微观经济学原理(曼昆版课件) 第四章
微观经济学-第四章(曼昆)
What Is Competition?
• 垄断 只有一个卖者,卖者控制价格
• 寡头
• 很少卖者 • 不存在激烈的竞争
• 垄断竞争
• 很多卖方 • 微小的产品差别Slightly differentiated products • 每个卖方可以制定自己产品的价格
案例分析:减少香烟需求量的方法
每包香烟 的价格
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
• 需求表
• 表示一种物品的价格与需求量之间关系的表格 。
• Demand Schedule
• The demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of the good and the quantity demanded.
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
什么是市场?
• 供给和需求是指人们在市场上进行交易 时的行为
• 买方决定需求 • 卖方决定供给
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
什么是竞争? • 竞争市场是指有许多买者与卖者,以至于每
个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。 • A competitive market is a market in which there
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
需求曲线的移动
• 收入
• 随着收入的增加,正常物品的需求增加。 As income increases the demand for a normal good will increase. • 随着收入的增加,低档物品的需求减少。 As income increases the demand for an inferior good will decrease.
曼昆微观经济学原理 第四章 PPT
THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
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Demand Curve Shifters: Expectations
Expectations affect consumers’ buying decisions. Examples: If people expect their incomes to rise, their demand for meals at expensive restaurants may increase now. If the economy sours and people worry about their future job security, demand for new autos may fall now.
THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
13
Demand Curve Shifters: Tastes
Anything that causes a shift in tastes toward a good will increase demand for that good and shift its D curve to the right. Example: The diet became popular in the ’90s, caused an increase in demand for diet Coke, shifted the diet Coke demand curve to the right.
Q
THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Demand Curve Shifters: Income
经济学原理ppt课件曼昆
和稳定全球经济。
汇率制度
固定汇率制度
固定汇率制度是指各国货币之 间保持相对稳定的汇率,通常
由中央银行进行干预。
浮动汇率制度
浮动汇率制度是指汇率由市场 供求关系决定,中央银行不进 行干预。
汇率目标区
汇率目标区是指各国政府设定 的汇率波动区间,以减少货币 投机的可能性。
货币局制度
货币局制度是指政府将本国货 币与另一国货币或一篮子货币 挂钩,通过固定汇率制度实现
货币稳定。
全球化与经济发展
全球化对经济增长的影响
技术进步与经济发展
全球化通过促进国际贸易和投资流动,有 助于提高生产效率和促进经济增长。
技术进步是推动经济发展的重要因素之一 ,它能够提高生产效率和产品质量,创造 新的市场需求。
量。
市场结构
完全竞争市场
市场中存在大量的小规模生产者,每个 生产者对市场价格的影响微乎其微。
垄断市场
只有一个生产者提供产品,其他生产者 无法进入市场。
寡头市场
少数几家生产者占据大部分市场份额, 产品具有同质性。
垄断竞争市场
市场中存在大量生产者,产品具有差异 性。
价格与市场均衡
03
价格接受者
价格制定者
企业竞争策略与产业组织
企业竞争策略
01
企业为了在市场竞争中获得优势,会采取各种竞争策略,例如
价格战、品牌建设等。
产业组织
02
产业组织是指同一产业内企业之间的组织结构和关系,对于企
业竞争策略和产业绩效具有重要影响。
总结
03
企业竞争策略与产业组织是经济学中研究的重要领域,对于理
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理课件
参考资料:如何阅读本书
5. 上网
本书有一个极好的网络资源,包括测试练习, 提高你画图能力的工具,视频以及其它资源 可以帮助你更轻松有效地学习教材。访问网 址:
6. 小组学习 与同学一起复习每个章节,互相测验,互相 帮助理解材料
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理
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参考资料:如何阅读本书
▪ 教其他人
学习某种东西的最好的方法莫过于再教其 他人, 比如学友或朋友
护和其他需求之间分配资源
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理
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人们如何做出决策
原理一: 人们面临权衡取舍
所有决策者都面临着权衡取舍。比如:
▪ 参加期中考试前一天晚上的聚会意味着更少
的时间学习
▪ 想要更多的收入需要工作更长时间,这就使
得休息时间减少
▪ 保护环境意味着生产消费物品的资源减少
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理
增长而导致货币价值的下降所引起
▪ 政府创造货币的速度越快,通胀率越高
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理
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整体经济如何运行
原理 10 :社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡 取舍
货币增加
失业减少
消费支出增加 企业抬高物价
雇佣更多工人 企业抬高物价
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理
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经济学有用吗?
▪ 蹩脚的经济学或许有害! ▪ 举例:破窗谬论! ▪ 建议:不要做卢德派分子,也不要做保护主
曼昆微观经济学经济学的十大原理
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人们如何做出决策
原理二: 某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃 的东西
▪ 人们做出决策时需要比较可供选择行动方案
的成本与利益
▪ 任何一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东
微观经济学-曼昆版 PPT10
当政策制定者不知道需求曲线的位置时, 这种许可证制度能更好的达到减少污染的 目标
15
对关于污染的经济分析的批评
一些政客以及许多环保主义者宣称:没有人拥 有“购买”污染的权利,也不能对环境标价
然而,人们面临权衡取舍。清新的空气与清 洁的水的价值必须与它们的 Nhomakorabea本进行比较
6
外部性的影响:总结
如果存在负外部性 市场生产的数量大于社会合意的数量 如果存在正外部性 市场生产的数量小于社会合意的数量 为了解决这个问题,可以使“外部性内在化” 对有负外部性的物品征税 对有正外部性的物品补贴
7
两种方法针:对外部性的公共政策
命令与控制政策:直接管制
例如:
限制排放的污染数量 强制企业采取某种技术来减少排放量
当市场参与者必须支付社会成本时, 市场均衡= 社会均衡
(对买者征税也能达到相同的结果;市场均衡 量等于社会最优量)
4
接种预防传正染外病的部疫性苗的不例子
仅保护你自己,而且也保 护在你之后到沙拉吧或者 生产部门的人.
