－普拉斯法Morgenstern-Price method分析铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope分析瑞典圆弧滑动法Swedish circle method分析斯宾赛法Spencer method分析泰勒法Taylor method分析条分法slice method分析土坡slope分析土坡稳定分析slope stability analysis分析土坡稳定极限分析法limit analysis method of slope stability分析土坡稳定极限平衡法limit equilibrium method of slope stability 分析休止角angle of repose分析扬布普遍条分法Janbu general slice method分析圆弧分析法circular arc analysis13. 土的动力性质比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity波的弥散特性dispersion of waves波速法wave velocity method材料阻尼material damping初始液化initial liquefaction地基固有周期natural period of soil site动剪切模量dynamic shear modulus of soils动力布西涅斯克解dynamic solution of Boussinesq 动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor动力性质dynamic properties of soils动强度dynamic strength of soils骨架波akeleton waves in soils几何阻尼geometric damping抗液化强度liquefaction stress孔隙流体波fluid wave in soil损耗角loss angle往返活动性reciprocating activity无量纲频率dimensionless frequency液化liquefaction液化势评价evaluation of liquefaction potential液化应力比stress ratio of liquefaction应力波stress waves in soils振陷dynamic settlement阻尼damping of soil阻尼比damping ratio14. 挡土墙挡土墙retaining wall挡土墙排水设施挡土墙稳定性stability of retaining wall垛式挡土墙扶垛式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall后垛墙（台）counterfort retaining wall基础墙foundation wall加筋土挡墙reinforced earth bulkhead锚定板挡土墙anchored plate retaining wall锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall锚杆式挡土墙anchor rod retaining wall悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall悬壁式挡土墙cantilever sheet pile wall重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall15. 板桩结构物板桩sheet pile物板桩结构sheet pile structure物钢板桩steel sheet pile物钢筋混凝土板桩reinforced concrete sheet pile物钢桩steel pile物灌注桩cast-in-place pile物拉杆tie rod物锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall物锚固技术anchoring物锚座Anchorage物木板桩wooden sheet pile物木桩timber piles物悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall16. 基坑开挖与降水板桩围护sheet pile-braced cuts电渗法electro-osmotic drainage管涌piping基底隆起heave of base基坑降水dewatering基坑失稳instability (failure) of foundation pit基坑围护bracing of foundation pit减压井relief well降低地下水位法dewatering method井点系统well point system喷射井点eductor well point铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope砂沸sand boiling深井点deep well point真空井点vacuum well point支撑围护braced cuts17. 浅基础补偿性基础compensated foundation持力层bearing stratum次层（台）substratum单独基础individual footing倒梁法inverted beam method刚性角pressure distribution angle of masonary foundation 刚性基础rigid foundation高杯口基础基础埋置深度embeded depth of foundation基床系数coefficient of subgrade reaction基底附加应力net foundation pressure交叉条形基础cross strip footing接触压力contact pressure静定分析法（浅基础）static analysis (shallow foundation)壳体基础shell foundation扩展基础spread footing片筏基础mat foundation浅基础shallow foundation墙下条形基础热摩奇金法Zemochkin s method柔性基础flexible foundation上部结构－基础－土共同作用分析structure- foundation-soil interactionanalysis 谈弹性地基梁（板）分析analysis of beams and slabs on elastic foundation条形基础strip footing下卧层substratum箱形基础box foundation18. 深基础贝诺托灌注桩Benoto cast-in-place pile波动方程分析Wave equation analysis场铸桩（台)cast-in-place pile沉管灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile沉井基础open-end caisson foundation沉箱基础box caisson foundation成孔灌注同步桩synchronous pile承台pile caps充盈系数fullness coefficient单桩承载力bearing capacity of single pile单桩横向极限承载力ultimate lateral resistance of single pile单桩竖向抗拔极限承载力vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile单桩竖向抗压容许承载力vertical ultimate carrying capacity of single pile单桩竖向抗压极限承载力vertical allowable load capacity of single pile低桩承台low pile cap地下连续墙diaphgram wall点承桩（台）end-bearing pile动力打桩公式dynamic pile driving formula端承桩end-bearing pile法兰基灌注桩Franki pile负摩擦力negative skin friction of pile钢筋混凝土预制桩precast reinforced concrete piles钢桩steel pile高桩承台high-rise pile cap灌注桩cast-in-place pile横向载荷桩laterally loaded vertical piles护壁泥浆slurry coat method回转钻孔灌注桩rotatory boring cast-in-place pile静力压桩silent piling抗拔桩uplift pile抗滑桩anti-slide pile摩擦桩friction pile木桩timber piles嵌岩灌注桩piles set into rock群桩pile groups群桩效率系数efficiency factor of pile groups群桩效应efficiency of pile groups群桩竖向极限承载力vertical ultimate load capacity of pile groups 深基础deep foundation竖直群桩横向极限承载力无桩靴夯扩灌注桩rammed bulb ile桩piles桩基动测技术dynamic pile test钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation钻孔扩底灌注桩under-reamed bored pile钻孔压注桩starsol enbesol pile最后贯入度final set19. 