语言学复习资料(精编).doc
语言学纲要复习资料
语言学纲要复习资料语言学纲要期末复习资料导言部分1.文字、音韵、训诂之学是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。
2.20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出，存在于语言社团中每个人头脑中的共同的语言形式结构是语言学研究的真正对象，是现代语言学的标志著作。
3.结构主义语言学：20世纪30至50年代，在欧美形成的语言学流派。
布龙菲尔德的《语言论》是该派的奠基之作。
4.生成语言学：创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基，《句法结构》的出版标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。
其研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。
是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种。
5.共时和历时语言学共时：研究相对静止的状态——横向研究历时：探索语言在不同阶段的演变——纵向研究同：都是研究语言的时角，二者是对立统一的，共时体现历时，历时是共时的不同表现。
异：语言的不同时期的先后变化属于历时问题，语言在同一时期的不同变化属于共时问题。
6.历史比较语言学：对不同语言或同种语言的不同发展阶段做比较研究，拟构语言的原始基础形式，确定语言间的亲缘关系，以展现语言的发展变化规律。
第一章语言的功能1.语言是最重要的信息传递工具，语言是第一性，最基本的手段，文字是第二性，辅助性的，文字是对语言的再编码系统。
2.人的大脑分为左右半球，语言功能是由左半球控制的。
3.运用语言进行传递信息，大致分为五个部分编码、发出、传递、接受、译码阶段。
4.思维方式的差异更多地体现在不同语言在表达思想时语法方面的特点。
5.思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性，与语言的性质是密切相关的。
6.语言和言语的区分是索绪尔提出的，言语不稳定，语言是稳定的。
7.语言是符号系统，是最重要最典型的符号，符号的形式和意义是约定，无必然联系。
征候是事物本身的特征，它传递的某种信息，可以通过它自身的物质属性来推断。
（远处的炊烟、病人的脉象、气色、舌苔、口气，罪犯的指纹，脚印）8.音————义————心理现实————客观现实语言符号指称反映客观现实：是四维时空中外在于人的所有存在，当下和历史上所有的人物、事物、现象以及他们的相互关系及其变化。
语言学复习资料-精整版
语言学复习资料-精整版1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。
2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。
组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。
3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。
聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。
4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。
5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。
6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。
7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。
8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。
大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。
国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。
它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。
9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。
10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。
11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。
12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。
13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。
14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。
15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。
16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。
17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, includingsentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
《语言学基础理论与理论》复习资料
成考复习资料《语言学》复习资料1一、单选题1. 汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别为[uo]和[te],而在实际语流中,“我的”发音是[uo de],这是语流音变中的__________________A. 顺同化现象B. 逆同化现象C. 弱化现象D. 异化现象2. 在语言谱系分类的层级体系中,最大的类别是__________A. 语族B. 语支C. 语系D. 语群3. 最早的表音文字是A. 拉丁文字B. 腓尼基文字C. 古希腊文字D. 古埃及文字4. 外语学习中的后期阶段被称为A. 中介语阶段B. 目标语阶段C. 低平期D. 高原期5. 下列元音音素都是后元音的一组是_________________A. [u, ε]B. [α, Λ]C. [α,y]D. [o, a]6. 下列各项中，谓词和变元之间属于动作与结果关系的是A. 写黑板B. 打篮球C. 织毛衣D. 寄包裹7. 下列关于亲属语言的表述中，不正确的一项是A. 亲属语言是社会完全分化的产物B. 亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系C. 语言亲属关系有亲疏远近的分别D. 亲属语言间不存在语音对应关系8. 从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是________________A. 音位B. 音素C. 音节D. 音渡9. 最早的表音文字是A. 拉丁文字B. 腓尼基文字C. 古希腊文字D. 古埃及文字10. 听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是A. 音素B. 重音C. 音位D. 音节二、多选题1. 下列对“撞倒了他的自行车”这个歧义词组的分析,正确的是________________A. 偏正词组B. 动补词组C. 动宾词组D. 连谓词组2. 对发音器官功能的描述,不正确的是_________________A. 声带在发音中的作用是次要的B. 被动发音器官是不能自主运动的C. 口腔中最为灵活的部位是上腭D. 口腔中最为灵活的部位是上腭3. 下列关于重音的表述,正确的是________________A. 有些语言中一个词可以有一个以上的重音B. 能够区别不同意义的重音可以看作一个音位C. 汉语中有词重音D. 重音跟音强的增加有关4. 下列各组中，三个词语的构词方式一致的有A. 花儿女儿刺儿B. 莲子学子男子C. 琵琶玻璃休克D. 妈妈蛐蛐仅仅E. 崇高聪明国家5. 下列对“你把这本书好好读一遍!”这个句子类型的分析,正确的是_________________A. 主谓句B. 把字句C. 陈述句D. 单句6. 下列各组中，三个词语的构词方式一致的有A. 花儿女儿刺儿B. 莲子学子男子C. 琵琶玻璃休克D. 妈妈蛐蛐仅仅E. 崇高聪明国家7. 下列关于虚词的表述,正确的是_________________成考复习资料A. 虚词可以分为辅助词和功能词两个小类B. 虚词包括助动词、介词、连词和语气词等C. 虚词是没有词汇意义只有语法意义的词D. 虚词不稳固,发展变化比较快8. 下列关于韵律特征的表述中，正确的有A. 韵律特征包括音质变化B. 韵律特征包括声调语调C. 韵律特征是对比性特征D. 韵律特征不能独立存在E. 长短音不属于韵律特征三、简答题1举例说明孤立语的主要特点。
语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。
导论1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。
3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。
4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。
5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。
第一章语言的功能1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。
2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。
相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。
4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。
5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。
6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。
十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。
第二章语言是符号系统1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。