研究与发展创造出了别人 也可以使用的知识
人们上大学提高了教育水 平,并减少了犯罪和改善 了政府
以市场为基础的政策:向私人决策者提供 由他们自己来解决问题的激励。
例如:
矫正性税收与补贴
可交易的污染许可证
8
矫正税:矫旨在正引性导税私人收决与策补者考贴虑负外部性
引起的社会成本的税收 这种税也被称为庇古税,它是以最早主张采
用这种税收的经济学家阿瑟·庇古(Arthur Pigou,1877-1959)的名字命名的 理想的矫正税= 外部成本 对于有正外部性的活动,理想的矫正补贴= 外部利益
曼昆经济学原理第5版微观PPT第四章(4)免费中文版.pptx
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市场需求与个人需求
▪ 市场需求量是所有买者在每一价格水平下需求量的
总和
▪ 假设海伦与肯是拿铁咖啡市场上唯一的两个买者
(Qd = 需求量)
价格 海伦的需求量 肯的需求量
市场需求量
$0.00
16
+8
=
24
1.00
14
+7
=
21
2.00
12
+6
=
18
3.00
10
+5
=
15
4.00
8
+4
=
12
5.00
6
式电脑,CD与音乐下载
供给与需求的市场力量
13
需求曲线的移动:相关物品的价格
▪ 互补品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求
量减少的两种物品
▪ 例如,电脑与软件。如果电脑价格上升,那人们
会减少电脑的购买,因此也会减少软件的购买。 软件的需求曲线向左移动
▪ 其它例子:大学学费与教材,百吉饼与奶油乳酪,
4 C H A P T E R
经济学原理
N.格里高利.曼昆 著
供给与需求的市场力 量
© 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved
本教学PPT双语版由 浙江工商大学经济学院 陈宇峰 编译
供给与需求的市场力量
品的数量
▪ 需求定理:认为在其他条件不变时,一种物品的
价格上升,对该物品的需求量减少的观点
供给与需求的市场力量
4
需求表
▪ 需求表:
表示一种物品的价格与需求 量之间关系的表格
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第4章--供给与需求的市场力量)
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)第2篇市场如何运行第4章供给与需求的市场力量课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题,经济学考研课后习题解析资料库,您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题,经济学考研课后习题,经济学考研参考书等内容,更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验,从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富,这或许能帮你少走弯路,躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理,如您还需更多考研资料,可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1.市场(market)答:市场指某种物品或劳务的买者与卖者组成的一个群体。
买者作为一个群体决定了一种物品或劳务的需求,而卖者作为一个群体决定了一种物品或劳务的供给。
市场作为商品经济的范畴,具有三层含义:一是指商品交换的场所;二是指由商品供求双方及其中介人之间,围绕着体现各自利益的价格而展开激烈竞争所形成的各种经济关系总和;三是指调节社会经济运行的一种关系。
贯穿于这三层含义并能统一于市场这一范畴的核心是商品交换,或者说是商品流通。
2.竞争市场(competitive market)答:竞争市场指有许多买者和卖者,以至于每一个人对市场价格的影响都微不足道的市场。
竞争市场一般指完全竞争市场。
完全竞争,又称为纯粹竞争,是指不存在任何阻碍和干扰竞争因素的市场情况,亦即没有任何垄断因素的市场结构。
完全竞争市场需要具备以下四个条件:①市场上有大量的买者和卖者;②市场上每一个厂商提供的商品都是同质的;③所有的资源具有完全的流动性;④信息是完全的。
3.需求量(quantity demanded)答:需求量是指消费者在一定时期内,在各种可能的价格水平下愿意而且能够购买的商品的数量。
根据定义,如果消费者对某种商品只有购买的欲望而没有购买的能力,就不能算作是需求。
需求必须是既有购买欲望又有购买能力的有效需求。
影响商品需求的因素有:该商品的价格、消费者收入、其他相关商品价格、消费者偏好和消费者对未来的预期等。
曼昆经济学原理微观(全)
其它因素使这种权衡取舍不那么明显,但这种权衡
取舍一直都存在
经济学十大原理
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参考资料:如何阅读本书
1. 上课之前先读书
你将从课堂上领会更多东西 2. 要总结,而不是划重点线 划重点线是一种消极的做法,它不能帮助你理解或 记忆。相反,用你自己的话总结每一节的内容,然 后与该章结尾的内容提要相比较
36
作为科学家的经济学家
经济学家扮演的两种角色: 1. 科学家:试图解释世界 2. 政策顾问:尝试改善世界 作为科学家,经济学家使用科学方法—冷静地建
立并检验有关世界如何运行的各种理论
像经济学家一样思考
37
假设与模型
假设可以简化复杂的世界,使之更容易理解 比如:为了研究国际贸易,假设世界上只由两个
修理变速器的收益= $800 ($6500 – 5700) 因此,修理变速器是值得的
B.如果变速器正常,汽车价值是$6000 。如果不正 常,则是$5500
修理变速器的收益仅仅为$500 因此花费$600修理变速器是不值得的
12
主动学习
1
参考答案
思考:
你最初花在维修上的 $1000没有任何影响,重要
飞机模型
像经济学家一样思考
41
熟悉的模型
牙医办公室的牙齿模型
不要忘了刷 牙!
像经济学家一样思考
42
我们的第一个模型:循环流量图
循环流量图:一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭
与企业之间流动的直观经济模型
两类主体: 家庭 企业 两个市场: 物品与劳务市场 生产要素市场
像经济学家一样思考
c.公共高速公路
d.专利法允许制药公司对急救药索取高价
微观经济学曼昆PPT课件
经济学原理
N.格里高利.曼昆 著
寡头
2020/2/28
1
本章我们将探索这些问题的答案:
• 寡头市场的可能结果是什么? • 为什么寡头企业很难合作? • 反托拉斯法如何用来增加竞争?
2020/2/28
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集中度的衡量
• 集中度:市场上最大的四家企业供应的产 量占市场总产量的百分比
• 集中度越高,竞争越少
PQ $0 140
5 130 10 120 15 110 20 100 25 90 30 80 35 70 40 60 45 50
▪ 小镇有140个居民
▪ 物品:
没有时间限制的移动通话服务和免费手 机
▪ 小镇的需求表
▪ 两个企业:T-Mobile, Verizon
(双头:有两个企业的寡头)
▪ 每个企业的成本:FC = $0, MC = $10
Q = 40
– 如果 Verizon 生产 Q = 40, T-Mobile 最好的办法是生产Q = 40.
– 如果T-Mobile 生产 Q = 40, Verizon 最好的办 法是生产Q = 40.