地基处理表层压密法surface compaction超载预压surcharge preloading袋装砂井sand wick地工织物geofabric, geotextile地基处理ground treatment, foundation treatment电动化学灌浆electrochemical grouting电渗法electro-osmotic drainage顶升纠偏法定喷directional jet grouting冻土地基处理frozen foundation improvement短桩处理treatment with short pile堆载预压法preloading粉体喷射深层搅拌法powder deep mixing method复合地基composite foundation干振成孔灌注桩vibratory bored pile高压喷射注浆法jet grounting灌浆材料injection material灌浆法grouting硅化法silicification夯实桩compacting pile化学灌浆chemical grouting换填法cushion灰土桩lime soil pile挤密灌浆compaction grouting挤密桩compaction pile, compacted column挤淤法displacement method加筋法reinforcement method加筋土reinforced earth碱液法soda solution grouting浆液深层搅拌法grout deep mixing method降低地下水位法dewatering method坑式托换pit underpinning冷热处理法freezing and heating锚固技术anchoring锚杆静压桩托换anchor pile underpinning排水固结法consolidation膨胀土地基处理expansive foundation treatment劈裂灌浆fracture grouting浅层处理shallow treatment强夯法dynamic compaction人工地基artificial foundation容许灌浆压力allowable grouting pressure褥垫pillow软土地基soft clay ground砂井sand drain砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 砂桩sand column山区地基处理foundation treatment in mountain area深层搅拌法deep mixing method渗入性灌浆seep-in grouting湿陷性黄土地基处理collapsible loess treatment石灰系深层搅拌法lime deep mixing method石灰桩lime column, limepile树根桩root pile水泥土水泥掺合比cement mixing ratio水泥系深层搅拌法cement deep mixing method水平旋喷horizontal jet grouting塑料排水带plastic drain碎石桩gravel pile, stone pillar天然地基natural foundation土工聚合物Geopolymer土工织物geofabric, geotextile土桩earth pile托换技术underpinning technique外掺剂additive旋喷jet grouting药液灌浆chemical grouting预浸水法presoaking预压法preloading真空预压vacuum preloading振冲法vibroflotation method振冲密实法vibro-compaction振冲碎石桩vibro replacement stone column振冲置换法vibro-replacement振密、挤密法vibro-densification, compacting置换率（复合地基）replacement ratio重锤夯实法tamping桩式托换pile underpinning桩土应力比stress ratio20. 动力机器基础比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity等效集总参数法constant strain rate consolidation test地基固有周期natural period of soil site动基床反力法dynamic subgrade reaction method动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor隔振isolation基础振动foundation vibration基础振动半空间理论elastic half-space theory of foundation vibration 基础振动容许振幅allowable amplitude of foundation vibration基础自振频率natural frequency of foundation集总参数法lumped parameter method吸收系数absorption coefficient质量－弹簧－阻尼器系统mass-spring-dushpot system21. 地基基础抗震地基固有周期natural period of soil site地震earthquake, seism, temblor地震持续时间duration of earthquake地震等效均匀剪应力equivalent even shear stress of earthquake地震反应谱earthquake response spectrum地震烈度earthquake intensity地震震级earthquake magnitude地震卓越周期seismic predominant period地震最大加速度maximum acceleration of earthquake动力放大因数dynamic magnification factor对数递减率logrithmic decrement刚性系数coefficient of rigidity吸收系数absorption coefficient22. 室内土工试验比重试验specific gravity test变水头渗透试验falling head permeability test不固结不排水试验unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test常规固结试验routine consolidation test常水头渗透试验constant head permeability test单剪仪simple shear apparatus单轴拉伸试验uniaxial tensile test等速加荷固结试验constant loading rate consolidatin test等梯度固结试验constant gradient consolidation test等应变速率固结试验equivalent lumped parameter method反复直剪强度试验repeated direct shear test反压饱和法back pressure saturation method高压固结试验high pressure consolidation test各向不等压固结不排水试验consoidated anisotropically undrained test 各向不等压固结排水试验consolidated anisotropically drained test共振柱试验resonant column test固结不排水试验consolidated undrained triaxial test固结快剪试验consolidated quick direct shear test固结排水试验consolidated drained triaxial test固结试验consolidation test含水量试验water content test环剪试验ring shear test黄土湿陷试验loess collapsibility test界限含水量试验Atterberg limits test卡萨格兰德法Casagrande s method颗粒分析试验grain size analysis test孔隙水压力消散试验pore pressure dissipation test快剪试验quick direct shear test快速固结试验fast consolidation test离心模型试验centrifugal model test连续加荷固结试验continual loading test慢剪试验consolidated drained direct shear test毛细管上升高度试验capillary rise test密度试验density test扭剪仪torsion shear apparatus膨胀率试验swelling rate test平面应变仪plane strain apparatus三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test砂的相对密实度试验sand