应用语言学第二章习题答案
应用语言学复习(之二)
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应用语言学复习(之二)应用语言学练习(之二)1、什么是第一语言?第一语言(first 1anguage)是指一个人出生之后最先接触并获得的语言。
一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。
2、什么是母语?对这个问题目前还存在着不同的看法。
①母语是指“一个人最初学会的一种语言,在一般情况下是本民族的标准语或某一种方言”。
这个意思通常被译作“mother language”。
②母语是“指本民族的语言”。
这个意思通常被译成“native language”。
③母语还可以解释为“一个语系中作为其他语言共同起源语的语言”,如拉丁语被认为是法语、意大利语、罗马尼亚语等所有罗曼语的母语。
这个意思则通常被译成“parent language”。
④我们认为,母语就是指父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言,母语具有继承性,它体现了人们世代的语言关系。
一个人出生之后通常是使用并继承了母语,母语通常也就成为他的第一语言。
3、第一语言和母语的是什么关系?①一个人从小接触并获得的第一语言一般都是从父母一辈习得的,他继承了前辈的语言“母语”,这是最常见的情况,因此,人们通常把第一语言和母语等同起来。
②其实尽管第一语言与母语之间的关系十分密切,但二者也有所区别。
第一语言和母语是两个不同的概念,第一语言可能是母语,也可能不是母语。
就多数人而言,母语是他们的第一语言。
但由于种种原因,有些人习得的第一语言并非母语。
母语失却现象的存在,也有力地说明了第一语言和母语的不同。
在内涵上,第一语言指的是获得语言的顺序,而母语不完全是一个获得语言的顺序问题;在外延上,二者所指称的对象是交叉关系。
第一语言是语言学的概念,而母语则更多地牵涉到民族学问题。
4、本族语和非本族语的是怎么区分的?是按照言语社团、通常是按民族的界限来区分的。
本族语是指语言习得者自己的民族所使用的语言,也称民族语。
非本族语是指本民族以外的语言,可能是外语,也可能是本国其他民族的语言。
5、第一语言和本族语是怎么样的关系?一个人儿时从父母那里习得本民族语言,这时,他的第一语言和本族语是一致的;但一个人儿时从父母或当地社团那里习得外族语言,这时他的第一语言就不是本族语,出现了第一语言与本族语分离现象。
语言学第二章习题答案参考
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一、名词解释:1、符号:符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记,符号的构成包括两个方面的形式和意义,形式是符号的外壳,是可以被人的感觉器官感知的,具有物质性。
意义是符号形式所代表的内容。
符号的最大特征是形式和意义的联系完全是社会成员约定俗成的,由社会习惯决定的。
2、符号的任意性:语言符号的任意性是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说的。
语言的声音和意义之间没有必然的、本质的联系,他们之间的结合是不可论证的,完全是社会约定俗成的,这是语言符号最大的特点。
3、语言符号的系统性:所谓系统,是指同类事物按一定的关系组成的整体。
语言符号系统是说语言符号中的要素,并不是杂乱无章的堆积在一起,而是按照一定的秩序组织起来,形成一个有机的整体;系统中的各个要素之间存在着种种规律性的联系,并且彼此相互制约。
语言符号系统可以概括为:语言是一种分层装置,这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。
4、组合关系:又叫句段关系,是指符号组合起来的关系,不同的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。
5、聚合关系:又叫联想关系,是指在语言组合结构的某一位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用的符号之间的关系,简单的说,语言符号的类聚(类别)关系。
二、判断题1、语言符号具有任意性的特点,我们平时说话用什么样的语音代表什么样的意义是自由的,因此,如果我们愿意,把“袜子”说成“鞋子”也可以。
答:错。
原因:①符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记。
语言符号音与义的结合是社会约定俗成的。
“鞋子”和“袜子”的音义结合是社会约定俗成的,不能把“袜子”说成是“鞋子”。
②语言符号的任意性是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说的。
语言的声音和意义之间没有必然的、本质的联系,他们之间的结合是不可论证的,完全是社会约定俗成的,“鞋子”和“袜子”的音和义是社会约定俗成的,不能把“袜子”说成是“鞋子”。
③语言符号是任意性与强制性的辨正统一,强制性是指语言符号一旦进入交际,也就是某一语言形式与某一种意义结合起来,表示某一特定的对象以后,对使用的人来说就有强制性,即只有接受的权利,没有随意更改的权利。
应用语言学教程答案
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应用语言学部分课后题答案第一章1,应用语言学有理论应用语言学有理论,依据如下:更详细的见书P121、没有人事先准备了完善的语言学理论以供应用,应用语言学常常要一边解决实际问题一边建立和完善语言学理论。
2、任何层次的应用都包含了下位层次的理论和提供了上位层次的理论。
这是吸取了毛泽东关于“实践—理论—实践”的思想。
通过实践发现真理,又通过证实和发展真理。
实践、认识、再实践、再认识,这种形式,循环往复以至无穷。
3、语言学之外也有理论。
本体语言学可以从语言学之外吸取理论,应用语言学也可以。
如戴昭铭借鉴法学的无罪推定原则来讨论“涉及到、见诸于”等叠架形式的规范问题,另外“规范就是服务”这个理念也是从管理学中吸取的。
4、应用语言学理论最根本的来源是语言生活实践。
5、最根本的根据是因为应用语言学已经提出了自己的一些基本理论。
例如:动态理论、层次理论、中介理论、浅显理论、人文性理论、交际理论、全息发展理论等。
这些理论已经得到了广泛的认可,成为应用语言学的基础理论。
2.网络语言的使用带来了哪些新东西?在于根元主编的《中国网络语言词典》中,对“网络语言”提出了如下定义:“…网语‟是互联网的产物。
在网络日益普及的虚拟空间里,人们表达思想、情感的方式也应与现实生活中的表达习惯有所不同,于是有的人创造出令人新奇也令人愤怒和不懂的…网语‟。
高名凯先生说:“无疑地,在新的社会环境下,新的事物的产生或作为社会现象之一的人的思维活动所形成的概念的产生要求作为交际工具、思维工具的语言有所改变,有所发展。
”网络语言由于它特殊的载体和它的现实虚拟性,使得网络用语一开始就呈现出一般语言所少有的特殊性和多元性。
人们在这个虚拟世界中,除了使用那些规范的词语之外,还创造了许多只有经常上网的人才能理解的词语。
网络语言的使用给人们带来了许多新东西,如下;1,网络语言主要依据文字形式进行互动交流,也就是主要靠视觉进行交流。
因此网络语言带来最大的就是网络语言形式的改变。
应用语言学知到章节答案智慧树2023年牡丹江师范学院
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应用语言学知到章节测试答案智慧树2023年最新牡丹江师范学院第一章测试1.Applied linguistics is grounded in real-world language-driven problems andconcerns primarily by linkages to practical issues involving language use,language leaning and teaching.()参考答案:对2.It is of importance for applied linguistics to incorporate with otherdisciplinary knowledge in its efforts to address language-based problems. ()参考答案:对3.Second language pedagogy is a large area of research activity incontemporary applied linguistics. ()参考答案:对4.Applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation topractical problems. ()参考答案:对5.Work in language teaching has two interrelated strands. What are they? ()参考答案:how language should be taught;what kind of language should be taught第二章测试1.Corpus can tell us what is possible or correct or not possible or incorrect inlanguage.()参考答案:错2.Corpus approach utilizes a large and principled collection of naturallyoccurring texts as the basis for analysis. ()参考答案:对3.Corpus linguistics is not able to provide all possible language at one time. ()参考答案:错parable corpora of different languages can be used by translators and bylearners to identify differences and equivalences in each language. ()参考答案:对5.() is a collection of texts-essays. Its purpose is to identify in what respectslearners differ from each other and from the language of native speakers, for which a comparable corpus of native-speaker texts is required.参考答案:Learner corpus第三章测试1.Second language acquisition is also closely related to psychology, cognitivepsychology, and education. ()参考答案:对2.SLA is concerned with the nature of the hypotheses whether conscious orunconscious that learners come up with regarding the rules of the secondlanguage. ()参考答案:对3.Second language acquisition is the study of how second languages arelearned.()参考答案:对4. A model needs to explain the reason that causes the phenomena. ()参考答案:错5.The features of a theory are ()?参考答案:simple;applicable;useful;predictive第四章测试1.Integrative motivation occurs when learning a foreign language is only aninstrument or a medium to meet some demands.()参考答案:错2.Extrinsic motivation is evoked by incentive coming from the environment.()参考答案:对3.learning strategies are any set of operations or steps used by a learner thatwill facilitate the acquisition. ()参考答案:对4.Metacognitive strategies help learners to regulate their learning.()参考答案:对5.In classroom, a VISUAL learner prefers ().参考答案:facial expression;teacher’s gestures;body language第五章测试1.Pragmatics emphasizes mutual knowledge in communication which consistsof the sender intending to cause the receiver to think or do something.参考答案:对2.Pragmatics is an important field of inquiry for disciplines that study humancommunication and social interaction. ()参考答案:对3.Interlanguage pragmatics only deal with use of second language pragmaticknowledge. ()参考答案:错4.Learning the linguistic code of a language is situated in social context. ()参考答案:对5.Grice identified the principle of cooperation and further categorized itsmechanisms into four basic maxims. They are().参考答案:maxim of relation;maxim of manner;maxim of quality;maxim ofquantity第六章测试1.The elements of language express meaning well beyond literal meaning andwell beyond structure-based meaning.()参考答案:对2.Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship betweenlanguage and the contexts in which it is used. ()参考答案:对3. A turn is each occasion that two speakers talk and a turn ends when anotherspeaker takes a turn. ()参考答案:错4.Learners’ participation in the classroom could be affected by theirpsychological states, cultural backgrounds, and b learning styles. ()参考答案:对5.Discourse analysis enables to().参考答案:gain a great deal from looking at real language use as a source ofcriteria for the evaluation of test performances;assist language teachers and materials writers to evaluate language course book;analyze andunderstand real language data;understand better the kinds ofdiscourse that language learners are exposed第七章测试1.Quantitative research is a type of scientific inquiry that is very subjective inwhich the researcher attempts to participate the actual study.()参考答案:错2.Qualitative researchers are much more personally involved in their studiesand has traditionally been the mainstream of second language research. ()参考答案:对3.Quantitative methods are generally not covering the reasons for particularobservations.参考答案:对4.Learning and teaching are both progressive and the teachers must makeprogress together with their students. ()参考答案:对5.The development of teachers' identities goes hand in hand with ethicalpurposes, moral values, and philosophies that underpin their work in schools and classrooms. ()参考答案:对。