O2L0I2G0/O2/2P8 OLY
14 14
市场结果间的比较
当寡头企业单独地选择利润最大化的产量时:
O2L0I2G0/O2/2P8 OLY
66
例子:小镇移动电话的双头
PQ $0 140
5 130 10 120 15 110 20 100 25 90 30 80 35 70 40 60 45 50
收益
$0 650 1,200 1,650 2,000 2,250 2,400 2,450 2,400 2,250
T-Mobile的利润 = 50 x ($25 – 10) = $750
曼昆微观经济学答案ch04
The Market Forces of Supply and DemandWHAT’S NEW IN THE THIRD EDITION:This chapter has been completely rearranged and rewritten.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:what a competitive market is.what determines the demand for a good in a competitive market.what determines the supply of a good in a competitive market.how supply and demand together set the price of a good and the quantity sold.the key role of prices in allocating scarce resources in market economies.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 4 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence that deals with supply and demand and how markets work. Chapter 4 shows how supply and demand for a good determines both the quantityproduced and the price at which the good sells. Chapter 5 will add precision to the discussion of supply and demand by addressing the concept of elasticity —the sensitivity of the quantity supplied and quantity demanded to changes in economic variables. Chapter 6 will address the impact of government policies on prices and quantities in markets.The purpose of Chapter 4 is to establish the model of supply and demand. The model of supply and demand is the foundation for the discussion for the remainder of this text. For this reason, time spent studying the concepts in this chapter will return benefits to your students throughout their study of economics. Many instructors would argue that this chapter is the most important chapter in the text.THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND52 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandKEY POINTS:1.Economists use the model of supply and demand to analyze competitive markets. In a competitivemarket, there are many buyers and sellers, each of whom has little or no influence on the market price.2.The demand curve shows how the quantity of a good demanded depends on the price. According tothe law of demand, as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded rises. Therefore, the demand curve slopes downward.3.In addition to price, other determinants of how much consumers want to buy include income, theprices of substitutes and complements, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers. If one of these factors changes, the demand curve shifts.4.The supply curve shows how the quantity of a good supplied depends on the price. According to thelaw of supply, as the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied rises. Therefore, the supply curve slopes upward.5.In addition to price, other determinants of how much producers want to sell include input prices,technology, expectations, and the number of sellers. If one of these factors changes, the supply curve shifts.6.The intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the market equilibrium. At theequilibrium price, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.7.The behavior of buyers and sellers naturally drives markets toward their equilibrium. When themarket price is above the equilibrium price, there is a surplus of the good, which causes the market price to fall. When the market price is below the equilibrium price, there is a shortage, which causes the market price to rise.8.To analyze how any event influences a market, we use the supply-and-demand diagram to examinehow the event affects equilibrium price and quantity. To do this we follow three steps. First, we decide whether the event shifts the supply curve or the demand curve (or both). Second, we decide which direction the curve shifts. Third, we compare the new equilibrium with the initial equilibrium.9.In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby allocatescarce resources. For every good in the economy, the price ensures that supply and demand are in balance. The equilibrium price then determines how much of the good buyers choose to purchase and how much sellers choose to produce.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Markets and CompetitionChapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 53A. Definition of market: a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good orservice.B. Definition of competitive market: a market in which there are many buyers andmany sellers so that each has a negligible impact on the market price.C. Competition: Perfect and Otherwise1. Characteristics of a perfectly competitive market:a. The goods being offered for sale are all the same.b. The buyers and sellers are so numerous that none can influence themarket price.2. Because buyers and sellers must accept the market price as given, they are oftencalled "price takers."3. Not all goods are sold in a perfectly competitive market.a. A market with only one seller is called a monopoly market.b. A market with only a few sellers is called an oligopoly.c. A market with a large number of sellers, each selling a product that isslightly different from its competitors‘ products, is called monopolisticcompetition.D. We will start by studying perfect competition.II. DemandA. The Demand Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Demanded1. Definition of quantity demanded: the amount of a good that buyers arewilling and able to purchase.2. One important determinant of quantity demanded is the price of the product.a. Quantity demanded is negatively related to price. This implies that thedemand curve is downward sloping.b. Definition of law of demand: the claim that, other things equal,the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of thegood rises.54 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand3. Definition of demand schedule: a table that shows the relationshipbetween the price of a good and the quantity demanded.4. Definition of demand curve: a graph of the relationship between theprice of a good and the quantity demanded. a. Price is generally drawn on the vertical axis.b.Quantity demanded is represented on the horizontal axis.