relative density test筛分析sieve analysis渗透试验permeability test湿化试验slaking test收缩试验shrinkage test塑限试验plastic limit test缩限试验shrinkage limit test土工模型试验geotechnical model test土工织物试验geotextile test无侧限抗压强度试验unconfined compression strength test无粘性土天然坡角试验angle of repose of cohesionless soils test压密不排水三轴压缩试验consolidated undrained triaxial compression test 压密排水三轴压缩试验consolidated drained triaxial compressure test压密试验consolidation test液塑限联合测定法liquid-plastic limit combined method液限试验liquid limit test应变控制式三轴压缩仪strain control triaxial compression apparatus应力控制式三轴压缩仪stress control triaxial compression apparatus有机质含量试验organic matter content test真三轴仪true triaxial apparatus振动单剪试验dynamic simple shear test直剪仪direct shear apparatus直接剪切试验direct shear test直接单剪试验direct simple shear test自振柱试验free vibration column testK0固结不排水试验K0 consolidated undrained testK0固结排水试验K0 consolidated drained test23. 原位测试标准贯入试验standard penetration test表面波试验surface wave test超声波试验ultrasonic wave test承载比试验Califonia Bearing Ratio Test单桩横向载荷试验lateral load test of pile单桩竖向静载荷试验static load test of pile动力触探试验dynamic penetration test静力触探试验static cone penetration test静力载荷试验plate loading test跨孔试验cross-hole test块体共振试验block resonant test螺旋板载荷试验screw plate test旁压试验pressurementer test轻便触探试验light sounding test深层沉降观测deep settlement measurement十字板剪切试验vane shear test无损检测nondestructive testing下孔法试验down-hole test现场渗透试验field permeability test原位孔隙水压力量测in situ pore water pressure measurement原位试验in-situ soil test最后贯入度final set。
土木工程 翻译
土木工程翻译Civil engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure. It is one of the oldest engineering disciplines and encompasses various fields such as structural engineering, transportation engineering, environmental engineering, and geotechnical engineering.Structural engineering focuses on the design and analysis of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams. This involves calculating loads and stresses and ensuring that these structures can withstand them safely.Transportation engineering deals with the planning, design, and operation of transportation systems such as highways, railways, and airports. It involves studying traffic flow, designing roads and traffic signals, and optimizing transportation networks. Environmental engineering is concerned with the protection and improvement of the natural environment. It involves the management of waste, water, and air pollution, as well as the design of systems for water and wastewater treatment.Geotechnical engineering is the study of soil and rock mechanics and their applications in civil engineering. It involves analyzing the properties of soils and rocks to design foundations, excavations, and slopes.In addition to these core fields, civil engineering also includes other disciplines such as construction engineering, coastal engineering, and urban planning. Construction engineering focuseson the management and execution of construction projects, ensuring that they are completed on time and within budget. Coastal engineering deals with the planning and design of coastal structures to protect against erosion and storm surges. Urban planning involves the design and development of cities and towns, considering factors such as land use, transportation, and infrastructure.Civil engineers work on a wide range of projects, from small-scale residential buildings to large-scale infrastructure projects such as highways and airports. They are responsible for ensuring the safety, efficiency, and sustainability of these projects. They work closely with architects, surveyors, and construction workers to bring their designs to life.In conclusion, civil engineering is a diverse and multidisciplinary field that plays a crucial role in shaping the built environment. It involves the design, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure and encompasses various sub-disciplines such as structural engineering, transportation engineering, environmental engineering, and geotechnical engineering. Civil engineers are responsible for creating and maintaining the infrastructure that supports our modern society.。