语言与应用语言学考试样卷及参考答案
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语⾔与应⽤语⾔学考试样卷及参考答案《语⾔与应⽤语⾔学》考试样卷及参考答案xam for Language and Linguistics: A Workbook《语⾔与语⾔学:实⽤⼿册》试卷You have 120 minutes to finish this exam.The exam consists of four sections:Section 1 Checking content awareness of the course (15 items, 30%)Section 2 Checking understanding of some general principles of language and linguistics (8 items, 24%)Section 3 Checking understanding of some specific aspects of language and linguistics (8 items, 24%)Section 4 Checking analytic application (2 items, 22%)This is a close exam. You are not allowed to consult any reference books or with other examinees.Always read the instructions very carefully before you do the exam items.Section 1 Checking content awareness of the course (15 items, 30%) (这部分正式考试时只选择其中的三种题型来⽤,每种题型有5个⼩题,共计15 个⼩题。
样题中每部分只提供了两个⼩题作为参考。
)Complete the following items by providing the information based on the course book.1. Activity 2 of Unit 3 is entitled “An Anatomy of the Word”. The keyissue dealt with is.2. According to the author, the best way to study linguistics is.There is one error in each of the following statements. Identify it and correct it.1. The course book discusses altogether six general functions of language.2. People seldom perform illocutionary acts in their daily activities.Choose those words or phrases that best complete the missing items. Note that there are more words or phrases than necessary.1. Language is as old as .2. It is wrong to assume that are the persons so named.3. is only one of the ways that represent language.4. Most of speech sounds are produced by . Only afew are uttered by ingressive airflow.5. Words do not stand for things through consciously madeby man.Match a proper definition from Column B with the term in ColumnA.1 politeness a) related to the thing it stands for by resemblance2 speech acts b) the study of the relationship between a person’s hand writing and his character3 an icon c) the strategies employed by language users to protect their own and their addressees’ face4 graphology d) related to the thing it stands by agreement and convention5 sign e) the positive image or impression of oneself that one shows or intends to show to the other participantsf) the ‘things one does withwords’ at the structural level of the sentenceClassify the following words into the appropriate groups to which they belong.1 a material world -2 a subjective world -3 a symbolic world -Decide whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Writea T if the statement istrue and an F if it is false.1. Child language acquisition is only mentioned in Unit 9.2. Different cultures have different views on language, e.g. onword magic, on language power,and so on.Chose the most appropriate word or phrase to complete each of the following statements.1. Unit 8 Language in Society discusses the relation between identity,including all of the following EXCEPT .a) national b) gender c) status d) culture2. Which of the following is used as a hedge in the sentence, “Sayingsomething will often, or even normally, produce certain consequential effects upon the feelings, thoughts, or actions of the audience, or of the speaker or of other person s.”a) saying b) certain c) consequential d) effectsSection 2 Checking understanding of some general principles oflanguage and linguistics (8 items, 24%)Give short answers to the following questions. You can answer them in your own words, or by using the exact expressions from the course book. Use examples to illustrate your point where necessary.1. What is the difference between a local dialect and Putonghua?2. What are the two general components that saying something has? Give an example to illustrate your pointSection 3 Checking understanding of some specific aspects of language and linguistics (8 items, 24%)Provide brief analysis to the questions below, using the linguistic knowledge you have learned in the course.1 The diagram shows the part of speech organ. Replace the letters (A, B,C and D) with technical terms given below. Note that there are moreterms than necessary.alphabet, alveolar ridge, uvula, hard palate, soft meat, soft palateABCD2. The diagram is an analysis of the word eat. The letters (A and B) indicate the missing analytic elements. Complete the analysis.Note that the letters (A, B, …I) indicate the slots that you have to fill in. Ignore the slots without any letters.4. Identify the illocutionary acts in the following talk exchanges.Situation:甲’s car hit⼄’s car at the rear. 警(i.e. traffic warden, 交通警) was talking to the two drivers.警:还要给你画现场吗?甲:你们看吧。
应用语言学教程答案
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应用语言学部分课后题答案第一章1,应用语言学有理论应用语言学有理论,依据如下:更详细的见书P121、没有人事先准备了完善的语言学理论以供应用,应用语言学常常要一边解决实际问题一边建立和完善语言学理论。
2、任何层次的应用都包含了下位层次的理论和提供了上位层次的理论。
这是吸取了关于“实践—理论—实践”的思想。
通过实践发现真理,又通过证实和发展真理。
实践、认识、再实践、再认识,这种形式,循环往复以至无穷。
3、语言学之外也有理论。
本体语言学可以从语言学之外吸取理论,应用语言学也可以。
如戴昭铭借鉴法学的无罪推定原则来讨论“涉及到、见诸于”等叠架形式的规问题,另外“规就是服务”这个理念也是从管理学中吸取的。
4、应用语言学理论最根本的来源是语言生活实践。
5、最根本的根据是因为应用语言学已经提出了自己的一些基本理论。
例如:动态理论、层次理论、中介理论、浅显理论、人文性理论、交际理论、全息发展理论等。
这些理论已经得到了广泛的认可,成为应用语言学的基础理论。
2.网络语言的使用带来了哪些新东西?在于根元主编的《中国网络语言词典》中,对“网络语言”提出了如下定义:“…网语‟是互联网的产物。
在网络日益普及的虚拟空间里,人们表达思想、情感的方式也应与现实生活中的表达习惯有所不同,于是有的人创造出令人新奇也令人愤怒和不懂的…网语‟。
高名凯先生说:“无疑地,在新的社会环境下,新的事物的产生或作为社会现象之一的人的思维活动所形成的概念的产生要求作为交际工具、思维工具的语言有所改变,有所发展。
”网络语言由于它特殊的载体和它的现实虚拟性,使得网络用语一开始就呈现出一般语言所少有的特殊性和多元性。
人们在这个虚拟世界中,除了使用那些规的词语之外,还创造了许多只有经常上网的人才能理解的词语。
网络语言的使用给人们带来了许多新东西,如下;1,网络语言主要依据文字形式进行互动交流,也就是主要靠视觉进行交流。
因此网络语言带来最大的就是网络语言形式的改变。
语言学2章测试题及答案