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 55B. Market Demand Versus Individual Demand1.The market demand is the sum of all of the individual demands for a particular good or service.2.The demand curves are summed horizontally —meaning that the quantities demanded are added up for each level of price.3.The market demand curve shows how the total quantity demanded of a good varies with the price of the good, holding constant all other factors that affect how much consumers want to buy.C.Shifts in the Demand Curve1. The demand curve shows how much consumers want to buy at any price,holding constant the many other factors that influence buying decisions.2. If any of these other factors change, the demand curve will shift.a. An increase in demand can be represented by a shift of the demandcurve to the right.b.A decrease in demand can be represented by a shift of the demand curve to the left.3.Income56 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demanda.The relationship between income and quantity demanded depends on what type of good the product is.b.Definition of normal good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demand.c.Definition of inferior good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demand.4. Prices of Related Goodsa.Definition of substitutes: two goods for which an increase in theprice of one good leads to an increase in the demand for the other.b.Definition of complements: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to a decrease in the demand for the other.5. Tastes6.Expectationsa. Future Incomeb.Future Prices7. Number of BuyersD.Case Study: Two Ways to Reduce the Quantity of Smoking Demanded1.Public service announcements, mandatory health warnings on cigarette packages, and the prohibition of cigarette advertising on television are policies designed to reduce the demand for cigarettes (and shift the demand curve to the left). 2.Raising the price of cigarettes (through tobacco taxes) lowers the quantity of cigarettes demanded.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 57a. The demand curve does not shift in this case, however.b. An increase in the price of cigarettes can be shown by a movementalong the original demand curve.3. Studies have shown that a 10% increase in the price of cigarettes causes a 4%reduction in the quantity of cigarettes demanded. For teens a 10% increase inprice leads to a 12% drop in quantity demanded.4. Studies have also shown that a decrease in the price of cigarettes is associatedwith greater use of marijuana. Thus, it appears that tobacco and marijuana arecomplements.III. SupplyA. The Supply Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Supplied1. Definition of quantity supplied: the amount of a good that sellers arewilling and able to sell.a. Quantity supplied is positively related to price.b. Definition of law of supply: the claim that, other things equal, thequantity supplied of a good rises when the price of the goodrises.2. Definition of supply schedule: a table that shows the relationshipbetween the price of a good and the quantity supplied.3. Definition of supply curve: a graph of the relationship between the priceof a good and the quantity supplied.58 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandB.Market Supply Versus Individual Supply1. The market supply curve can be found by summing individual supply curves.2. Individual supply curves are summed horizontally at every price.3.The market supply curve shows how the total quantity supplied varies as the price of the good varies.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 59C. Shifts in the Supply Curve1. The supply curve shows how much producers offer for sale at any given price, holding constant all other factors that may influence producers‘ decisions about how much to sell.2. When any of these other factors change, the supply curve will shift.a. An increase in supply can be represented by a shift of the supply curve to the right.b.A decrease in supply can be represented by a shift of the supply curve to the left.3. Input Prices4.Technology5. Expectations6. Number of SellersIV. Supply and Demand Together A.Equilibrium 1. The point where the supply and demand curves intersect is called the market‘s equilibrium.2.Definition of equilibrium: a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.60 Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandDefinition of equilibrium price: the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded.4.The equilibrium price is often called the "market-clearing" price because both buyers and sellers are satisfied at this price.5.Definition of equilibrium quantity: the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium price.6. If the actual market price is higher than the equilibrium price, there will be asurplus of the good.a. Definition of surplus: a situation in which quantity supplied isgreater than quantity demanded.b.To eliminate the surplus, producers will lower the price until the marketreaches equilibrium.7. If the actual price is lower than the equilibrium price, there will be a shortage ofthe good.a. Definition of shortage: a situation in which quantity demanded isgreater than quantity supplied.b.Sellers will respond to the shortage by raising the price of the good untilthe market reaches equilibrium. Array8. Definition of the law of supply and demand: the claim that the price ofany good adjusts to bring the supply and demand for that good intobalance.B.Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in Equilibrium1. Decide whether the event shifts the supply or demand curve (or perhaps both).2. Decide in which direction the curve shifts.3.Use the supply-and-demand diagram to see how the shift changes the equilibrium price and quantity.A.Example: A Change in Demand — the effect of hot weather on the market for ice cream.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Go through these examples of events that would shift either the demand or supply of #2 lead pencils:▪ an increase in the income of consumers▪ an increase in the use of standardized exams (using opscan forms) ▪ a decrease in the price of graphite (used in the production of pencils) ▪ a decrease in the price of ink pens ▪ the start of a school year▪ new technology that lowers the cost of producing pencilsD.Shifts in Curves versus Movements Along Curves 1.A shift in the demand curve is called a "change in demand." A shift in the supply curve is called a "change in supply."2.A movement along a fixed demand curve is called a "change in quantity demanded." A movement along a fixed supply curve is called a "change in quantity supplied."E.Example: A Change in Supply — the effect of a hurricane that destroys part of the sugar-cane crop and drives up the price of sugar.F.In the News: Mother Nature Shifts the Supply Curve1.Newspaper articles about specific industries can give students practice understanding the things that affect supply and demand.2.This is an article from The New York Times that describes the effect of a freeze on the citrus market.G.Example: A Change in Both Supply and Demand —the effect of both hot weather and an earthquake which destroys several ice cream factories on the market for ice cream.H. Summary1. When an event shifts the supply or demand curve, we can examine the effectson the equilibrium price and quantity.2. Table 4 reports the end results of these shifts in supply and demand.V. Conclusion: How Prices Allocate Resources A. The model of supply and demand is a powerful tool for analyzing markets.B.Supply and demand together determine the price of the economy‘s goods and services. 