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本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译译文学生姓名：院（系）：专业班级：指导教师：完成日期：钢筋混凝土填充框架结构对拆除两个相邻的柱的响应作者：Mehrdad Sasani 美国波士顿东北大学，斯奈尔400设计中心MA02115收稿日期：2007年7月27日，修整后收稿日期2007年12月26日，录用日期2008年1月24日，网上上传日期2008年3月19日。
摘要：本文是评价圣地亚哥旅馆对同时拆除两根相邻的外柱的响应问题，圣地亚哥旅馆是个6层钢筋混凝土填充框架结构。
结构的分析模型应用了有限元法和以此为基础的分析模型来计算结构的整体和局部变形。
分析结果跟实验结果非常吻合。
当测量的竖向位移增加到为四分之一英寸（即6.4mm）的时候，结构就发生连续倒塌。
通过实验分析方法评价和讨论随着柱的移除而产生的变形沿着结构高度上的发展和荷载动态重分配。
讨论了轴向和弯曲的变形传播的不同。
结构横向和纵向的三维桁架在填充墙的参与下被认为是荷载重分配的主要构件。
讨论了两种潜在的脆性破坏模型（没有拉力加强的梁的脆断和有加筋肋的梁的挤出）。
分析评价了结构对额外的重力和无填充墙时的响应。
Elsevier有限责任公司对此文保留所有权利。
关键词：连续倒塌；荷载重分配；对荷载抵抗能力；动态响应；非线性分析；脆性破坏。
1. 介绍：作为减小由于结构的局部损坏而造成大量伤亡的可能性措施的一部分，美国总务管理局【1】和国防部【2】出台了一系列制度来评价结构对连续倒塌的抵抗力。
【3】定义连续倒塌为，由原始单元的局部破坏在单元间的扩展最终造成结构的整体或不成比例的大部破坏。
通过Ellingwood 和Leyendecker【4】建议的方法，ASCE/SEI 7定义了两种一般模型来减小结构设计时连续倒塌效应产生的损害，它们分为直接和间接的设计方法。
一般建筑规范和标准用增加结构的整体性的间接设计方法。
间接设计法也应用于美国国防部的降低连续倒塌设计和未归档设备标准中。
尽管间接设计法可以降低连续破坏的风险【6，7】，对基于此法设计的结构破坏后的表现的判断是不容易实现的。
有一种基于直接设计的方法通过研究瞬间消除受载构件，比如柱子，对结构的影响来评价结构的连续倒塌。
美国防部和国家事务管理局的规章是要求去除一个受荷构件，考虑其影响。
这样的规范目的是评价结构的整体性和结构的一个单元出现严重的毁坏时的分荷能力。
这种方法是研究结构受连续倒塌的影响的程度，但是事实上初始结构损伤的影响不止局限于某一根柱子。
在本论文中，应用通过实验证实的分析结果，评价圣地亚哥旅馆抵抗连续破坏的能力，实验中瞬间移除两个相邻的柱子，其中一个柱是拐角柱。
为了爆除这两个柱子，将炸药放在预先在柱子上钻的孔里面。
柱子然后再用几层保护材料包裹好，以避免爆炸时的冲击波和碎片影响结构的其他部分。
2. 建筑的特性圣地亚哥旅馆建造于1914年，在1924年又向南扩展了一部分，此部分包括两个分离的结构。
图.1是从南边看旅馆的样子。
注意这张照片，旅馆的第一和第三层被用黑色的布蒙了起来。
这个六层的旅馆是无延性的钢筋混凝土框架结构，其中还有由空心砖构成的填充外墙。
扩展部分的填充墙有两层共203mm厚。
第一层的楼高为6.0m，其他楼盖高为3.2m，顶楼高度为5.13m。
图.2为其中一个扩展部分的第二层。
图.3为对本建筑的实施计划，即瞬间爆除一层相邻的柱A2和A3，以评价其影响。
左图：图.1 圣地亚哥旅馆的南端视角，本论文研究其中心结构右图：图.2 扩展结构的第二层（南端视角）下图：图.3 拟对旅馆南扩展部分实施的柱的移除计划，第一层要被移除的柱用叉号标出如图.3所示楼盖系统纵向（南北向）有一个托梁。
根据两个混凝土构件受压的实验结果，对一个标准的混凝土柱，受压承载力为31MPa。
混凝土的弹性模量大概为26300MPa左右。
同样，通过横截面12.7mm的钢筋受拉实验，其屈服和极限抗拉强度分别为427和600MPa。
钢筋的极限变形为0.17。
钢筋的弹性模量近似为200000MPa。
这个建筑按计划将被爆破摧毁。
作为摧毁的一个步骤，第一层和第三层的填充墙被移除。
移除时上面没有活荷载。
所有的非结构部件包括隔墙、管道设备、家具都被事先搬走了，只有梁、柱、楼板梁和在边梁上的填充墙被留下。
3. 传感器布置混凝土和钢筋的应变传感器是用来测量梁和柱的应变变化的。
线性电位计用来测量整体和局部变形。
混凝土应变测量仪常900mm，最大应变为±0.02.钢筋应变测量仪应变极限为±0.2。
应变测量仪可以带到几百千赫兹。
电位计用来测量建筑中梁沿一端的转动和整体位移，这些以后将讲到。
电位计的分辨率为0.01mm，最大速度为1.0m/s，实验中最大记录速度为0.35m/s。
4. 有限元模型通过有限单元法，在软件SAP2000【8】中生成一个建筑模型。
梁和柱都被抽象成Bernoulli单元。
T和L型梁的翼缘计算宽度为四倍的较厚板的厚度【5】。
塑性铰可以发生在任何钢筋可能发生屈服的地方，包括单元的端点、加筋肋分离点和弯矩的屈服点。
在分析中，塑性铰的范围是构件高度的一半。
现行版本的SAP2000不能计算出单元斜裂缝的构成。
为了得出正确的构件挠曲刚度，反复做以下步骤：首先假设建筑的所有单元都是没有裂缝的；然后，需要弯矩同构件的出现裂缝的弯矩相比较。
分别降低板厚和梁的惯性矩35%，使需求弯矩大于裂缝出现弯矩。
梁外部出现裂缝的正负弯矩分别为58.2knM和37.9knM。
需要注意的是柱子没有裂缝出现。
再后，再按以上方法重新分析建筑和弯矩简图。
重复这些步骤直到所有的裂缝区域被鉴定和用模型表示出来。
除了两端区域建筑结构里的梁上部不配筋（图.4）。
例如，梁A1-A2在距A1点305mm以后，其上部不配筋（如图.4和5）。
为了确定出可能丧失挠曲强度的截面位置，将裂纹铰布置在上部没有配筋的可能的弯曲破坏点上。
塑性铰的挠曲强度设为于Mcr相等，当所受的弯矩达到Mcr时，该截面即发生破坏。
图.4 二层的梁A3-B3和梁A1-A2详细配筋情况楼盖系统有沿纵向（南北向）的次梁。
图.6所示为一典型的楼盖的横截面。
为了计算出次梁和板的可能的非线性响应，用梁单元为楼盖建立模型。
次梁按T型梁计算，翼缘的计算宽度为各自板厚的四倍【5】。
选取轴2和轴3的纵梁和其之间的一个宽20英寸的梁间的格栅为板的计算模型。
为了给出板沿横向的计算模型，同样用一个宽20英寸于横梁平行的梁。
在方形的板中其剪力流和梁单元的中的不一样。
所以其扭转刚度取为整个截面刚度的一半【9】。
图.5 梁的上部配筋弯曲位置（于梁A1-A2相似，在邻近建筑靠近柱A1的地方）图.6 典型的楼盖的次梁系统图.7 实验和分析的第二层柱A3的竖向位移建筑的2、4、5、6层有填充墙，并在门窗等开口位置有过梁，如前面提到的第1、三层的填充墙，在爆除前已经拆掉。
填充墙是用良好的空隙砖砌成的，空心砖的净空是其总大小的一半。
填充墙的平面效应增强了建筑的刚度和强度，并且影响建筑的对荷载反应即变形。
如果忽略墙的影响将得不到准确的建筑的刚度和强度。
在SAP2000中考虑了两种填充墙的形式：一种是用平面框架模型（模型A），另一种是FEMA365【10】中建议的受压杆件模型（模型B）。
4.1模型A是平面框架模型，但是，现行版本的SAP2000只能计算线性框架模型，不能计算裂缝的发展情况。
填充墙的抗拉强度大概为26psi，弹性模量为644ksi【10】。
由于裂缝的发展对填充墙的刚度影响很大，重复以下步骤来计算裂缝的形成：（1）假设填充墙是线性的而且没有开裂，运行非线性历史分析。
由于梁中的塑性铰的存在，梁中弯矩大于裂缝出现弯矩时候，对截面惯性矩有一个折减。
（2）判定填充墙出现的依据是看其应力于墙的抗拉强度大小关系。
（3）节点在拉应力大于抗拉强度的地方分离。
重复上面的步骤直到裂缝区域被确定。
4.2.模型B（受压杆件模型）如FEMA356【10】所述用受压杆件来代替填充墙，杆件的方向根据移除柱后的结构变形形式和开口位置确定。
4.3.柱的移除按以下步骤模拟柱的移除。
结构是在只受永久荷载下分析的，内力在柱端测定，将随着柱的移除而卸荷。
模型的建立是在移除第一层的柱A2、A3的情况下进行的。
结构同样是在永久荷载下进行静态分析的。
在此情况下，测得的柱端内力被当成永久外部荷载施加在结构上。
注意此分析结果跟第一步的分析是等价的。
第二步中大小相等方向相反的柱端力，被瞬间施加在原柱的位置上，然后进行动态分析。
4.4.实验和分析结果的比较结构计算最大竖向位移在第二层的柱A3上，图7所示为按模型A的实验和分析的梁A3竖向位移的比较。
实验数据是用三个粘在A3两端的传感器记录的。
实验和分析得到的最大位移分别是6.1mm和6.4mm，相差尽为4%。
实验和分析的位移产生所用时间分别为0.069S和0.066S。
分析结果显示永久位移为5.3mm，比实验结果小14%，实验结果为6.1mm。
图.8.第二层的柱A3在模型A和B下分别沿时间的竖向位移图.8.比较了第二层的柱A3分别在模型A和B下分析的沿时间的竖向位移。
由图中可以看出，按受压杆件模型（模型B）得出的最大竖向位移为11.4mm,比用模型A得出的结果高出约80%。
在图.7.可以看出按模型A得出的结果与实验结果是想接近的，B模型得出的结构变形过高。
如果最大竖向位移偏大的话，填充墙开裂情况会更加严重，更偏向于受压杆件形成，模型A和模型B得出结果差异将减小。
图.9.比较了用模型A时第二层的柱A2的分析和实验的位移值。
同样，第一次达到最大位移值的实验和分析值非常接近，分析的永久位移值比实验的位移值略微低些。
图.10.所示为根据模型A得出的最大竖向位移的结构变形放大200倍后的情况。
图.9.第二层的柱A2竖向位移实验和分析结果比较图.10.按模型A，FEM分析的结构变形形式（第二层的实验得出变形形式也给出）通过实测得的变形形式在图中也用实线标出了。