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语言学2章测试题及答案一、选择题(每题2分,共20分)1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么?A. 语言的起源B. 语言的结构C. 语言的演变D. 语言的使用答案:B2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支学科?A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学答案:C3. 索绪尔认为语言符号是由哪两部分组成的?A. 语音和语义B. 符号和意义C. 能指和所指D. 形式和内容答案:C4. 语言的最小意义单位是什么?A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句子5. 语言的交际功能不包括以下哪一项?A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 思维工具D. 艺术创作答案:C6. 语言的规范性主要体现在哪个方面?A. 发音B. 语法C. 词汇D. 所有选项答案:D7. 语言的多样性主要体现在哪些方面?A. 语言结构B. 语言使用C. 语言发展D. 所有选项答案:D8. 语言的演变不包括以下哪一项?A. 语音变化B. 词汇变化C. 语法变化D. 语言消亡答案:D9. 以下哪种现象不属于语言接触?B. 融合C. 分化D. 同化答案:C10. 语言的标准化通常不涉及以下哪一项?A. 发音规范B. 词汇规范C. 语法规范D. 语言的起源答案:D二、填空题(每题2分,共20分)1. 语言学研究的两个主要对象是______和______。
答案:语言;言语2. 索绪尔将语言符号分为______和______。
答案:能指;所指3. 语言的三个基本功能包括______、______和______。
答案:表达功能;交际功能;思维功能4. 语音学研究的是______和______。
答案:语音的产生;语音的感知5. 语用学研究的是______和______。
答案:语境;意义6. 语言的演变包括______、______和______。
答案:语音变化;词汇变化;语法变化7. 语言的接触现象包括______、______和______。
答案:借用;融合;同化8. 语言的多样性表现在______、______和______。
应用语言学试题及答案
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应用语言学试题及答案一、选择题(每题2分,共20分)1. 应用语言学主要研究的领域是什么?A. 语言理论B. 语言教学C. 语言翻译D. 语言习得答案:B2. 下列哪项不是应用语言学的研究内容?A. 语言规划B. 语言测试C. 语言变异D. 语言哲学答案:D3. 应用语言学中的“应用”一词指的是什么?A. 理论的应用B. 实践的应用C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案:C4. 应用语言学的发展历程中,哪个时期被认为是现代应用语言学的开端?A. 20世纪初B. 20世纪50年代C. 20世纪70年代D. 20世纪90年代答案:B5. 在语言教学中,应用语言学关注的核心问题是什么?A. 语言形式B. 语言内容C. 学习者需求D. 教学方法答案:C6. 语言规划通常包括哪些方面?A. 语言选择B. 语言标准化C. 语言现代化D. 所有以上答案:D7. 语言测试的主要目的是什么?A. 评估语言能力B. 选拔人才C. 促进语言学习D. 所有以上答案:D8. 语言习得研究在应用语言学中的作用是什么?A. 提供教学理论基础B. 指导语言教学实践C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案:C9. 语言变异研究在应用语言学中的应用是什么?A. 了解语言多样性B. 促进语言理解C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案:C10. 语言翻译在应用语言学中的重要性体现在哪些方面?A. 文化交流B. 信息传递C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案:C二、简答题(每题10分,共30分)1. 简述应用语言学在语言教学中的应用。
答案:应用语言学在语言教学中的应用主要体现在教学方法的选择、教材的编写、教学评估以及学习者需求的分析等方面。
它关注如何将语言学理论应用于实际教学中,以提高教学效果和学习者的语言能力。
2. 描述语言规划的主要内容。
答案:语言规划的主要内容通常包括语言选择、语言标准化、语言现代化、语言保护和语言复兴等方面。
其目的是通过规划和政策制定,促进语言的统一、稳定和发展,以满足社会、经济和文化的需求。
应用语言学试题
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应用语言学试题第一篇:应用语言学试题第一章:1什么是应用语言学?2应用语言学的性质?3应用语言学的特点? 4应用语言学的学科地位:我国学位教育体系中,应用语言学属于文学大类。
文学类共设有4个一级学科,其中的中国语言文学和外国语言文学这两个一级学科都设有应用语言学专业。
应用语言学是属于文学类的二级学科。
5应用语言学主要研究领域? 6应用语言学正式形成的标志:1964年第一届国际应用语言学大会的召开(法国),国际应用语言学协会的成立。
中国应用语言学形成的标志:1984年“语言文字应用研究所”的成立。
7.应用语言学研究方法第二章:1什么是语言教学2语言教学的目标3语言教学的基本过程4什么是网络教学5什么是计算机辅助教学6语言教学的问题与不足?7如何做好语言教学改革?8名词解释:第一语言、母语、第一语言教学,第二语言第一语言教学,是儿童习得第一语言之后有意识地继续学习第一语言,为之而进行的有目的、有计划的学校课堂教学活动。
第二语言:一个人掌握了第一语言之后所学的另一种或多种语言。
第二语言与外语的不同:第二语言的范围比外语广,既包括外语,还包括本国其他民族的语言或本国通用语。
9儿童习得语言的手段:模仿、替换、句法同化。
10学习第二语言难度大,原因:(1)第二语言课堂教学不能为学习者提供真实的交际情景;(2)学习者接触目的语的时间和机会有限;(3)母语或第一语言对第二语言有干扰作用;(4)学习者年龄大,模仿、记忆能力减退。
明确的学习动机可提供充足的学习动力。
11第二语言教学的特点:12第二语言教学与第一语言教学的不同 13什么是双语教学14. 1407年,明朝设四夷馆,专门从事印度语和缅甸语的教学,是中国最早的外语教学。
15.双语教学两种代表性实践模式:加拿大浸没式的双语教学模式、过渡式的双语教学模式。
第三章:1对外汉语教学史简要回顾 2对外汉语教学的学科性质3对外汉语教学是一门独立的学科。
其独立性表现在哪里? 4汉语作为第二语言教学,具有什么一般性和特殊性? 5填空:对外汉语教学活动包括总体设计、教材编写、课堂教学、语言测试四个部分。
(完整word版)应用语言学第一二章
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Chapter 11.What Is Applied Linguistics?1).What is applied linguistics? Why is there no consensus on its definition and scope?①Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics.②As applied linguistics is a comparatively new discipline, there is as yet no consensus of opinions as to what its definition is and how wide its scope should be.2.What is the role of applied linguistics? Why does it play that role?① The role of applied linguisticsLinguistics, etc. ←→ Applied Linguistics ←→Language Teaching, etc.Figure---The role of applied linguistics as a mediator.②Applied linguistics thus not only provides principles and basic methodology for language teachers, etc., based on the theories and insights of linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc.; it also provides feedback to linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc., by summing up the experience from the practical areas such as language teaching.3.What is the nature of applied linguistics? What is the difference between applied linguistics and other applied sciences?Answer: the nature of applied linguistics(1) It is an independent discipline in its own right, because* it has its own object of study;* it has its own scientific system of theories and methodology; and* it has its own researchers.(2) It is an interdisciplinary science, because it draws upon theories not from a single science,but from several. Besides, its application is also interdisciplinary in the broad sense.(3) It is an applied science. Its goal is to solve problem, i. e. application, unlike pure science.But we should not understand application in a narrow sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.(4) It is an empirical science. Like natural sciences, it uses experiments as its basic way of research, emphasizing objectivity, systematicness, explicitness and economy.The goal of applied linguistics is to solve problem, i.e., application. But we should not understand application in the literal sense. Applied linguistics is also concerned with implications of the theoretical fields such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.4.What is the relationship between applied linguistics and language learning and teaching? Answer: Good language teaching practice is based on good theoretical understanding, and a good language teaching theory will strive to provide a conceptual framework devised for identifying all factors relevant in the teaching of language and relationship between them and for giving effective direction to the practice of language teaching, supported by the necessary research and inquiry.5.Why is it necessary for the language teacher to learn applied linguistics?Answer: Applied linguistics aims to provide language teachers with good language teachingtheories, principles and methodology. The language teacher can benefit from applied linguistics in, at least, the following three areas: a comprehensive and up-to-date grasp of the theoretical foundations of language learning and teaching; an integrated understanding of the various factors affecting language learning and teaching, and a basic knowledge about different language teaching approaches, methods and techniques. In short, applied linguistics will help the language teacher teach more effectively.Chapter 2Language, Learning and Teaching1.What is the nature of language? Why is it necessary for the language teacher to know it?Language is systematic and generative. It is a set of arbitrary symbols and they have conventionalized meanings to which they refer. is used for communication. operates in a speech community or culture. language and language learning both have universal characteristics.By system: we mean the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. Every language contains two systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. This phenomenon is called duality.