1.These prices serve as signals that guide the allocation of scarce resources in the economy.2.Prices determine who produces each good and how much of each good is produced.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes 1. A market is a group of buyers (who determine demand) and a group of sellers (who determinesupply) of a particular good or service. A competitive market is one in which there are many buyers and many sellers of an identical product so that each has a negligible impact on the market price.2. Here‘s an example of a demand schedule for pizza:The demand curve is graphed in Figure 1.Figure 1Examples of things that would shift the demand curve include changes in income, prices ofrelated goods like soda or hot dogs, tastes, expectations about future income or prices, and the number of buyers.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this demand curve; it would only lead us to movefrom one point to another along the same demand curve.3. Here is an example of a supply schedule for pizza:The supply curve is graphed in Figure 2.Figure 2Examples of things that would shift the supply curve include changes in prices of inputs liketomato sauce and cheese, changes in technology like more efficient pizza ovens or automaticdough makers, changes in expectations about the future price of pizza, or a change in thenumber of sellers.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this supply curve; it would only move from onepoint to another along the same supply curve.4. If the price of tomatoes rises, the supply curve for pizza shifts to the left because of theincreased price of an input into pizza production, but there is no effect on demand. The shift to the left of the supply curve causes the equilibrium price to rise and the equilibrium quantity todecline, as Figure 3 shows.If the price of hamburgers falls, the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left because the lower price of hamburgers will lead consumers to buy more hamburgers and less pizza, but there is no effect on supply. The shift to the left of the demand curve causes the equilibrium price to falland the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 4 shows.Figure 3Questions for Review1. A competitive market is a market in which there are many buyers and many sellers of an identicalproduct so that each has a negligible impact on the market price. Other types of markets includemonopoly, in which there is only one seller, oligopoly, in which there are a few sellers that do notalways compete aggressively, and monopolistically competitive markets, in which there are many sellers, each offering a slightly different product.2. The quantity of a good that buyers demand is determined by the price of the good, income, theprices of related goods, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers.3. The demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and thequantity demanded. The demand curve is the downward-sloping line relating price and quantity demanded. The demand schedule and demand curve are related because the demand curve is simply a graph showing the points in the demand schedule.The demand curve slopes downward because of the law of demand—other things equal, whenthe price of a good rises, the quantity demanded of the good falls. People buy less of a goodwhen its price rises, both because they cannot afford to buy as much and because they switch to purchasing other goods.4. A change in consumers' tastes leads to a shift of the demand curve. A change in price leads to amovement along the demand curve.5. Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him.Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.6. The quantity of a good that sellers supply is determined by the price of the good, input prices,technology, expectations, and the number of sellers.7. A supply schedule is a table showing the relationship between the price of a good and thequantity a producer is willing and able to supply. The supply curve is the upward-sloping linerelating price and quantity supplied. The supply schedule and the supply curve are relatedbecause the supply curve is simply a graph showing the points in the supply schedule.The supply curve slopes upward because when the price is high, suppliers' profits increase, sothey supply more output to the market. The result is the law of supply—other things equal,when the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied of the good also rises.8. A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads toa movement along the supply curve.9. The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantitysupplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price withoutlosing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.10. When the price of beer rises, the demand for pizza declines, because beer and pizza arecomplements and people want to buy less beer. When we say the demand for pizza declines, we mean that the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left as in Figure 5. The supply curve for pizza is not affected. With a shift to the left in the demand curve, the equilibrium price and quantityboth decline, as the figure shows. Thus the quantity of pizza supplied and demanded both fall.In sum, supply is unchanged, demand is decreased, quantity supplied declines, quantitydemanded declines, and the price falls.Figure 511. Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If theprice is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are notequal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarceresources.Problems and Applications1. a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can beseen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The newequilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.Figure 6b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, sodemand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer peopletravel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shownin Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbeanhotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 7c. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oilproduction takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve forgasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price ofgasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzlingautomobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs willdecline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition,some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that thedemand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to theright, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of usedCadillacs.Figure 8 Figure 92. The statement that "an increase in the demand for notebooks raises the quantity of notebooksdemanded, but not the quantity supplied," in general, is false. As Figure 10 shows, the increase in demand for notebooks results in an increased quantity supplied. The only way the statement would be true is if the supply curve was a vertical line, as shown in Figure 11.Figure 10Figure 113. a. If people decide to have more children (a change in tastes), they will want larger vehiclesfor hauling their kids around, so the demand for minivans will increase. Supply won't beaffected. The result is a rise in both price and quantity, as Figure 12 shows.Figure 12b. If a strike by steelworkers raises steel prices, the cost of producing a minivan rises (a risein input prices), so the supply of minivans decreases. Demand won't be affected. Theresult is a rise in the price of minivans and a decline in the quantity, as Figure 13 shows.Figure 13c. The development of new automated machinery for the production of minivans is animprovement in technology. The reduction in firms' costs results in an increase in supply.Demand isn't affected. The result is a decline in the price of minivans and an increase inthe quantity, as Figure 14 shows.Figure 14d. The rise in the price of sport utility vehicles affects minivan demand because sport utilityvehicles are substitutes for minivans (that is, there is a rise in the price of a related good).The result is an increase in demand for minivans. Supply is not affected. In equilibrium,the price and quantity of minivans both rise, as Figure 12 shows.e. The reduction in peoples' wealth caused by a stock-market crash reduces their income,leading to a reduction in the demand for minivans, since minivans are likely a normalgood. Supply isn‘t affected. As a result, both price and quantity decline, as Figure 15shows.Figure 154. Technological advances that reduce the cost of producing computer chips represent a decline inan input price for producing a computer. The result is a shift to the right in the supply ofcomputers, as shown in Figure 16. The equilibrium price falls and the equilibrium quantity rises, as the figure shows.Figure 16Since computer software is a complement to computers, the lower equilibrium price of computers increases the demand for software. As Figure 17 shows, the result is a rise in both theequilibrium price and quantity of software.Figure 17Since typewriters are substitutes for computers, the lower equilibrium price of computers reduces the demand for typewriters. As Figure 18 shows, the result is a decline in both the equilibriumprice and quantity of typewriters.Figure 185. a. When a hurricane in South Carolina damages the cotton crop, it raises input prices forproducing sweatshirts. As a result, the supply of sweatshirts shifts to the left, as shownin Figure 19. The new equilibrium has a higher price and lower quantity of sweatshirts.Figure 19b. A decline in the price of leather jackets leads more people to buy leather jackets,reducing the demand for sweatshirts. The result, shown in Figure 20, is a decline in both the equilibrium price and quantity of sweatshirts.Figure 20c. The effects of colleges requiring students to engage in morning calisthenics inappropriate attire raises the demand for sweatshirts, as shown in Figure 21. The result is an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity of sweatshirts.Figure 21d. The invention of new knitting machines increases the supply of sweatshirts. As Figure 22shows, the result is a reduction in the equilibrium price and an increase in the equilibriumquantity of sweatshirts.Figure 226. A temporarily high birth rate in the year 2005 leads to opposite effects on the price of babysittingservices in the years 2010 and 2020. In the year 2010, there are more 5-year olds who needsitters, so the demand for babysitting services rises, as shown in Figure 23. The result is ahigher price for babysitting services in 2010. However, in the year 2020, the increased number of 15-year olds shifts the supply of babysitting services to the right, as shown in Figure 24. The result is a decline in the price of babysitting services.Figure 23 Figure 247. Since ketchup is a complement for hot dogs, when the price of hot dogs rises, the quantitydemanded of hot dogs falls, thus reducing the demand for ketchup, causing both price andquantity of ketchup to fall. Since the quantity of ketchup falls, the demand for tomatoes byketchup producers falls, so both price and quantity of tomatoes fall. When the price of tomatoes falls, producers of tomato juice face lower input prices, so the supply curve for tomato juice shifts out, causing the price of tomato juice to fall and the quantity of tomato juice to rise. The fall in the price of tomato juice causes people to substitute tomato juice for orange juice, so thedemand for orange juice declines, causing the price and quantity of orange juice to fall. Now you can see clearly why a rise in the price of hot dogs leads to a fall in price of orange juice!Figure 258. a. Cigars and chewing tobacco are substitutes for cigarettes, since a higher price forcigarettes would increase the demand for cigars and chewing tobacco.b. An increase in the tax on cigarettes leads to increased demand for cigars and chewingtobacco. The result, as shown in Figure 25 for cigars, is a rise in both the equilibriumprice and quantity of cigars and chewing tobacco.c. The results in part (b) showed that a tax on cigarettes leads people to substitute cigarsand chewing tobacco for cigarettes when the tax on cigarettes rises. To reduce totaltobacco usage, policymakers might also want to increase the tax on cigars and chewingtobacco, or pursue some type of public education program.9. Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded at a price of $6 and quantity of 81 pizzas (Figure26). If price were greater than $6, quantity supplied would exceed quantity demanded, sosuppliers would reduce their price to gain sales. If price were less than $6, quantity demandedwould exceed quantity supplied, so suppliers could raise their price without losing sales. In both cases, the price would continue to adjust until it reached $6, the only price at which there isneither a surplus nor a shortage.。