在二层的梁A1-A2、A3-B3的上下端部应力重分配复杂的地方共用了14个电位计。
梁上部和对应的下部电位计接在一起用来测量梁的扭转变形。
用上下端部电位计的差值除以电位计的距离（沿梁高）。
分析推算的二层梁端部变形曲线如图中的曲线所示。
由图可以看出，分析的变形梁的变形曲线跟实验所得结果非常吻合。
根据模型A分析结果表明预示钢筋屈服的塑性铰只有两个，四个没有上部配筋的截面，到达屈服极限而开裂。
图.10.给出了所有的塑性铰及开裂位置。
Response of a reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure to removal of two adjacent columnsMehrdad Sasani_Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, MA 02115,United StatesReceived 27 June 2007; received in revised form 26 December 2007; accepted24 January 2008Available online 19 March 2008AbstractThe response of Hotel San Diego, a six-story reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure, is evaluated following the simultaneous removal of two adjacent exterior columns. Analytical models of the structure using the Finite Element Method as well as the Applied Element Method are used to calculate global and local deformations. The analytical results show good agreement with experimental data. The structure resisted progressive collapse with a measured maximum vertical displacement of only one quarter of an inch (6.4 mm). Deformation propagation over the height of the structure and the dynamic load redistribution following the column removal are experimentally and analytically evaluated and described. The difference between axial and flexural wave propagations is discussed. Three-dimensional Vierendeel (frame) action of the transverse and longitudinal frames with the participation of infill walls is identified as the major mechanism for redistribution of loads in the structure. The effects of two potential brittle modes of failure (fracture of beam sections without tensile reinforcement and reinforcing bar pull out) are described. The response of the structure due to additional gravity loads and in the absence of infill walls is analytically evaluated.c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Progressive collapse; Load redistribution; Load resistance; Dynamic response; Nonlinear analysis; Brittle failure1. IntroductionAs part of mitigation programs to reduce the likelihood of mass casualties following local damage in structures, the General Services Administration [1] and the Department of Defense [2] developed regulations to evaluate progressive collapse resistance of structures. ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines progressive collapse as the spread of an initial local failure from element to element eventually resulting in collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it. Following the approaches proposed by Ellingwood and Leyendecker [4], ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines two general methods for structural design of buildings to mitigate damage due to progressive collapse: indirect and direct design methods. General building codes and standards [3,5] use indirect design by increasing overall integrity of structures. Indirect design is also used in DOD [2]. Although the indirect design method can reduce the risk of progressive collapse [6,7] estimation ofpost-failure performance of structures designed based on such a method is not readily possible. Oneapproach based on direct design methods to evaluate progressive collapse of structures is to study the effects of instantaneous removal of load-bearing elements, such as columns. GSA [1] and DOD [2] regulations require removal of one load bearing element. These regulations are meant to evaluate general integrity of structures and their capacity of redistributing the loads following severe damage to only one element. While such an approach provides insight as to the extent to which the structures are susceptible to progressive collapse, in reality, the initial damage can affect more than just one column. In this study, using analytical results that are verified against experimental data, the progressive collapse resistance of the Hotel San Diego is evaluated, following the simultaneous explosion (sudden removal) of two adjacent columns, one of which was a corner column. In order to explode the columns, explosives were inserted into predrilled holes in the columns. The columns were then well wrapped with a few layers