“arbitrary vocal symbols”: Anything that represents something else is a symbol.Language consists of another type of symbols, sound symbols or speech sounds.human communication: Language is a unique system of communication. It is the cement of society. It allows people to live, work and play together, to tell the truth or to tell lies.Teachers cannot hope to teach a part (the particular language) of reality without knowing how that part fits into the whole(language in general) Your understanding of the components of language will determine to a large extenthow u teach a language.2.What are the similarities and differences between human learning and animal learning?How do you understand language learning?Animal learning for simple communication .express the food source, very simple emotion like anger and happiness. human learning complex idea. hypothesis , give command, thinking. Language learning in a broad sense include both formal learning in the classroomstimulated by teaching and natural informal language learning without instruction from any teacher.Learning is the prerequisite and basis of teaching.A theory of teaching always implies a theory of learning.3.What is teaching? Can it be defined apart from learning? Why(not)?①Teaching can be defined as “activities which are intended to bring about learning. ”②Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning, because teaching presupposes learning. There will be no teaching if learning does not take place.4.Illustrate the relationship between language teaching and language learning?J. S. Bruner---1966 Toward a Theory of Instruction “Learning something withthe aid of an instructor should, if instruction is effective, be less dangerous or risky orpainful than learning on one’s own.”Teaching understand the learners’ development ,skill, motivation and gives formal instruction ,training, by media or different kind of supportive activities. thus makeslearning easier.5. Why is it necessary for the language teacher to have some knowledge not only of teaching but also of learning?Since the mid-1960s,the student-centered view has been widely accepted, This reflects the theory that the students play an active role in learning ,and that they are not only actively participating in classroom activities ,but are interacting with the teacher and their peers.Chapter 31. What are the characteristic features of human learning?conceptualization of learning has several implications:1). Everything we learn is retained in some form in our brain, even though it may be forgotten.2.)Learning cannot be equated with behavior or performance.3). Learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations but also those acquired without conscious awareness, when we are paying primary attention to something else.4). The new associations which constitute learning vary in meaningfulness and complexity. 5). All learning depends upon environmental input.6). Learning is not restricted to new associations or insights that result from experience with purely external stimuli.2、What are the four general philosophical views of human nature? How are they related to human learning?The pessimistic viewAccording to this view, humans are inherently evil. Therefore, education must be designed to keep dangerous instincts under control. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the will not engage in higher intellectual pursuit voluntarily, but they will learn if they are forced to.The hedonistic viewAccording to this view, people are selfishly preoccupied with the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. This philosophy leads to approaches which emphasize the need to make learning experience as enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding as possible.The optimistic viewAccording to this view, people are naturally altruistic, humanistic and curious. This view leads to theories that picture people as thirsting for knowledge and actively processing information from the environment.The tabula-rasa or “blank-slate” viewThis is a neutral view. According to this view, humans have few if any natural predispositions. Development, therefore, is dependent upon the individual’s experiences, which are determined by the environment and are thus open to planning and control. In its strongest form, this approach pictures learners as almost entirely passive and reactive, so that their behavior can be controlled predictably and systematically through environmental manipulation. Teaching then becomes a matter of structuring learning environments so as to produce desired outcomes.3、What are the similarities and differences between classical behaviorism and neobehaviorism?Similarities: They are predominantly concerned with the relationship between stimulus and response. According to them, behavior is acquired or changed when the organism builds up associations between stimulus and response either because of the closeness of stimulus and response or by satisfaction which comes from giving a correct response to a given stimulus.Differences: classical behaviorism is related to association between stimuli and reflexive response, Classical conditioning, Reflex could also occur in response to stimuli that appear to be indirectly related to the reflex. neobehaviorism focuses on operant conditioning VS respondent conditioning (Classical conditioning). classical behaviorism stressed the environmental modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. Neobehaviorism : Guthrie stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled by reinforcement. Skinner stresses a particular kind of instrumental conditioning known as “operant conditioning” . Operants are any behavioral ele ments or series f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment.4、What are the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviorist theories?Watson’s behaviorism: he stres sed the environmental modifiability of behavior, as against determination by constitutional structure. He seek to make psychology a “purely objective experimental branch of natural science” by restricting it to the study of the relations between environmental events(stimuli) and behavior(response). But there will be an increase in both frequency and recency of successful responses until a correct S-R pattern appears.Guthrie’s S-R theory: He stressed classical conditioning and the principle of contiguity over instrumental conditioning and the principle of reinforcement. However, it has difficulty accounting for more complex kinds of learning.Hull’s S-O-R theory: Hull stressed one-trial learning. The whole process was controlled by reinforcement. Reinforced responses would be more likely to appear in the future, and punished or unreinforced responses were less likely to reappear.Skinner’s operant conditioning: he stresses a particular kind of instrumental conditioning known as “operant conditioning” . Operan ts are any behavioral elements or series f related behaviors that organisms presently perform or are capable of performing, and the produce an effect or operate on the environment. Otherwise, when there is a punishment(i.e a positive reinforcing stimulus is removed or a negative reinforcing stimulus is presented), the rate of responding decreases.5、What are the similarities and differences among the cognitive learning theories? Why are they cognitive?Gestalt psychology: eh emphasizes on innate organizing principles(gestalt) in human perception, recognition, sensorimotor skills, learning and even in social conduct . according to this theory, organisms are innately active in their interactions with the environment.Piaget’s developmental psychology: his basic concepts are assimilation and accommodation. Herefers to the learning process as the development of new schemata (the plural of schema) through assimilation and accommodation. Schemata are the cognitive or mental structures by which the individual intellectually adapts to and organizes the environment. These cognitive structures are used to process and identify incoming stimuli.Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning: according to ausubel, meaning is a “clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure on a non-articulatory and substantivebasis” human learning is a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions. Meaning is therefore a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in the learner’s cognitive structure. Meaningful learning takes place when the learner has a disposition to relate the new material to what he already knows or when the learning task is potentially meaningfulIf we can conceive of cognitive structure as a system of building blocks, then rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular function in the building of a structure, and therefore with no relationship to other blocks. Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.6、What do you think of the different learning theories? What is your own view of human learning?Cognitive theories place greater store by the functioning of the mind, and postulate internal mental thinking as well as processes including perception, memorizing and cognitive structures which can be acquired from learn ers’ experience and can modify their present behavior. Much greater emphasis is placed on learners being aware of the surroundings and being flexible in solutions they adopt.Chapter41. Is it easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue? Why (not)?No, it is not easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue.First of all, he must segment the sound stream into meaningful units (words or phrases). This requires his ability to analyze. Then, he must combine them to arrive at the intended underlying propositions. This requires his ability to synthesize.2. What questions must theories of L1 acquisition answer? Why?Psycholinguists who study child language are confronted with a more complex task than theoretical linguists whose major concern is competence (i.e. the system of language) and sociolinguists whose major concern is performance (i.e. the use of language). Psycholinguists have to be concerned with both competence and performance.Because they look at language from different angles, and because their purposes in the study of language are different.3. Sketch out Skinner’s behavioristic theory of L1 acquisition.Skinner’s behavioristic model is embodied in his classic Verbal Behavior. His theory of verbal behavior is in fact an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other human behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding the behavior is reinforced and maintained, andeven increased in strength and frequency. When consequences are punishing or when there is no reinforcement, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished. Therefore, effective language is the production of correct responses to external stimuli. The L1 acquisition process is one in which the child’s correct responses are repeatedly reinforced and finally a habit is formed.4. What are the main points of mediation theories? Why are they called mediation theories?Mediation theories are represented by O. H. Mowrer and C. E. Osgood. Their goal is to fill the “black box” with postulated internal psychological structures and processes in order to account for the observed behavior of organisms. They have developed a principle of mediated association, according to which two things associated with a third thing tend to be in association with each other. Once the association is established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.They need media. The internal mediating response is considered to be an internal replication of a “real” response. From a behavioristic point of view, meaning is an internal replica of an external response.5. How do the nativist theories account for L1 acquisition?Nativist theories are represented by N. Chomsky, E. H. Lenneberg, and D. McNeill. According to these theories, human babies are somehow predisposed to acquire a language. Lenneberg contends that language is a species-specific behavior which is biologically determined. The child is born with the biological basis for the acquisition of language. Chomsky claims the existence of a little black box which he calls the language acquisition device (LAD). He regards it as “the genetically determined language faculty”, “an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented experience.” McNeill describes four innate linguistic properties of the LAD and suggests that infants are born with a hierarchy of linguistic categories and the basic grammatical relations.6. What are the main arguments of the cognitive theories?Cognitive theories are represented by D. I. Slobin, J. Piaget and L. Bloom, who attempt to account for the linguistic knowledge of the child by a more general theory of cognitive development. Slobin suggests that the conceptual development of all human children is the same with regard to the order of attainment of conceptual categories and that a number of cognitive prerequisites lie behind the emergence of communicative speech. Slobin characterizes this development as new functions first expressed in old forms. Piaget outlines four major stages of intellectual development in the child, and claims that intelligence actually develops well before language. Stage One, the sensory-motor stage(ages 0-2). Stage Two, the preoperational stage(ages 2-7). In the first stage(ages 2 to 4 or 5) the child’s language is egocentric speech. In the second stage(by ages 6-7), the child’s language has become socialized speech, which is characterized by intercommunication and exchange of ideas. Stage Three, the concrete operational stage (ages 7-11). Stage Four, the formal operational stage(ages 11-16). Bloom concludes that the development of perception and cognition are keys to the understanding of the process of child language acquisition.7. What do you think of the different L1 acquisition