（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。
形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。
意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。
）2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。
3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
语言学概论复习资料(按大纲整理)
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较，有几个显著和重要的特点：一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要：交际功能。
其它：标志、记录、思维、认知，等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性，能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况：一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准，并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”，对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志，但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看，“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素，因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言，是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立“语言的形态分类”，也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”，或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族；屈折语、孤立语；综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级：语系、语族、（语支）、语言、方言、次方言（土语）。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别，是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”，同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源，相似点也更多。
形态语（综合性语言）指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语（分析性语言）指没有形态变化的语言。
如汉语。
屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化，是形态语中的一个小类。
英语专业语言学复习资料.doc
1Arbitrariness: Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the f act that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, f or the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, inCh inese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese.2Duality:To human language, the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to f orm meaningf ul units (words) at anotherlevel.3A descriptive linguisticsattempts to tell what is in the language, it attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used. While the prescriptive linguistics tells people what should be in the language and tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.4Immediate constituent analysis: The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. IC analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the dif ferent constituents at dif ferent structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic f orms. The best way to show IC structure is to use a tree diagram. The f irst divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents(ICs), and the f inal cuts as the ultimate constituents(UCs).5Assimilation:Sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables. As the f ollowing sounds bring about the change, this process is called regressive assimilation.e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when f ollowed by a [+nasal] consonant.6Phonetics: The study of linguistic speech sounds that occur in all human languages , how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties, is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identif y what are speech sounds in a language, and then to study their characteristics. It includes three main areas: articul atory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.7 Phonology: It is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. 8 Allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.9Recursiveness：It refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any def inite limit. The rules introducing prepositional phrases also introduce the important concept of recursion.10 Stress: The prominence given to certain sounds in speech. When a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress. When a word belongs to dif ferent word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on diff erent syllables. When all the words above are stressed on thefirst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verb s. Stress may also have af unction at the sentence level. In this case, the phonetic f orm of word stress may be show which part of sentence is in f ocus.11Morphology: is thus the study of the internal structure, f orms and classes of words, intended structure relevant rule f or word f ormation.12Allomorph: An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme. Allophones are in complementary distribution, allomorphs are also in complementary distribution, that is to say, they cannot occur in the same environment. e.g. -s, -es, and -en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.13Derivation: the f ormation of new words by adding aff ixes to other words or morphemes in morphology and word f ormation.14Acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Exmples: NATO, radar and yuppy.15blending: A single new word can be f ormed by combining two separate f orms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is f ormed by the shortened f orms of breakfast and lunch.16Compounding:is the f ormation of new words by joining two or more stems. We have three types of compounds: 1, noun compounds:noun+noun: armchair, rainbow; 2, verb compounds: verb+verb: to sleep-walk; 3, adjective compounds: verb+adjectives: stir-crazy17Root: Some morphemes like car, talk, f riend and tour can stand alone as words. Such morphemes are called f ree morphem es. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. remains when all aff ixes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system f rom un- + system + atic + ally. 18Minimal pairs and sets: The phonologist is concerned with what differences are signif icant, or technically speaking, distinctive. A distinctive diff erence is one that brings about the change of meaning. In order to determine which are distinctive sounds, the customary practice is to set up minimal pairs-pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.19Stem: A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an aff ix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, dif ferent from, a root. For example, in the w ord “f riends” , “f riend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “f riendships”, “f riendships” is its stem, “f riend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e.g., “mailman” , “girlf riend” ,ect.20Suffix: Af f ixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suff ixes.An “affix” is the collective term f or the type of f ormative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Aff ixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classif i ed into three subtypes: pref ix, suff ix and inf ix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(pref ix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suff ix).21Syntax: the term used to ref er to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.22IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents byusing binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. 23Semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.24Sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, to gether with the context, determines its ref erent. 25Reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and \ the things, actions, events and qualities they stand f or. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (ref erent) in the real world.26Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning; thematic meaning ; connotative meaning; social meaning; affective meaning；ref l ective meaning; collocative meaning;后5种称associ ative meaning27Lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes f or “male” and“f emale” cousin.28Pragmati cs: can be def ined as the study of languages in use. It deals with how speakers use languages in ways which cannot be predicted f rom linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when communicate with each other. We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of meaning that is not covered by semantics. So people use the f ormula as itsdef inition:PRAGMATICS=MEANING-SEMANTICS. 29Anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.30Cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elem ents of a text. This may be the relationship between di ff erent sentences or different parts of a sentence.31Coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.32Prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category, e.g. f or some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegetable. 33 Prototype theory: a theory of human categorization that was posited by Eleanor Rosch. Following this theory, natural categories are organized according to prototypes which are considered as the most typical or representative of the category. A robin or sparrow is regarded as a prototype of the category of “bird”. People decide whether an entity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with a prototype.34iconicity: a feature of a language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker. Caesar’s historic words “Veni, vidi, vici (I ca me, I saw, I conquered)” is a good case to prove the iconicity of order(the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction). Iconicity of distance a ccounts f or the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. This entails that conceptual distance corresponds to linguistic distance not merely physical distance. eg: a, I killed the chicken. b, I caused the chicken to die. Iconicity of complexity: The phenomenon that linguistic complexity ref lects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity.35Reflective meaning: is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word f orms part