of protective materials. Therefore, neither air blast nor flying fragments affected the structure.2. Building characteristicsHotel San Diego was constructed in 1914 with a south annex added in 1924. The annex included two separate buildings. Fig. 1 shows a south view of the hotel. Note that in the picture, the first and third stories of the hotel are covered with black fabric. The six story hotel had a non-ductile reinforced concrete (RC) frame structure with hollow clay tile exterior infill walls. The infills in the annex consistedof two wythes (layers) of clay tiles with a total thickness of about 8 in (203 mm). The height of the first floor was about 190–800 (6.00 m). The height of other floors and that of the top floor were 100–600 (3.20 m) and 160–1000 (5.13 m), respectively. Fig. 2 shows the second floor of one of the annex buildings. Fig. 3 shows a typical plan of this building, whose response following the simultaneous removal (explosion) of columns A2 and A3 in the first (ground) floor is evaluated in this paper. The floor system consisted of one-way joists running in the longitudinal direction (North–South), as shown in Fig. 3. Based on compression tests of two concrete samples, the average concrete compressive strength was estimated at about 4500 psi (31 MPa) for a standard concrete cylinder. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was estimated at 3820 ksi (26 300 MPa) [5]. Also, based on tension tests of two steel samples having 1/2 in (12.7 mm) square sections, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths were found to be 62 ksi (427 MPa) and 87 ksi (600 MPa), respectively. The steel ultimate tensile strain was measured at 0.17. The modulus of elasticity of steel was set equal to 29 000 ksi (200 000 MPa). The building was scheduled to be demolished by implosion. As part of the demolition process, the infill walls were removed from the first and third floors. There was no live load in the building. All nonstructural elements including partitions, plumbing, and furniture were removed prior to implosion. Only beams, columns, joist floor and infill walls on the peripheral beams were present.3. SensorsConcrete and steel strain gages were used to measure changes in strains of beams and columns. Linear potentiometers were used to measure global and local deformations. The concrete strain gages were 3.5 in (90 mm) long having a maximum strain limit of ±0.02. The steel strain gages could measure up to a strain of ±0.20. The strain gages could operate up to a several hundred kHz sampling rate. The sampling rate used in the experiment was 1000 Hz. Potentiometers were used to capture rotation (integral of curvature over a length) of the beam end regions and global displacement in the building, as described later. The potentiometers had a resolution of about 0.0004 in (0.01 mm) and a maximum operational speed of about 40 in/s (1.0 m/s), while the maximum recorded speed in the experiment was about 14 in/s (0.35 m/s).4. Finite element modelUsing the finite element method (FEM), a model of the building was developed in the SAP2000 [8] computer program. The beams and columns are modeled with Bernoulli beam elements. Beams have T or L sections with effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Plastic hinges are assigned to all possible locations where steel bar yielding can occur, including the ends of elements as well as the reinforcing bar cut-off and bend locations. The characteristics of the plastic hinges are obtained using section analyses of the beams and columns and assuming a plastic hinge length equal to half of the section depth. The current version of SAP2000 [8] is not able to track formation of cracks in the elements. In order to find the proper flexural stiffness of sections, an iterative procedure is used as follows. First, the building is analyzed assuming all elements are uncracked. Then, moment demands in the elements are compared with their cracking bending moments, Mcr . The moment of inertia of beam and slab segments are reduced by a coefficient of 0.35 [5], where the demand exceeds the Mcr. The exterior beam cracking bending moments under negative and