theories?There is one common problem with all of the theories. They all ignore the social aspect of L1 acquisition. Just as Armstrong et al point out”…language acquisition studies show that language does not develop through an individual’s interaction with the natural environment. It emerges onlyout of social interaction, but social interaction within constrained limits…Without the introduction to words and seminal idea that words symbolize—without the initial acquisition process which is social—we would have no equipment with which to make linguistic inferences.”Chapter51.Illustrate the use of the terms second language and foreign languageIn the past, the term “foreign language” was most widely used in contrast to “native language”. But in recent decades, the term “second language” has been increasingly used to refer to all types of non-native language. In certain cases, they are distinguished from each other. According to Stern , “second language” is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used within one country or community where it has official status or a recognized function, whereas “foreign language”is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used outside the country or community where it has official status or a recognized function. In a second language context, the target language is spoken by the community outside the classroom, whereas in a foreign language context, the target language is generally not spoken by the community but is limited to the classroom.2.What does it mean to know a second language?Knowing a language means having acquired the competence ore proficiency in the language. The idea goal of competence or proficiency in a second language is the native speaker’s competence or proficiency in the language, which is necessary point of reference for the concept of second language proficiency.3.What is meant by second language proficiency ? How can the learner attain it?Knowing a language means having acquired the competence or proficiency in the language. The ideal goal of competence or proficiency in a second language is the native speaker’s competence or proficiency in the language, which is a necessary point of reference for the concept of second language proficiency. Stern conceptualizes this native speakers’ proficiency as follows: 1. The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language, 2. The intuitive mastery of the linguistic , cognitive , affective and sociocultural meanings expressed by the language forms, 3. The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4. The creativity of language use.4.Who is a better second language learner, the child or the adult? Why ?Adults and old children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children(older id better for the early stage of acquisition), but child second language acquires will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment(younger is better in the long run). We can explain it from three main aspects: the biological explanation, the cognitive explanation, and the affective explanation.5.What does interlanguage refer to? What is the nature of interlanguage? Do you think we can apply this concept to foreign language learning? Why (not)?The term interlanguage was defined differently by different experts, but now we say that inter language is in fact a language system bordering on the first language and the target language. I don’t think we can apply it to foreign language learning, because it has only a minor impact on L2 pedagogy.6.How do you understand Kranshen’s monitor theory? Do you think it is applicable toforeign language learning ? Why (not)?Krashen’s monitor theory is considered the best known most ambitious most influential of all L2 theories. It has brought together research findings from a number of different domains, is closely tied to recommendations for classrooms practice and is readily understandable to L2 teachers. So I think it can be applied to foreign language learning.7.How do Burt and Dulay account for the internal processing of second language ? Is foreign language learning also a creative construction process? Why (not)?The creative construction model is developed by Burt and Dulay in 1977 to account for the internal processing of second language. It is based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory of creative aspects of language use. Foreign language learning is also a creative construction process. Creative construction in language acquisition refers to the process by which learners gradually reconstruct the rules for speech they hear, guided by innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypotheses about the language system being acquired, until the mismatch between what they are exposed to and they produce is resolved.Chapter 61. How are different types of learning related to learning English as a foreign language? Learning has been classified in many different ways .The most useful classification is based on the task of learning (i.e. what is being learned).Based on the nature of the learning task, three types of learning are identified :skill learning ,affective and social learning, and cognitive learning .Type 1,signal learningThis is a somewhat specialized type of learning.It is called signal learning to emphasize that the learner is associating an already available response with a new signal or stimulus .One important characteristics of this type of learning is that it involves the Pavlovian conditioned response ,which is general ,diffuse ,and emotional.This kind of response has a truly “involuntary”character .A fear response ,for example,involves general ,diffuse activity including speeded heartbeat,constriction of blood vessels and other internal involuntary behavior .In our daily life, learning to respond to alarm clock bells or automobile horns falls into this type of learning .Type 2,stimulus-response learningType 3 chainingType 4 verbal association (or sequence)Type 5 multiple discriminationType 6 concept learningType 7 principle learningType 8 problem-solvingLanguage learning is a complex task which involves all these types of learning . For example,in learning the pronunciation of a second language,the learner is concerned with how to produce the appropriate sound patterns –a sensorimotor skill or part of a skill.If the learner cannot distinguish two sounds and therefore cannot pronounce them,he needs to know the articulatory description of the two sounds .This involves conceptual learning.The actual learning of a second language is accompanied by emotional reactions, and entire learning experience may lead to a fixed constellation of likes and dislikes directed towards the language and the people speaking thatlanguage.2.Illustrate the general learning strategies with examples from yourself or your Students in learning English.ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a languagemetacognitive strategies :1.thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process2.monitoring learning while it is taking place, 3.evaluating learning after it has occurred A. advance organizersB. directed attentionC. selective attentionD. self-managementE. functional planningF. self-monitoringG. delayed productionH. self-evaluationcognitive strategies:processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activitiesA. repetitionB. ResourcingC. translationD. groupingsocioaffective strategies:social-mediating activity and transacting with others3.What are the major strategies employed by good students in your class?Tarone defines learning strategy as attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. The motivation for the use of learning strategy is the desire to learn the target language rather than the desire to communicate .Production strategies are used to accomplish communication goals;they reflect an interest in using the language system efficiently and clearly without excessive munication strategies are an adaptation to the failure to realize a language production goal.They therefore serve an important role in negotiating meaning between individuals.Rubin suggests that the good language learner :1)is a willing and accurate guesser2) has a strong drive to communicate3)is often uninhibited about his weaknesses in the L2 and ready to risk making mistakes4)is willing to attend to form5)practices6)monitors7)attends to meaning in its social contextStern identifies four basic sets of strategies from the basic considerations and research of language learning:1)Active planning strategy Good language learners will select goals and subgoals,recoginize stages and developmental sequences and actively participate in the learning process2)”Academic “(explicit)learning strategy Good language learners are prepared to study and practice .They pay attention to the features of language as a formal system with rules and regular retationships between forms and meaning.3)Social learning strategy Good language learners seek communicative contact with target language users and are active participants in authentic language use4)Affective language Good language learners can cope effective with the emotion and motivational problems of language learning .They approach the task of L2 learning in a positive frame of mind and cultivate positive attitudes towards themselves as language learner s, towards。
应用语言学02
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HyponymyHyponymy refers to the semantic relations of generality and the inclusion. The member of a more specific term is included in the member of a more general meaning: meat – pork, mutton, beef; flower – rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not; bird – swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-gull, stork, etc.A word with a general meaning is called a superordinate term or hyperonym (meat). A word with specific meaning is called a hyponym (pork). Hyponymes that are in equal relations are called equanemes (pork – mutton – beef). In a word set star – sun – nova, star is a super-ordinate, while sun and nova are hyponyms to the super-ordinate and equanemes to each other.But the opposition a galaxy –a star represents a different type of relations because the meaning of a star is not included in the meaning of a galaxy: the star is not a kind of a galaxy as a galaxy refers to a collection of stars. It is a collective rather than a generic term. A generic term serves as the name for the notion of the genus as distinguished from the names of the kinds: the word furniture is a generic term for words a chair, a table, a stool, a bookcase, a wardrobe, etc.補充:上位關係/下位關係Hypernymy/Hyponymy具上位關係的詞叫「上位詞」,又稱一泛稱詞。
语言学课后答案第2章
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1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。
应用语言学题目及答案
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一、为什么说语言教学又是一门艺术呢?我们说语言教学又是一门艺术,是一种比喻的说法,这主要是指具体的教学实践活动,又主要是指教学实践活动中的教学法。
把语言教学法比作艺术,是为了强调说明,从事语言教学要特别讲究教学法,尽可能使语言教学像完美的艺术品那样具有强烈的感染力,能激发学生的学习兴趣和学习热情。
第一,语言是一种极其复杂的社会现象,语言学习的过程是一种极其复杂的心理和生理过程。
因此,语言教学中充满了错综复杂的矛盾,这些矛盾必须用特殊的方法加以处理。
第二,学习语言需要进行大量的记忆和反复的机械操练,很容易产生·枯燥感和畏难情绪。
如果是学习第二语言或外语,有些人并不觉得非学不可,学习动力有限,当感到过于枯燥或遇到困难时,就有可能放弃学习或者,如果是在目的语的环境中,就宁愿到社会上去学而不愿意在教室里受苦。
要减轻学生学习中的困难,消除他们的枯燥感和畏难情绪,激发他们学习兴趣和学习热情,就必须特别讲究教学的艺术性。
二、语言教学过程中的矛盾(一)教和学的矛盾。
概括地说,语言教学过程中的内部矛盾主要表现在以下几个方面教和学的矛盾。
学习一种语言,需要师生双方的共同努力。
人们学习语言虽有共同的基本目的,但是也有不同的具体目的,更有认知风格和学习策略的差异。
因此,同一个教学单位的课程和教材往往不能适应所有学生的要求,同一个教师的业务素质、教学方法和教学风格等也往往不能适应所有学生的要求。
(二)教学内容和教学方法的矛盾。
前面谈到,语言教学的基本内容包括知识和技能两个方面。
人们获得知识和获得技能的心理和生理过程不完全相同,所以传授知识和训练技能的方法也不应当相同。
在同一个专业和同一门课中既要传授知识,又要训练技能,就必然会出现教学内容和教学方法的矛盾。
课堂教学中出现的老师讲得多、学生练得少的情况,就是这种矛盾反映的一个侧面。
(三)语言要素教学和言语技能训练的矛盾。
人们通常把语音、词汇和语法称作语言三要素,其实这只是就口头语言而言。
语言学概论习题1-9章答案
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语言学概论习题导论一、填空:1.语言学是研究语言的科学,(语言)是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究(语言)的规律,使人们懂得关于(语言)的理性知识。
2.(中国)(印度)(希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
3.我国传统语文学包括(文字)(音韵)(训诂)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
4.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
5.普通语言学的奠基人物是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史上起到了划时代的作用。
6.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派,分别是(布拉格学派)(哥本哈根学派)(美国学派)。
7.运用语言传递信息的过程,可以分为(编码)(发送)(传递)(接收)(解码)五个阶段。
二、名词解释:1.语言学:语言学就是专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。
语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题,揭示语言存在和发展的规律,使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。
2.语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
3小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
4.普通语言学:是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科,它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。
5.应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
6.理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
语言学纲要练习题及答案(1-9章)
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《语言学纲要》练习题参考答案2004年6月23日导言部分(一)名词解释1.语言:语言是一个音义结合的符号系统,是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具,同时也是思维工具。
2.语言学:语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科,研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题,等等。
分理论语言学和应用语言学两个领域。
3.语文学:人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的,是为了研究哲学、历史和文学而研究语言的。
我们把这种依附于其他学科存在的语言研究成为语文学。
4.“小学”:在中国古代,小学先从教授字的形(六书)、音、义开始,就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。
小学一直是经学的一部分,包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科,5.理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对。
主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要的研究对象。
(二)填空1.古印度、古代中国、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统,是语言学的三大发源地。
2.文言是我国古代的书面语,用它写成的文章称为文言文。
3.文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。
4.研究语言的结构,主要是研究语音、词汇、语法三个部分。
5.运用语言传递信息的过程,可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。