of our response to another sense. Ref lective meaning is the product of people’s recognition and imagination.36Ambiguity: It refers to the phenomenon that an expression has more than one meaning. Two diff erent types of ambiguity can be distinguished on the basis of what is causing it: lexical ambiguity (more than one word meaning) and structural ambiguity (more than one synt actic structure) 37The diacritics: are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in theirpronunciation38Complementary distribution: [p.pH] are two different phones and are varivants of the phoneme /p/such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution, because they never occur in the same context. [p] occurred af ter [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.39syllable: A unit in speech which isof t en longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.41 the difference between derivational affix and inflectional affix (1)Inf lectional aff ixes very of t en add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. In contrast, derivational aff ixes of ten change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2)Inf lectional aff ixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational aff ixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness f or the f ormer, and that between brother and brotherhood f or the latter. (3)In English, inf lectionalaff ixes are mostly suffixes, which are always wordf inal. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational aff ixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.定义：Derivational morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and are of ten used to make words of a di ff erent grammatical category from the stem Inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical f unction of a word.。
语言学复习要点完整版
语言学复习重点——By 天王引言1、语言学在学科领域中能起到哪些作用？语言学既是一门基础学科，又是一门带头学科。
（1）语言学的基础作用：文化的继承和发展、语言教学。
（2）语言学的带头作用：语言学的有关理论推动了其它领域、其它学科的研究进程。
2、传统语言学有哪几个研究中心？各自的代表性成果是什么？十九世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究。
（研究目的：阅读古籍和语言教学）三个研究中心：古代印度、古代希腊和古代中国。
古代印度：公元前4世纪，波尼尼《波尼尼经》（《梵语语法》）。
古代希腊：公元前2世纪，特拉克斯《语法术》（《语法艺术》）。
古代中国：特点：从语义入手。
特有的名称：“小学”。
三门学科：训诂学：公元前2世纪《尔雅》；文字学：公元100年，许慎《说文解字》；音韵学：《广韵》（1008年）；语法学：1898年，马建忠《马氏文通》。
3、中国的传统语言学与古印度和古希腊的传统语言学相比，在研究的切入点上有什么不同？印度：语音角度；中国：语义入手4、历史比较语言学的研究成果是什么？哪几个人物为历史比较语言学的诞生做出过重要贡献？●历史比较语言学：通过对比不同的语言或方言，研究它们之间的相互关系和发展变化的语言学。
研究方法：把不同语言的语音、基本词汇、语法结构加以比较，找出对应关系，以确认有无共同的历史来源。
研究结果：对世界上的语言进行了谱系分类。
相关概念：亲属语言、语系、语族、语支。
●两位先驱：威廉琼斯：1786年，第一个提出印欧语言之间存在着共同的历史来源。
史勒格尔：1808年，第一个提出“比较语法”的术语。
三位创始人：德国的葆普：1816年，动词变位系统。
丹麦的拉斯克：1818年，词汇对应关系。
德国的格里姆：1819年，语音对应规律。
5、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学的创始人是谁？诞生的标志是什么？结构主义语言学：20世纪以瑞士语言学家索绪尔的语言理论为代表以及受这种理论影响而进行的语言理论研究。
诞生的标志：1916年，索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。
语言学复习总结重点.doc
一.Antonymy （反义词）：（书本P70）1.Gradable antonyms （分程度反义词）：a matter of degree.eg. Old—middle-aged—young hol-warm-coldplementary antonyms （互补关系）：a matter of degree between two extremes.eg. Alive― ead; male一female3.relational opposites （关系反义词）：pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items.eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient； buy-sell； above-below二、Paul Grice （保罗•格莱斯）提出的两个概念（书本P86）1.conventional implicature （规约含意，约定俗成的）：is based on the conventional meaningof certain words in the language・eg. He is rich blit he is not greedy.2.particularized conversational implicature （特殊规约隐涵）：is inferred by the hearer withreference to the context of communication.eg. A： Where is the steak? B: The dog looks very happy.三、Charles Hockett （霍凯特）提出的人类语言的识别特征之一（书本P8）Arbitrariness （I膛总:t生）：There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds・ eg. Rumble, crash, cackle, bang四.Free morpheme （可独立存在的）：a morpheme which can be a word by itself.eg. boy （书本P33）五、新构词（书本P99）1.blending （拼缀，紧缩法）：a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words,eg. Smog -一smoke+fog; motel——motor+hotel2.acronyms （首字母缩写，词首字母缩略法）：are words derived from the initials of severalwordseg. IT-——information technology; CPI——consumer price index六.Language aptitude （语言能力倾向，语言学能）：the natural ability for learning a second language.（书本P164）七、Semantic Changes （语意变化）：（书本P102）1.semantic broadening （扩展，意思越来越广，语义扩大化）2.semantic narrowing （意思变小）3.semantic shift （转换）八.indirect speech act （间接言语行动）：which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.（书本P84-85）1.The primary speech act is the speaker's goal of communication while the secondaryspeech act is the means by which he achieves goal.2・ eg. A： Let's go to the movies tonight.B： I have to study for an exam. （冋答问题或者名词解释）九、Sapir-Whorf Hypotheis （假说）：1. A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf whichstates that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structureof their native language・（书本P128）2・ Now there are mainly two different interpretations about the hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. While the strong version believes that language patterns determinepeople's thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that former influences the latter.