positive moments, are 516 k in (58.2 kN m) and 336 k in (37.9 kN m), respectively. Note that no cracks were formed in the columns. Then the building is reanalyzed and moment diagrams are re-evaluated. This procedure is repeated until all of the cracked regions are properly identified and modeled.The beams in the building did not have top reinforcing bars except at the end regions (see Fig. 4). For instance, no top reinforcement was provided beyond the bend in beam A1–A2, 12 inches away from the face of column A1 (see Figs. 4 and 5). To model the potential loss of flexural strength in those sections, localized crack hinges were assigned at the critical locations where no top rebar was present. Flexural strengths of the hinges were set equal to Mcr. Such sections were assumed to lose their flexural strength when the imposed bending moments reached Mcr.The floor system consisted of joists in the longitudinal direction (North–South). Fig. 6 shows the cross section of a typical floor. In order to account for potential nonlinear response of slabs and joists, floors are molded by beam elements. Joists are modeled with T-sections, having effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Given the large joist spacing between axes 2 and 3, two rectangular beam elements with 20-inch wide sections are used between the joist and the longitudinal beams of axes 2 and 3 to model the slab in the longitudinal direction. To model the behavior of the slab in the transverse direction, equally spaced parallel beams with 20-inch wide rectangular sections are used. There is a difference between the shear flow in the slab and that in the beam elements with rectangular sections modeling the slab. Because of this, the torsional stiffness is setequal to one-half of that of the gross sections [9].The building had infill walls on 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th floors on the spandrel beams with some openings (i.e. windows and doors). As mentioned before and as part of the demolition procedure, the infill walls in the 1st and 3rd floors were removed before the test. The infill walls were made of hollow clay tiles, which were in good condition. The net area of the clay tiles was about 1/2 of the gross area. The in-plane action of the infill walls contributes to the building stiffness and strength and affects the building response. Ignoring the effects of the infill walls and excluding them in the model would result in underestimating the building stiffness and strength.Using the SAP2000 computer program [8], two types of modeling for the infills are considered in this study: one uses two dimensional shell elements (Model A) and the other uses compressive struts (Model B) as suggested in FEMA356 [10]guidelines.4.1. Model A (infills modeled by shell elements)Infill walls are modeled with shell elements. However, the current version of the SAP2000 computer program includes only linear shell elements and cannot account for cracking. The tensile strength of the infill walls is set equal to 26 psi, with a modulus of elasticity of 644 ksi [10]. Because the formation ofcracks has a significant effect on the stiffness of the infill walls, the following iterative procedure is used to account for crack formation:(1) Assuming the infill walls are linear and uncracked, a nonlinear time history analysis is run. Note that plastic hinges exist in the beam elements and the segments of the beam elements where moment demand exceeds the cracking moment have a reduced moment of inertia.(2) The cracking pattern in the infill wall is determined by comparing stresses in the shells developed during the analysis with the tensile strength of infills.(3) Nodes are separated at the locations where tensile stress exceeds tensile strength. These steps are continued until the crack regions are properly modeled.4.2. Model B (infills modeled by struts)Infill walls are replaced with compressive struts as described in FEMA 356 [10] guidelines. Orientations of the struts are determined from the deformed shape of the structure after column removal and the location of openings.4.3. Column removalRemoval of the columns is simulated with the following procedure.