《曼昆经济学原理》课件
比较优势
各国根据自身的资源、技术和 成本优势进行专业化生产,实
现全球资源的最优配置。
贸易条件
贸易条件的变化对出口国和进 口国的影响,以及贸易条件与
经济增长的关系。
贸易政策
自由贸易政策和保护贸易政策 的优缺点,以及政策制定时应
考虑的因素。
国际金融
国际收支
国际收支平衡表的构成,以及影响国际收支 的因素。
国际货币体系
国际金本位制、布雷顿森林体系和牙买加体 系的比较和演变。
外汇市场
外汇市场的参与者、交易方式和汇率决定机 制。
资本流动
资本流动的原因、影响和风险。
汇率制度
固定汇率制度
固定汇率制度的优点和缺点,以及应 对货币投机的策略。
浮动汇率制度
浮动汇率制度的优点和缺点,以及汇 率浮动对经济的影响。
汇率目标区
国际合作在全球化进程中的作用和 必要性。
04
PART 05
经济学理论
REPORTING
古典经济学
01
总结词
古典经济学主张自由市场经济,强调市场供需关系和价格机制的自发调
节作用。
02 03
详细描述
古典经济学家认为,市场经济在自由竞争下能够达到最优资源配置,价 格、工资和利润等变量由市场供需决定,政府只需充当守夜人角色,不 应对经济进行过多干预。
《曼昆经济学原理》 PPT课件
REPORTING
• 导言 • 微观经济学 • 宏观经济学 • 国际经济学 • 经济学理论
目录
PART 01
导言
REPORTING
经济学定义
总结词
经济学是一门研究人类经济行为和现象的社会科学。
详细描述
曼昆经济学原理微观名词解释2-4(中英)
曼昆经济学原理微观名词解释CHAPER2-4(中英版)CHAPTER 2Thinking Like an EconomistCircular-flow diagram: a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firms循环流量图:一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。
Production possibilities frontier: a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technology生产可能性边界:表示在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时,一个经济所能生产的产品数量的各种组合的图形。
Microeconomics: the study of how house- holds and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets微观经济学:研究家庭与企业如何做出决策,以及它们如何在市场上相互交易的学科Macroeconomics: the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth宏观经济学:研究整体经济现象,包括通货膨胀,失业和经济增长的学科。
Positive statements: claims that attempt to describe the world as it is实证表述:试图描述世界是什么样子的观点。
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理课件
原理1: 人们面临着交替关系
People Face Tradeoffs. 天下没有免费的午餐!
“There is no such thing as a free lunch!”
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理1: 人们面临着交替关系
People Face Tradeoffs.
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理8: 生活水平取决于一国的生 产
• Almost all variations in living standards are explained by differences in countries’ productivities.
• 生活水平的几乎所有差异都可以用各个国家生产率 的差异加以解释。
• an externality, which is the impact of one person or firm’s
actions on the well-being of a bystander. • 外部性---一个人或企业的行为对局外人福利的影响。
• market power, which is the ability of a single person or
是你为
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理2:某一事物的成本是你为了 获得它而放弃的东西
LA Laker 的篮球明星 Kobe Bryant 选择放弃上大学,从高 中直接进入职业球队,因此他 可以赚到成百上千万美元。
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理3: 理性人进行边际思考
resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services.市场经济是一种通 过许多企业和家庭的分散决策配置资源的经济,与 此同时企业和家庭在商品和服务市场上发生相互作 用。
《微观经济学曼昆》PPT课件资料讲解
2
经济学研究什么问题
▪ 稀缺性: 社会资源的有限性 ▪ 经济学: 研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源, 比如:
▪ 人们决定购买什么, 工作多长时间,储蓄多少,
消费多少
▪ 企业决定生产多少,雇佣多少工人 ▪ 社会决定如何在国防,消费物品,环境保护和其
▪ “看不见的手”通过价格体系来发挥作用: ▪ 买者与卖者之间的相互作用决定市场价格 ▪ 每个价格即反映了物品对于买者的价值,也反
映了生产物品的成本
▪ 在许多情况下,价格引导自利的家庭与企业做
出使社会经济福利最大化的决策
经济学十大原理
19
人们如何相互交易Biblioteka 原理 7 :政府有时可以改善市场结果
▪ 政府的重要作用: 保护产权 (通过警察,法庭) ▪ 如果人们的财产存在很大的被侵犯的风险,那么他
经济学十大原理
21
人们如何相互交易
原理 7 :政府有时可以改善市场结果
▪ 政府可以改变市场结果以促进公平 ▪ 如果经济福利的市场分配结果不是合意的,税收或
福利政策能改变经济“蛋糕”的分配方式
经济学十大原理
22
主动学习 2
问题讨论
政府在下述情形中发挥何种作用?政府的干预有助 于结果的改善吗? a. K-12公立学校 b.工作环境安全的监管 c.公共高速公路 d.专利法允许制药公司对急救药索取高价
修理变速器的收益= $800 ($6500 – 5700) 因此,修理变速器是值得的
B.如果变速器正常,汽车价值是$6000 。如果不正 常,则是$5500
修理变速器的收益仅仅为$500
因此花费$600修理变速器是不值得的
微观经济学原理曼昆
竞争策略与博弈论
竞争策略
企业在市场竞争中采取的策略,包括成本领先、差异化、集 中化等。
博弈论
研究企业在市场竞争中的策略互动,通过分析竞争对手的可 能反应来制定最优策略。
市场失灵与政府干预
市场失灵
市场机制在某些情况下无法实现资源的最优配置,如外部性、公共品、不完全 竞争等。
政府干预
政府采取措施纠正市场失灵,包括制定法规、提供公共品、实施反垄断政策等。
扩展线模型、等成本曲线模型等。
利润最大化
1 2
利润最大化的定义
在一定技术条件下,生产者通过调整生产要素的 投入数量和价格,使得总利润达到最大值的状态。
利润最大化的条件
边际成本等于边际收益。
3
利润最大化与成本最小化的关系
利润最大化是成本最小化的一个特例,即在产量 达到最优时,总成本达到最小值,同时总利润达 到最大值。
01
微观经济学:研究个体经济单位(家庭、企业等)的经济行为 和决策的科学。
02
微观经济学关注个体经济单位如何做出决策,以及这些决策如
何影响市场供求关系和资源配置。
微观经济学主要研究市场机制、价格体系、资源配置和收入分
03
配等方面的问题。
微观经济学的研究对象和方法
研究对象
个体经济单位的经济行为和决策,包 括消费者行为、生产者行为和市场竞 争等。
需求定理
在其他条件不变的情况下,商品 的需求量与其价格呈反方向变化, 即价格越高,需求量越低;价格 越低,需求量越高。
供给理论
供给量
指在一定时期内,生产者在各种可能 的价格水平上愿意并且能够提供的商 品或服务的数量。
供给曲线
供给定理
在其他条件不变的情况下,商品的供 给量与其价格呈正方向变化,即价格 越高,供给量越大;价格越低,供给 量越小。
曼昆《经济学原理》第6版 微观经济学分册 第4章 课后习题答案P92-P94
第二篇市场如何运作第四章供给与需求的市场力量复习题1.什么是竞争市场?简单描述除了完全竞争市场之外的市场类型。
答:竞争市场是有许多买者与卖者,以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。
除了完全竞争市场之外,还有垄断市场。
在这个市场上只有一个卖者,他决定价格。
这个卖者被称为垄断者。
还有寡头市场,在这个市场上有几个并不总是主动竞争的卖者,他们提供相似或相同的产品。
通常情况下,寡头们会尽力联合起来,避免激烈的竞争,收取较高的市场价格。
还有垄断竞争市场,这是一个有许多提供相似但不相同产品的企业的市场结构。
由于各自提供的产品不同,每个企业对产品的价格都有一定的影响力。
2.什么是需求表和需求曲线?它们如何相关联?为什么需求曲线向右下方倾斜?答:需求表是表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的表格,需求曲线是表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的图形。
需求曲线将需求表用图形的形式表现出来,需求表是需求曲线上若干个点的坐标的数字表格排列。
需求曲线向右下方倾斜是因为在其他条件不变的情况下,随着价格上升,需求量会减少。
3.消费者嗜好的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动,还是需求曲线的移动,价格的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动,还是需求曲线的移动?答:消费者嗜好的变化引起了需求曲线的移动,价格的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动。
4.Popeye的收入减少了,结果他买了更多的菠菜。
菠菜是低档物品,还是正常物品? Popeye菠菜的需求曲线是什么样的?答:菠菜对波匹来说是低档物品。
因为Popeye的收入减少了,他对菠菜的需求量反而增大。
波匹菠菜的需求曲线是向右下方倾斜的。
5.什么是供给表和供给曲线,它们如何关联?为什么供给曲线向石上方倾斜?答:供给表是表示一种物品价格与供给量之间关系的表格,供给曲线是表示一种物品价格与供给量之间关系的图形。
供给曲线是供给表的图形表示,供给表是供给曲线上点的坐标的数字排列。
因为在其他因素不变时,价格上升,供给量上升,所以供给曲线向右上方倾斜。
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会引起需求量减少4%。青少年对香烟价格特别敏感:香烟价格上升 10%使青少年的吸烟量减少12%。
3. 供给
• 供给曲线:价格与供给量之间的关系
– 供给量:卖者愿意并且能够出售的一种物品的数量。 – 决定供给量的因素有许多,价格仍然起特殊作用。 – 某种物品的供给量与价格是正相关的。 – 供给定理(law of supply) :在其他条件不变时,一
– 对过剩的反应:降低该物品的价格。
• 假设市场价格低于均衡价格,此时存在物品的短 缺(shortage):需求量大于供给的状态。也被称为 超额需求的状态。(供不应求)
– 对短缺的反应:抬高该物品价格。
• 因此,在这两种情况下,价格调整都使市场向供 给与需求的均衡变动。
供求定理
• 因此,许多买者与卖者的活动自发地把市场价格推向均 衡价格。一旦市场达到其均衡价格,所有买者和卖者都 得到满足,也就不存在价格上升或下降的压力。
需求曲线的移动
– 相关物品的价格
• 当一种物品的价格下降引起对另一种物品的需求量 减少时,这两种物品被称为替代品(substitute)。替 代品是那些经常互相代替使用的成对物品,例)冷 饮和冰激凌,热狗和汉堡,电影票和dvd租赁,肥皂 和洗衣粉
• 当一种物品的价格下降引起对另一种物品的需求量 增加时,这两种物品被称为互补品(complement). 互补品是那些经常同时使用的成对物品,例)汽油 和汽车,电脑和软件,汉堡和可乐。
– 需求量与价格负相关。 – 需求定理(law of demand):在其他条件不变时,一
种物品价格上升,该物品需求量减少。
– 需求表(demand schedule) :表示一种物品价格与需 求量之间关系的表格。
– 需求曲线(demand curve):表示一种物品价格与需求 量之间关系的图形。
需求曲线:价格和需求量之间的 关系
• 冰淇淋市场也和经济中大多数市场一样是高度竞 争的。冰淇淋的价格和销售量是由所有的买者和 卖者通过在市场上的相互交易共同决定的。
• 经济学家用竞争市场(competitive market)这个术 语来描述有许多买者与卖者,以至于每一个人对 市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。
1. 市场与竞争
• 在本章中假设,市场是完全竞争的。 • 根据两个基本特征来定义完全竞争市场: (1)所提供销售的物品是完全相同的 (2)买者和卖者如此之多,以至于没有一个买者
– 卖者的数量 如果Ben或Tom退出冰激凌经营市场,市场供给量 会减少。
供给曲线的移动
• 总结
价格 投入价格 技术 预期 卖者数量
变量
这些变量的变动将 表现为沿着供给曲线的变动 使供给曲线移动 使供给曲线移动 使供给曲线移动 使供给曲线移动
4. 供给与需求的结供合给曲线和需求曲线
相交于一点,这一点
3.我们用供求图来考察这种移动如何影响均衡价格 和数量。
需求变动
• 假设某一年夏季天气特别热。这种情况如何影响冰激凌市 场呢? – 1. 天气热通过改变人们对冰激凌的嗜好而影响需求曲 线。 – 2.由于天气热使人们想吃更多的冰激凌,所以,需求 曲线向右移动,需求增加了。 – 3. 需求增加如何影响需求(画图)。换句话说,天气 热提高了冰激凌的价格,增加了冰激凌的销售量。
• 还有一些市场是介于完全竞争和垄断这两种形式 之间。 例)寡头
*反垄断法
• 反垄断法,是反对垄断和保护竞争的法律制度。 它是市场经济国家基本的法律制度。《中华人民 共和国反垄断法》自2008年8月1日起施行。
• 美国的反垄断法(competition law )起源: 1890 年《谢尔曼法》(Sherman Act)诞生。谢尔曼 法是世界上最早的反垄断法。
• 市场供给曲线
Ben的供给 + Tom的供给 = 市场供给
可通过水平 相加个人供 给曲线得出 市场供给曲 线。
市场供给曲线表示,一种物品的总供给量如何随其价格的变动而变动。
供给曲线的移动
• 假设糖的价格下降了,那么对冰激凌的供给有什么影响呢?