（全背）3・ eg. English-speaking culture tends to teach its people to name what is eful and important.4. A good illustration of this point is the word snow in Eskimo and English.十. Strategies for learning a second language?（书本P165）1.Find their own way,taking charge of their learning・anize information about language・3.Are creative,developing a "fbcT for the language by experimenting with its grammar andwords.4.Make their own opportunities for practice in using the language inside and outside theclassroo m.5・ Learn to live with uncertainly by not getting fluttered and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.e mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what had been learned・7.Make errors work for them and not against for them.e linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first language, in learning asecond language.e contextual cues to help them in comprehension.10.Learn to make intelligent guesses.11.Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform"beyond their competence^・12.Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.13.Learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own competence・14.Learn different style of speech and writing and learn to vary their language according tothe formality of the situatiori・H—> How to determine a word^s category?（书本P44）三个标准及分别的例子：1.Meaning2.infleclion3.distribution十二. Q： when ^conversation implicature occur?（书本P87）A：Only when a maxim is flouted（公然违抗）.Flouting a maxin means violating blatantly ・十三、A phoneme is a phonological unit・ It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.（书本P23）十四. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study・（书本P4）十五、Krashen^ input Hypothesis （书本P163）（课本黑体字）Comprehensive input （全lif 白勺输入）：i+1：i represents learners5current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i+1十六、what is morphological rules?（形态学规则）（书本P36）They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 十七、what is interlanguage?（语际语，人工辅助语言，中介语）（书本P160）Proposed by S.Pit Corder and Larry Seiinker, the concept of interlanguage was established as learner's independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language・十八、What is acculturation^（语言文化移入，文化适应）（书本P135）A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community. （可能考单词acculturation） intercultural communication（单词跨文化交际）十九、what is inflectional morphemes?（曲折语素；屈折词素；屈折性语素）（书本P36）Which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.? ? ?eg. "John has noticed the change in his friend.” Here the -ed endings are morphemes which do not add any lexical meaning but represent the concept of tense and aspect.二十、what is roots?（词根）（书本P34）The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.Roots typically belong to a lexical category・二—、what is phrases?（短语）（书本P44）Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category・二十二- what is Wh Movement?（特殊疑问句）（书本P56）二十三、Sense relations between sentences （书本P71-72）（选择题一题）1.X is synonymous with Y 同义2.X is inconsistent with Y 彳：一致3.X entails Y （Y is an entailment of Y）包括4.X presupposes Y （Y is a prerequisite of X）先提条件5.X is a contradiction 矛盾6.X is semantically anomalous 反常的二十四、Pragmatics （ig用学），和语义学的最大区别？Context （书本P77-78）1.区别：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered・2.总结最大区别：context二十五. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. （书本P7）二十六、Critical Period Hypothesis （CPH）关键期假说的主要思想（书本P147）（选择）The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one's life extending from about two to puberty. （While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposurethe weak holds that lang uage learni ng will be more difficult and in complete after puberty.）二十七、what is a behaviorist view of language acquisition?（语言习得的行为主义主要观点是什么？）（书本P141）Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.[An innatist view of language acquisition: Chomsky proposed that human beings are bom with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device, or LAD. Universal Grammar （UG）An interactionist view of language acquisition]二十八、what is bilingualism?（双语能力）（书本P122）Ability to speak two languages equally well.二十九、What is Spoonerism?（斯本内现象，首音互换）（书本P186）Transposition of initial consonants in a pair of words.eg. Wrong road―long road三十、What is Garden path sentences?（径句）（书本P186）A garden path sentence is an awkward sentence that misleads the syntactic parser and takes itdown the garden path to the wrong analysis.eg. The horse raced past the barn fell.。
语言学复习资料
为什么语言是一种特殊的社会现象？语言是社会约定俗成的，一个人掌握和使用哪种语言，取决于他所处的社会。