第一章语言的社会功能一、名词解释1.语言的两个有限任何一种语言都是一个音义结合的符号系统,其中作为基本符号的语素和词在数量上是有限的,把语素或词组合起来构成词组或句子的规则也是有限的。
语言的这两个有限性是区别言语活动的基本特征。
2.言语活动的两个无限言语活动是以语言为工具展开的交际或思维活动,其中作为这个活动的最基本的单位——句子,在理论上可以是无限长的,在数量上可以是是无限多的。
3.大脑左右半球分工人类大脑左右半球分工不同,左脑主管语言、逻辑、书写及右侧肢体运动,而右脑主管色彩、空间感、节奏和左侧肢体运动。
大脑两半球分工是人类特有的,但出生婴儿大脑两半球没有分工。
语言学概论 作业
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导论第一章练习题一、单项选择题1、关于口语和书面语的关系,下列说法中正确的一项是(C )。
A.口语和书面是各自独立的两个系统,彼此间没有任何关系。
B.书面语是对口语的忠实记录,是口语的复制品。
C.与书面语相比,省略某些语言成分而不会影响理解和交际是口语的一大特点。
D.与口语相比,省略某些语言成分而不会影响理解和交际是书面语的一大特点。
2、普通语言学指的是( C )。
A.语言学研究中的初级阶段。
B.语言学研究的低级对象。
C.对人类语言进行一般性研究的科学。
D.对某一种语言进行普遍而适用的研究的学问。
3、对人类语言而言,声音四要素中最重要的一个是(D )。
A.音高B.音强C.音长D.音质4、在下列四个部位中,(A )是声道中最重要的。
A.口腔B.鼻腔C.咽腔D.喉头5、下列关于语音的表述中,不正确的一项是(D )。
A.语音是语言的物质外壳B.语音与一般声音有本质的区别C.语音本质上是一种社会现象D.语音本质上是一种生理和物理现象6、下列各组元音中,都是低元音的一组是(B )。
A.[ ][ ]B.[A.][ ]C.[ ][ ]D.[ ][ ]7、同样是指“会说话,能制造和使用工具的社会性动物”,汉语用“rén”去表示,而英语用“man”来表示,这说明了语言具有( D )。
A.强制性 B.可变性C.系统性 D.任意性8、一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征是( D )。
A.音高 B.音强 C.音质 D.音长9、语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人类社会中人与人之间的( C )行为。
A.书面 B.文字 C.口头 D.体式10、语言单位之间构成的横向结构关系,就是( A )。
A.组合关系 B.聚合关系 C.同义关系 D.同音词关系二、多项选择题(每题有2-5个正确答案可选)1、(AD )的建立标志着语言学的诞生。
A.十八世纪B.十九世纪C.二十世纪D.历史比较语言学E结构主义语言学2、关于语言起源的学说有(ABC )。
(完整版)语言学纲要课后练习题与答案
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课后习题以及答案导论一:填空。
1、语言学的三大发源地是()、( )和()。
2、语言学是( )世纪成为独立的学科的,其标志是()。
3、现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家()的()。
4、语言交际过程可分为()———()—----()—-——()————-( )五个阶段.5、印度最早的经典所使用的语言是()。
6、()、( )、()是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。
二:判断正误。
1、语文学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。
2、语言有自身结构的独立性,与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。
3、理论语言学是研究语言一般规律的,不受具体语言研究影响。
4、语言形式和内容的关系是语言研究的根本问题。
三:思考题.1、语言与人类社会生活有哪些密切联系?2、语文学研究有哪些特征?3、语言学学科内部都有哪些研究分类?如何看待它们之间的答案一、填空1、古希腊、古印度、古代中国2、19、历史比较语言学的出现3、索绪尔、《普通语言学教程》4、编码、发送、传递、接收、解码5、梵语6、音韵学、文字学、训诂学二、判断正误1、×。
语文学主要是研究古代的书面语,因为语文学研究所关注的,首先是反映在古代书面文献中的古代思想观念、政治制度等的,其直接目的大多是解读古典文献,而不是自觉地探索语言自身的规律,对当时的口语研究不是很关注。
2、×.语言有自身结构的独立性,也与系统之外的社会环境密切联系.语言学除了关注语言本体的结构性质和发展规律,同时也要探究语言系统与人、与社会之间错综复杂的关系。
而且语言一直在随着社会的发展而变化,会受到社会环境的影响。
3、×.一般把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等,把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。
理论语言学一般注重考察人类语言的共同规律和普遍特征,而不是学习研究某一门具体语言。
它所研究的是从具体的语言现象中总结、归纳出普遍的系统的理论和规律,并用这个理论指导各个具体语言的学习研究。
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第32卷第6期2012年6月CURRICULUM,TEACHINGMATERIALANDMETHODVol.32,No.6June,2012认知语法观指导下的中学英语语法教学*林正军1,姜晖2(1.东北师范大学外国语学院,吉林长春130024;2.辽宁师范大学外国语学院,辽宁大连116029)摘要:认知语法强调语法形式与意义或功能的匹配,倡导以语言运用为基础的语法教学基本原则,注重创设语法教学的语境,注重对语言使用的抽象和概括,注重语法形式与意义或功能的结合以及注重探究语法现象背后的理据。
认知语法观及其指导下的语法教学原则体现了认知语言学研究的最新成果,能够有效地回答和解决基础英语语法教学中的一些问题。
关键词:认知语法观;语法教学;教学原则中图分类号:G633.41文献标志码:A文章编号:1000-0186(2012)06-0080-06*本文为教育部人文社科规划基金项目“中学生外语语言能力发展的系统性和差异性研究”(项目号:12YJA740050)的部分成果。
收稿日期:2012-04-10作者简介:林正军(1971—),男,江苏灌云人,东北师范大学外国语学院教授,博士,北京外国语大学博士后,主要研究方向为认知语言学、应用语言学;姜晖(1971—),辽宁大连人,辽宁师范大学外国语学院副教授,博士,主要研究方向为应用语言学、语用学。
关于基础教育英语语法教学的问题,“更有意义的话题是针对语法教学的内容(‘教什么样的语法’)与方法(‘怎么教’)的研究”[1]。
要回答第一个问题(“教什么样的语法”),教师首先要认清语法的本质,更新语法学科知识体系;要回答第二个问题(“怎么教”),教师需要更新教学理念,在新的语法观指导下把握语法教学的基本原则,切实改进教学方法。
认知语法观及其指导下的语法教学原则体现了认知语言学研究的最新成果,能够回答和有效地解决基础英语语法教学中的问题。
本文在简要介绍认知语法观的基础上,着重探讨认知语法观指导下的中学英语语法教学原则。
一、认知语法观与语法教学国内目前的语法教学体系基本还停留在传统结构主义框架内,语法知识重形式,语法学习重机械操练,缺少语境和信息表达意识,建立新的语法知识体系是提高语法教学效果的基本前提。
[1]随着语言学和语言教学理论的更新和发展,语法的概念已经有了新的扩展,不仅仅限于固定的结构形式,语法是变化的、语篇的,语法的形式与意义形成了有机的统一,教师应从新的角度去看待语法、教授语法。
[2]要建立新的语法知识体系和更新语法教学理念,首先要认清语法的本质。
认知语法观体现了语法的本质,强调语法形式与意义或功能的匹配,强调语法源于对人们实际使用语言的抽象(abstrac-tion)和概括(generalization)。
从语言发展史来看,先有语言后有语法,语法来源于语言使用者对语言的使用。
在人类语言产生之前,人们在与世界互动中产生感知经验,这种经验以认知意象的形式呈现在人脑中,经过大脑的加工形成一些基本的概念结构,然后人们用这些基本的概念结构来组织较为抽象的思维,从而逐步形成了语义结构,最终通过概念化和词汇化形成语言,[3][4]语法是对人们语言使用规约性的抽象和概括。
认知语法观强调基于语言运用(usage-based)的语法教学。
语法规则的理据在于规则·08·是对语言使用形式的概括和范畴化(categoriza-tion),从语法形成的历时考察来看,先有语言的实际运用,后有语法结构的形成(见图1)。
语法结构是人们对所使用语言的规约性的归纳和具体化。
有鉴于此,语法教学应该从语言使用出发,注重从实际运用的语言中概括规则、理解语义。
语法教学的理念应该是从语言使用到语法结构再到语法的使用,而不是单纯的语法规则讲解和例示。
语法教学的总体原则应遵循语言学习的规律,在语言使用中学习语法。
①有关命题意义与表述意义之间的语义体现关系以及表达同一命题意义的不同表述意义之间的语义关系参见:杨忠,林正军.语法隐喻的语义关系与转级向度研究[J].外语教学与研究,2010(6):403-410.图1语法的本质二、基于认知语法观的中学英语语法教学原则语法教学的方法和模式很多,如过程性教学、互动性反馈、增强文本的显性度、以任务为基础的教学和以语篇为基础的教学模式等。
[2]其实任何一种方法和模式都带有其片面性,不能过分强调某一种方法和模式的运用。
我们认为不论哪一种方法都应基于语言运用这条总的原则,具体而言,在语法教学中教师要注重创设语法教学的语境、注重对语言使用的抽象和概括、注重语法形式与意义或功能的结合以及注重探究语法现象背后的理据。
(一)注重创设语法教学的语境Hughes&Mccarthy[5]积极倡导语篇语法(discoursegrammar),指出传统教学语法常常简化语法事实,所提供的经验规则往往不区分学习者对象和使用情景;语篇语法强调语境和交际,认为语言使用者在表达信息时要清晰、连贯、关联和恰当。
情景化语法研究把语境也作为语法内容的成分之一。
[2]现代语法教学的理念更强调在语言的实际使用中学习语法知识,语言教师应尽可能地创设语法教学的情景,便于学生对语法形式和意义的把握与理解,建立形式与意义的匹配关系。
传统教学语法在涉及倒装句的讲解时,往往认为倒装句只是句式变换的手段,对正装句和倒装句的语义差别以及它们不同的语篇功能很少涉及。
英语中表达命题意义“A=书;B=桌子;A在B上”至少有两种表达方式:(1)Thebookisonthedesk.(2)Onthedeskisthebook.前一种表达形式是常规的正装句;后一种表达是非常规的倒装句。
传统语法很少论及这两种不同结构的语义和语篇功能差异。
这两种表达形式都是对同一命题意义的表达,然而这两种表达形式所对应的表述意义却不完全相同。
①命题意义“书与桌的位置关系”类似于认知意象(im-age)中的基体(base)。
[7][8]以上两种表达中凸显(profile)了基体中的不同要素,前一种表达方式对应的意义凸显书的位置“在桌上”;后一种表达方式对应的意义凸显桌上的物品“书”(见图2)。
从信息结构来看,前一种表达的新信息是onthedesk“在桌上”,回答的是Whereisthebook?的问题;后一种表达的新信息是“书”,回答的是Whatsonthedesk?的问题。
由此可见,同一命题意义因表达方式不同表述意义也不尽相同。
为了体现不同的表述意义,人们需要选择不同的表达方式。
在实际的中学英语语法教学中,教师不必提及以上语言学术语,通过以上两种方法创设的语境足以帮助学生理解正装与倒装表达式之间的语义差别和语篇功能。
教师只需把这两种表达的对应图示呈现给学生,两种表达式的语义差别便一目了然。
至于两种表达式不同的语篇功能,教师只需将这两种表达式与其对应问句放在一起编为对话,不同组合间新旧信息的组合以及问句与答语之间的连贯性便显而易见。
·18·(3)———Whereisthebook?———Thebookisonthedesk.(4)———What’sonthedesk?———Onthedeskisthebook.图2正装句与倒装句所体现的认知意象图示(二)注重对语言使用的规律抽象和概括语言学习者的语法概念从何而来?不同的语法流派观点不同。
转换生成语法强调语法知识的先天性,认为儿童天生就具备普遍语法和语言习得机制,后天的语言学习只是激活普遍语法的参数。
而认知语法认为,儿童出生后只具备一般的认知能力,他们在学习语言时从听到、看到的语言运用实例中不断地进行抽象和概括,逐渐习得语法知识。
[9]认知语法强调从具体实例中抽象和概括语法规约,这种思路符合“从具体到一般”、“理论来源于实践,并运用于实践”的普遍哲学思想。
[10]在语法教学中,要基于语言运用,帮助和引导学生从实际的语言运用中抽象和概括语法结构。
语言学习者自身具备从实际的语言运用中抽象和概括语法现象的能力,Goldberg(etal.)[11]和Goldberg[9]认为儿童在学习理解和产出句子时,因句子数量没有止境,他们不可能记住所听到的所有句子,因此,为了理解和产出新的话语,他们必须对那些所听到的句子做出一定程度的句型概括。
语言学习者不是简单地记录以前用过的语言实例,而是把他们范畴化为形态(patterns)。
教师的任务是帮助学生从具体的实例中概括抽象的语法结构(包括形式和意义),然后再展示该语法结构的运用方法和应用范围。
如,在虚拟语气的教学中,教师可以先在特定语境中给出一些这样的实例:(5)IfIhadgotupearlythismorning,Iwouldn’thavecomelatetoschool.(6)IfIhadinventedtheelectriclampbe-foreEdison,Iwouldhavebeenthescientist.(7)Ifshehadgivenmeahand,Ishouldnthavefallenintotheriver.……据此,教师让学生观察这些含有条件句的复合句与以前学过的类似句式(真实条件句)有何不同,并概括从句和主句的结构形式(特别是谓语动词的形式),结合语境推断这种结构的一般语义,从而掌握虚拟语气中与过去事实情况相反的一般形式与意义。
学生一旦掌握了这种抽象的虚拟表达结构,便能在需要的时候自如地输出相应的实例。
(三)注重语法形式与意义或功能的结合语言的形式与意义或功能如同一枚硬币的两面,缺少任何一面,这枚硬币便没有价值,形式是意义或功能的载体,意义或功能靠语言形式来体现。
同样,语法结构的形式与意义或功能之间也存在对应关系,形式不同、意义或功能有别。
不论是抽象的语法结构还是具体的词汇或句子,都有与其相对应的、独立的语义。
[12]因此,语法教学应该强调形式与意义并重。
[13]英语中无论是词汇语法的不同形式,还是句子结构的不同形式都对应相应的语义或功能。
英语中实义词汇的形态变化都会体现不同的语义:名词所有格体现“所属”关系,名词复数体现“数量多于一”;动词通过形态变化来实现其时态(tense)和体(aspect),体现“惯常、进行、完成”等语义成分,动词的过去式“体现过去的行为动作”,过去分词体现“动作或事件的完成”,现在分词体现“动作或事件的进行和发展”,动词第三人称单数体现“第三人称的行为动作”;形容词或副词的比较级体现“两者之间的比较关系”,最高级体现“三者或以上当中之最”。
同样,英语中的语法词汇也对应一定的意义或功能。
英语中的语法词汇包括冠词、介词、连词和助词等,这些词类的语法功能强、词汇语义弱。
冠词体现“定指和不定指”;介词体现“时间和空间等关系”;连词体现“所连接成分之间的语义关系”;助词体现“情感态度”或帮助构成时态、语态、否定、疑问等。