(1) The structure is analyzed under the permanent loads and the internal forces are determined at the ends of the columns, which will be removed.(2) The model is modified by removing columns A2 and A3 on the first floor. Again the structure is statically analyzed under permanent loads. In this case, the internal forces at the ends of removed columns found in the first step are applied externally to the structure along with permanent loads. Note that the results of this analysis are identical to those of step 1.(3) The equal and opposite column end forces that were applied in the second step are dynamically imposed on the ends of the removed column within one millisecond [11] to simulate the removal of the columns, and dynamic analysis is conducted.4.4. Comparison of analytical and experimental resultsThe maximum calculated vertical displacement of the building occurs at joint A3 in the second floor. Fig. 7 shows the experimental and analytical (Model A) vertical displacements of this joint (the AEM results will be discussed in the next section). Experimental data is obtained using the recordings of three potentiometers attached to joint A3 on one of their ends, and to the ground on the other ends. The peak displacements obtained experimentally and analytically (Model A) are 0.242 in (6.1 mm) and 0.252 in (6.4 mm), respectively, which differ only by about 4%. The experimental and analytical times corresponding to peak displacement are 0.069 s and 0.066 s, respectively. The analytical results show apermanent displacement of about 0.208 in (5.3 mm), which is about 14% smaller than the corresponding experimental value of 0.242 in (6.1 mm).Fig. 8 compares vertical displacement histories of joint A3 in the second floor estimated analytically based on Models A and B. As can be seen, modeling infills with struts (Model B) results in a maximum vertical displacement of joint A3 equal to about 0.45 in (11.4 mm), which is approximately 80% larger than the value obtained from Model A. Note that the results obtained from Model A are in close agreement with experimental results (see Fig. 7), while Model B significantly overestimates the deformation of the structure. If the maximum vertical displacement were larger, the infill walls were more severely cracked and the struts were more completely formed, the difference between the results of the two models (Models A and B) would be smaller.Fig. 9 compares the experimental and analytical (Model A) displacement of joint A2 in the second floor. Again, while the first peak vertical displacement obtained experimentally and analytically are in good agreement, the analytical permanent displacement under estimates the experimental value.Analytically estimated deformed shapes of the structure at the maximum vertical displacement based on Model A are shown in Fig. 10 with a magnification factor of 200. The experimentally measured deformed shape over the end regions of beams A1–A2 and A3–B3 in the second floorare represented in the figure by solid lines. A total of 14 potentiometers were located at the top and bottom of the end regions of the second floor beams A1–A2 and A3–B3, which were the most critical elements in load redistribution. The beam top and corresponding bottom potentiometer recordings were used to calculate rotation between the sections where the potentiometer ends were connected. This was done by first finding the difference between the recorded deformations at the top and bottom of the beam, and then dividing the value by the distance (along the height of the beam section) between the two potentiometers. The expected deformed shapes between the measured end regions of the second floor beams are shown by dashed lines. As can be seen in the figures, analytically estimated deformed shapes of the beams are in good agreement with experimentally obtained deformed shapes.Analytical results of Model A show that only two plastic hinges are formed indicating rebar yielding. Also, four sections that did not have negative (top) reinforcement, reached cracking moment capacities and therefore cracked. Fig. 10 shows the locations of all the formed plastic hinges and cracks.。