因此，语言是一种社会现象。
社会生活的两个基本领域是经济基础和上层建筑。
无论是经济基础和上层建筑都是有阶级性的。
经济基础是指一定社会发展阶段占统治地位的生产关系各个方面（即所有制形式、交换形式、分配形式）的总和。
而语言的特殊性体现在它既不属于经济基础，也不属于上层建筑，是全民性的，是全民共同使用的交际工具，没有阶级性。
经济基础和上层建筑的变化都不会从根本上影响语言。
因此，语言是一种特殊的社会现象。
除语言外，还有哪些信息传递的方式？它们同语言是什么关系？文字、旗语和电报代码等、面部表情、手势、躯体姿态等。
文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助性交际工具；旗语和电报代码是对语言、文字的再编码，有语言文字，这些符号就不能独立存在；面部表情、手势、躯体姿态等多半是辅助语言来传递信息。
语言系统的二层性。
语言系统分为音系和语法两个层面，两个层面都有最小单位和小单位组成大单位的多级组织结构，这是语言系统最重要的特点，即语言系统的两层性。
音系层（形式层）：音位——音节语法层（符号层）：语素——词——词组/短语——句子特点：形式层的最小单位大大少于符号层的最小单位。
人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别（1）任意性动物语言中一定程度的“任意性”都局限于一个题目，是僵硬的，不能与人类语言符号的任意性同日而语。
（2）单位明晰性动物语言无论是借助声音还是借助形体都是不可分的。
（3）结构二层性动物语言不能分解成单位，谈不上有结构，更不用说有结构的二层性。
（4）能产性动物语言只能表达有限的信息，所能传递的信息是固定的。
它们的交际方式及其所表示的意义可以一一列举。
（5）传授性动物语言是与生俱来的本能，不用学习。
（6）不受时、地环境的限制动物的交际都是由当时当地的刺激引起的，是对具体情境的感性的反应，只能传递某种信息，既不能回顾过去发生的事，也不能设想未来。
语言学复习资料
1、第一章2、语言学，是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
3、语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
4、中国、印度、希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
5、语言研究的任务也只是给古代流传下来的政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。
6、人们抓住汉字、分析它的形体，讲求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。
7、从研究古代经典中的书面语的语文学发展到全面研究语言的语言学，是语言研究的深刻转折。
8、语言本身的构造很复杂，可以分为语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。
9、综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是理论语言学的任务。
10、语言活动深入人类社会生活的一切领域，只要有人活动的地方就需要语言。
语言不仅与社会科学，而且还和很多的自然科学发生了密切的关系。
11、语言进行交际的过程可以分为：编码—发送—传递—接收—解码，五个阶段。
12、语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学，既与社会科学有密切的关系，也与自然科学有密切的关系。
它的研究成果越来越为其他学科所关心、所运用。
它在整个科学体系中占有重要的地位。
13、话的长短差别很大。
短可以只有一个词，长可以长到无止境。
例如，在一定的环境中，“看”就可以是一句话，表达一个完整的意思。
但这种现象不典型。
说话通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来，造出一句话。
如看。
看书。
看一本书。
看一本有趣的书......不论多长的句子，我们都可以加上一些成分，使它更长。
当然实际说话的时候，句子是不会太长了。
因为说话的人说到后来会忘记前面说过的内容。
14、句子的数目无限，每句话又可以拉得很长。
事实告诉我们：无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则，学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。
15、每个人说话是自由，想什么时候说就什么时候说，想说什么就说什么，但说话时选择什么材料，遵循什么规则是不自由的，必须服从社会的习惯。
语言学概论复习(完整)
语言学概论复习资料一、名词解释1.语言的主观性：说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图。
（互动的另一方面包括受话人受到影响，做出相应的语言或行动上的反馈。
）2.语言能力：人的抽象思维能力与灵活发音的能力有机结合。
人的语言能力的生理基础相同。
3.心理现实：贮存在人脑的人对客观现实认知的成果，是关于客观现实的各种知识信息。
其来源：①感官对客观现实的直接感知，经脑神经综合处理转化为记忆信息；②对语言文字的接收处理。
4.颤音：舌尖或小舌连续颤动而发出的音。
（是舌尖、小舌这两个柔软的尖状物处在十分放松并有气流的冲击的状态下连续颤动而发出的音。
）例如：俄语中的Р（如РУка，手）是舌尖颤音[r]。
5.闪音：舌头颤动一次发出的音。
例如：英语very中的处于弱读音节的r[ʃ]。
6.区别特征：具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征。
每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。
例如汉语普通话/ɑ/音位有不圆唇和舌位低两个发音特征；某个音位利用哪些特征和其他音位对立，这由该特征在音位系统中所处的地位而定。
例如：英语音位用清/p/浊/b/对立而不同于汉语普通话的用是否送气来区别。
7.语言节奏：语言的节奏是狭义的节奏，是语流中某些超音段要素在时间上等距离地、周期性地交替出现。
相当于音乐节拍但不如音乐规整严格。
包括音节（或韵素）型节奏和音步型节奏。
8.成句范畴：语气（陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹）、情态、时、语态等句子功能意义类别。
成句范畴有一定的表达形式，例如疑问句语气可以用语调或虚词表达。
9.黏着语：只以黏着语素替换作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言。
例如土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语等。
10.概念结构：词义之间的相互关系叫做一种语言的概念结构，词义的形成以现实现象为基础，同时也受制于本语言词义的相互关系（概念结构）。
不同的语言对现实有不同的切分，也就具有不同的概念结构。
11.中心意义：离开上下文后人们最熟悉的意义，它大多同本义一致，有时同本义不一致。
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Chapter 1 Introduction.lDefinition of linguisticsLinguistics is the scientific study of language.1)Scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General Linguistics.1.13 Some distinctions in linguistics1.1.2Prescriptive 说明性vs. Descriptive 描述性Descriptive——describe / analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive——lay down rules for "correct and standard ” behaviour in using language・1.1.3Synchronic 共时的vs. diachronic 历时的Synchronic study■一description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study™description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.1.1.4Speech and writingSpeech——Primary medium of languageWriting——Later developedSpeech is prior to writing [5 reasons]1.1.5. Langue and parole (F. de Saussure: 1857-1913 )Langue the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole —— the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete・Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.1.1.6. Competence 语言能力and performance 语言运用(Chomsky)Competence ....... the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance— the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Q： Similarity and difference between Saussure' s distinction and that of ChomskySimilarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language ・Difference: Chomsky' s competence-performance is from psychological point of view・Saussure" s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.1.1.7Traditional grammar and modem linguisticsQ: What are the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics?Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive・Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into aLatin-based framework・1.1Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2Design features of language^Arbitrariness: Generally there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds・ The dog barks wow wow in English but “ 汪汪汪” in Chinese.Ps:language is not arbitrary at compounding words and at the syntactic level.Duality: Or double-structured. Language consists of two sets of structures, or two levels- Lower level:sounds which are meaningless. Higher level: units of meaning by grouping or regrouping sounds・ Units of meaning can be arranged into infinite number of sentences・Creativity (productivity): language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users・ This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted not genetically transmitted. A language is taught and learned within a particular cultural background・1.3Functions of languageChapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology ----- The Study of SoundsPhonology5.3.2Phonology and phoneticsThe difference between phonetics & phonology:Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one, phonetic features; language universal Phonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific2・3・2Phone, Phoneme and allophonePhone:1)a phonetic unit2)not necessarily distinctive of meaning3)physical as perceived4)marked with []Phoneme:1)a phonological unit2)distinctive of meaning3)abstract, not physical4)marked with / /StudentPhones: [t] [th]Phoneme: /t/Allophone: [t] [th]23.4. Some rules in phonologySequential rules 序列规则/k//b//l//i/四个phoneme 造词,bilk(right), ibki(false)Assimilation rule 同化原则Deletion rule 省略规贝U E.g. Sign design, delete a /g/when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.2.3.5. Suprasegmental features .............. s tress，tone, intonationSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmental features are:StressTone声调Intonation 语调Chapter 3 Morphology …The study of word structureMorphology: Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.3.2Open class and closed classOpen class: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to which new words can be added.―( content words)e.g: beatnikClosed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns to which new words are not usually added ・---(functional words)e.g: and, it, to, the, etc.3>3Morphemes ........... the minimal units of meaning(考)2). Morpheme 词素Moipheme■-the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function・ e.g. read-er (two morphemes)3). AllomorphsAllomorphs: The variant forms of a morpheme.Indefiniteness marker4)・ Types of morpheme 词素变体Free vs. Bound morpheme:Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morpheme:a morpheme that must be attached to another one. e.g.-ed, dis-, un-.4.Analyzing word structureRoots and affixes3<5Derivational vs. inflectional morphemesDerivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word. E.g friend+-ly > friendly. ・・・change or don' t change the category.affection/affectionate economics/macroeconomicsInflection: grammatical markers and signify concepts as tense, number, case and so on.E.g. plural, tense, comparative, etc.―never change the syntactic category.Boy/boys notice/noticed look/looking3.6Morphological rules of word formation(不考)*Derivation*CompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillVerb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfreePreposition compounds: into, throughoutChapter 4 Syntax■“the study of sentences structure2.31 DefinitionSyntax studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Chapter 5 Semantics (The study of meaning)5.1Definition5.2Some views concerning the study of meaning2.3.1Plato: The naming theory 命名论Plato T s naming theory： the meaning is the object in the world that the word refers to. (The word : The linguistic form; The meaning: The object the word refers to.)1.Applicable only to nouns, rather than other word classes2.Applicable to nouns denoting things that exist in the real world.2.3.2Ogden & Richards: The conceptualism 概念论There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to: rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Semantic triangle: Thought/referenceSymbol/form referent2.3.3Firth: Contextualism 语境论Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context一element closely linked with language behavior.The situational context (场景语境):The linguistic context (语言语境):2.3.4Bloomfield: Behaviorism 行为论situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer .Jill use JackSituational Linguistic SituationalContext context contextS ............................. r s ............................... RStimulus Linguistic Linguistic Response (non-linguistic)(non・linguistic) response stimulus5.3Lexical meaning (没划重点)531 sense ans referenceSense :The inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.Question: Similarities and Difference between sense and referenceSense ReferenceThe same sense may have different references in different situations.Sense(dog) ........ Tibetan mastiff (藏羹),Toy Poodle(玩具贵宾犬)The same reference may differ in sense・Sense 1 (morning star)► ReferenceSense 2(evening star)Major sense relations5.3.2.1Synonymy 同义词(Definition: The sameness or close similarity of meaning.)6.1.1Dialectal synonyms 方占同义词：Synonyms used in different regional dialects. (lift-elevator) 6.1.2Stylistic synonyms: Synonyms differing in style. (father-daddy)6.1.3Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 评彳介(collaborator-accomplice)4 ) Collocational synonyms: Synonyms differing in their collocation.同义词搭酉已(accuse-charge-rebuke)2.3.5Semantically different synonyms.5.3.2.2Polysemy 多义14Definition: A single entry, but a list of meanings.5.3.2.3Homonymy 同音异义Definition: The words (differing in meaning) + (the same in sound or spelling, or both) Homophones同音异义词Homographs同行界义词Complete homonyms同形同音界义词Question: How to distinguish polysemy and complete homonyms ? .........................depend on the etymology of the words.A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. The various meanings of the word are related to some degree (e.g. School).Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence・(e・g・ ball: ①“a round object used in games” -a native English word; ②"a large formal social event at which people dance” -originally exists in French.)5.3.2.4Hyponymy 下义关系Definition: A relation of inclusion.Superordinate: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily______ ) Y Co-hyponyms5.3.2.5Antonymy 反义词Definition: the oppositeness of meaning.Gradable antonyms 程度Relational antonyms 关系成对Complementary antonyms 非此即彼5.4Sense relations between sentences （考）X is synonymous with Y. X 与Y 同义Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is true;If X is false, Y is false.X is inconsistent with Y ・ X 与Y 不一致Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is false;If X is false, Y is true.X entails 包含Y （Y is an entailment 含义of X.）Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is true;If X is false, Y is not necessarily false.X presupposes Y （Y is a prerequisite of X.Y 是X 的前提）Truth Condition: If X is true, Y must be true;If X is false, Y is still true.X is a contradiction （矛盾）X is semantically anomalous （语义异体）5.5Analysis of meaning （考）5.5.1Componential Analysis 成分分析Componential Analysis （Feature Analysis; Contrast Analysis）: The meaning of a word/phrase can be dissected into the meaning components・Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships that are related in meaning・5.5.2Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析Two points in the sentence meaning:The meaning of a sentence 不等丁the sum total of the meanings of all its components・there are two aspects to sentence meaning : grammatical meaning and semantic meaning ・G. Leech: predication （述i胃结*勾）--- the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument（s）论元and predicate 谓词.Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学Definition: Pragmatics is "study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communicationSemantics VS. PragmaticsSimilarity: They both study the meaning.Difference:Semantics studies the meaning in isolation.^?立“勺Pragmatics studies the meaning in context （or the language use）.ContextThe knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Importance of Con textContext determines the speaker's use of language; the hearer's inteipretation of what is said to him or her.Sentence meaning vs. Utterance meaningSentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualizedUtterance meaning: concrete and context-dependentE.g. "John is still single” .Sentence meaning: JOHN (BE SINGLE)utterance meaning may be: Encourage the listener to date John.Summary:Utterance meaning=Sentence meaning+ Context三、问答题Lwhat are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics——il's defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it's concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Phonology—the study of sounds systems一the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology…It's a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax ------ its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language・Semantics™It\ simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics—the study of meaning in context of words.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?3・ what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4Js modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language・ unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。