供给增加:右移 供给减少:左移
供给曲线的移动
• 有许多变量会使供给曲线移动,以下是一些重要的变量。
1. 市场与竞争
• 市场(market)是某种物品或劳务的买者与卖者组 成的一个群体。买者作为一个群体决定了一种产 品的需求,而卖者作为一个群体决定了一种产品 的供给。
• 市场有很多形式。有时市场组织健全,如众多的 农产品市场。但更经常的情况是,市场并没有什 么组织。例)某个城市的冰淇淋市场
1. 市场与竞争
• 谢尔曼法的意义,即“自由竞争将产生最经济的 资源配置,最低的价格,最高的质量和最大的物 质进步,同时创造一个有助于维护民主的政治和 社会制度的环境”。
1. 市场与竞争
• 尽管市场类型是多种多样的,但我们从研 究完全竞争开始。完全竞争市场是最容易 分析的。因为每个市场参与者都会接受市 场条件决定的价格。
– 投入价格 当投入价格中的一种或几种价格上升时,生产冰激 凌就变的不那么有利可图,企业供给的冰激凌就会减少。因此, 一种物品的供给量与生产这种物品所用的投入的价格负相关。
– 技术 例)机械化冰激凌机的发明减少了生产所需的劳动量。 技术进步通过降低企业的生产成本来增加供给量。
– 预期 例)如果预期未来的冰淇淋价格会上升,企业就会把现 在生产的一些冰激凌储存起来,而减少供给量。
在均衡价格时,买者愿意而且能够购买的数量正好与卖者 愿意而且能够出售的数量相平衡。均衡价格有时也被称为 市场出清价格,因为在这种价格时,市场上的每一个人都 得到满足。
非均衡的市场
• 假设市场价格高于均衡价格,此时存在物品的过 剩(surplus):供给量大于需求量的状态。也被称为 超额供给的状态。(卖不出去了)
种物品价格上升,该物品供给量增加。 – 供给表(supply schedule):其他条件不变时,表示一
种物品的价格与供给量之间关系的表格。 – 供给曲线(supply curve): 表示一种物品的价格与供给
量之间关系的图形。
供给曲线:价格与供给量之间的关系
下表表明了一个冰激凌卖者Ben在各种冰激凌价格时的供给量。
表4-l 表示在不同的冰激凌价格时,凯瑟琳每个月买多少个冰激 凌蛋卷。
需求曲线:价格和需求量之间的 关系
根据习惯,纵 轴代表该物品 的价格;横轴 代表该物品的 需求量。
需求曲线向右 下方倾斜。
市场需求与个人需求
• 表4-l中的需求曲线表示某个人对某种产品的需求。市场需求是所
有个人对某种特定物品或劳务的需求的总和。
供给表表示在每种价格水平下的供给量。
供给曲线:价格与供给量之间的关系
• 本的供给曲线
由于价格越高, 供给量越多, 所以供给曲线 向右上方倾斜。
量
市场供给与个人供给
• 市场供给是个人供给之和。
在价格为2 美元时,市 场供给量是 七个冰激凌 蛋卷。
市场供给量是在每种价格水平下所有卖者供给量之和。
市场供给与个人供给
假定美国医学协会突然宣布一个新发现:那些经常吃冰激淋的人更长 寿,也更健康。这个布告对冰激凌市场有什么影响呢?
除了价格之外,任何一 种决定需求的因素变动 时,需求曲线移动。
如图所示,任何一种在 每一价格时增加需求量 的变动都会使需求曲线 向右移动。同样,任何 一种在每一价格时减少 需求量的变动都会使需 求曲线向左移动。
• 由于大多数市场上都有某种程度的竞争, 所以,我们从研究完全竞争下供给与需求 中所得到的许多结论也适用于更复杂的市 场。
2. 需求
• 需求曲线:价格和需求量之间的关系
– 一种物品的需求量(quantity demand)是买者愿意并 且能够购买的该种物品的数量。
– 任何一种物品的需求量都是由很多因素决定的,有一 种因素起着中心作用—价格。
需求曲线的移动
– 嗜好 决定你需求最明显的因素是你的嗜好。基于 个人心理因素。
– 预期 对未来的预期会影响你现在对物品和劳务的 需求。
– 买者的数量 如果另一个冰淇淋消费者Peter加入 Catherine和Nicholas的队伍中,那么在每一种价格 水平下市场需求量将会更多,需求曲线右移。
Absolut Vodka
在价格为2美元时,
市场的需求量是7个
冰淇淋蛋卷。
3.00
0
1
1
市场需求与个人需求
• 一个市场的需求量是所有买者在每一价格水平下需求量的总和。因此, 把个人需求曲线水平相加得出市场需求曲线。(横轴相加)
• 市场需求曲线表示其他因素不变时,一种物品的总需求量如何随着该 物品的价格变动而变动。
需求曲线的移动
需求曲线的移动
总结
注意:价格所引起的特殊作用,价格变动表现为沿着需求曲线的 变动,而其他任何一个变量的变动将使需求曲线移动。
案例研究
—减少香烟需求量的两种方法
• 公共政策制定者经常想减少人们吸烟的数量。
• 减少吸烟的一种方法是使香烟或其他烟草产品的需求曲线 移动。公益广告、香烟盒上有害健康的警示、以及禁止在电视上做
供给变动
• 假设在另一个夏季,台风摧毁了部分甘蔗田,并使糖的价 格上升。这个事件如何影响冰激凌市场呢? – 1. 作为投入之一,糖的价格上升影响冰激凌的供给 曲线。 – 2. 使供给曲线向左移动。 – 3. 供给减少如何影响均衡(画图)。由于糖的价格 上升,冰激凌的价格上升了,而销售量减少了。
称为市场的均衡 (equiliห้องสมุดไป่ตู้rium).
这两条曲线 相交时的价 格。
这两条曲线相交 时的数量。
均衡
• 均衡(equilibrium):市场价格达到使供给量与需 求量相等的水平时的状态。