建筑英文文献及翻译
建筑结构设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Create and comprehensive technology in the structure globaldesign of the buildingThe 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together.The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity andreduce whole expenses of project.The comprehensive new technology is to give full play to the technological specialty of every discipline , create and use the new technology, and with outside space , dimension of the building , working in coordination with in an all-round way the building component, thus reduce equipment investment and operate the expenses.Each success , building of engineering construction condense collective intelligence and strength; It is intelligence and expectation that an architect pays that the building is created; The engineering design of the building is that architecture , structure , equipment speciality compose hardships and strength happenning; It is the diligent and sweat paid in design and operation , installation , management that the construction work is built up .The initial stage of the 1990s, our understanding that the concept of global design is a bit elementary , conscientious to with making some jobs in engineering design unconsciously , make some harvest. This text Hangzhou city industrial and commercial bank financial comprehensive building and Hangzhou city Bank of Communications financial building two building , group of " scientific and technological progress second prize " speak of from person who obtain emphatically, expound the fact global design - comprehensive technology that building create its , for reach global design outstanding architect in two engineering design, have served as the creator and persons who cooperate while every stage design and even building are built completely.Two projects come into operation for more than 4 years formally , run and coordinate , good wholly , reach the anticipated result, accepted and appreciated by the masses, obtain various kinds of honor .outstanding to design award , progress prize in science and technology , project quality bonus , local top ten view , best model image award ,etc., the ones that do not give to the architect and engineers without one are gratified and proud. The building is created Emphasizing the era for global design of the building, the architects' creation idea and design method should be broken through to some extent, creation inspirations is it set up in analysis , building of global design , synthesize more to burst out and at the foundation that appraise, learn and improve the integration capability exactly designed in building , possess the new knowledge system and thinking method , merge multi-disciplinary technology. We have used the new design idea in above-mentioned projects, have emphasized the globality created in building .Is it is it act as so as to explain to conceive to create two design overview and building of construction work these now.1) The financial comprehensive building of industrial and commercial bank of HangZhou,belong to the comprehensive building, with the whole construction area of 39,000 square meters, main building total height 84, 22, skirt 4 of room, some 6 storeys, 2 storeys of basements.Design overall thinking break through of our country bank building traditional design mode - seal , deep and serious , stern , form first-class function, create of multi-functional type , the style of opening , architecture integrated with the mode of the international commercial bank.The model of the building is free and easy, opened, physique was made up by the hyperboloid, the main building presented " the curved surface surrounded southwards ", skirt room presents " the curved surface surrounded northwards ", the two surround but become intension of " gathering the treasure ".Building flourishing upwards, elevation is it adopt large area solid granite wall to design, the belt aluminium alloy curtain wall of the large area and some glass curtain walls, and interweave the three into powerful and vigorous whole , chase through model and entity wall layer bring together , form concise , tall and straight , upward tendency of working up successively, have distinct and unique distinctions.Building level and indoor space are designed into a multi-functional type and style of opening, opening, negotiate , the official working , meeting , receiving , be healthy and blissful , visit combining together. Spacious and bright two storeys open in the hall unifiedly in the Italian marble pale yellow tone , in addition, the escalator , fountain , light set off, make the space seem very magnificent , graceful and sincere. Intelligent computer network center, getting open and intelligent to handle official business space and all related house distribute in all floor reasonably. Top floor round visit layer, lift all of Room visit layer , can have a panoramic view of the scenery of the West Lake , fully enjoy the warmth of the nature. 2) The financial building of Bank of Communications of Hangzhou, belong to the purely financial office block, with the whole construction area of 19,000 square meters, the total height of the building is 39.9 meters, 13 storeys on the ground, the 2nd Floor. Live in building degree high than it around location , designer have unique architectural appearance of style architectural design this specially, its elevation is designed into a new classical form , the building base adopts the rough granite, show rich capability , top is it burn granite and verticality bar and some form aluminum windows make up as the veneer to adopt, represent the building noble and refined , serious personality of the bank.While creating in above-mentioned two items, besides portraying the shape of the building and indoor space and outside environment minister and blending meticulously, in order to achieve the outstanding purpose of global design of the building , the architect , still according to the region and project characteristic, put forward the following requirement to every speciality:(1) Control the total height of the building strictly;(2) It favorable to the intelligent comfortable height of clearances to create; (3) Meet thefloor area of owner's demand;(4)Protect the environment , save the energy , reduce and make the investment;(5) Design meticulously, use and popularize the new technology; (6)Cooperate closely in every speciality, optimization design.Comprehensive technologyThe building should have strong vitality, there must be sustainable development space, there should be abundant intension and comprehensive new technology. Among above-mentioned construction work , have popularized and used the intelligent technology of the building , has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology, baseplate temperature mix hole , technology of muscle and base of basement enclose new technology of protecting, computer control STL ice hold cold air conditioner technology, compounding type keeps warm and insulates against heat the technology of the wall , such new technologies as the sectional electricity distribution room ,etc., give architecture global design to add the new vitality of note undoubtedly.1, the intelligent technology of the buildingIn initial stage of the 1990s, the intelligent building was introduced from foreign countries to China only as a kind of concept , computer network standard is it soon , make information communication skeleton of intelligent building to pursue in the world- comprehensive wiring system becomes a kind of trend because of 10BASE-T. In order to make the bank building adapt to the development of the times, the designer does one's utmost to recommend and design the comprehensive wiring system with the leading eyes , this may well be termed the first modernized building which adopted this technical design at that time.(1) Comprehensive wiring system one communication transmission network, it make between speech and data communication apparatus , exchange equipment and other administrative systems link to each other, make the equipment and outside communication network link to each other too. It include external telecommunication connection piece and inside information speech all cable and relevant wiring position of data terminal of workspace of network. The comprehensive wiring system adopts the products of American AT&T Corp.. Connected up the subsystem among the subsystem , management subsystem , arterial subsystem and equipment to make up by workspace subsystem , level.(2) Automated systems of security personnel The monitoring systems of security personnel of the building divide into the public place and control and control two pieces of systemequipment with the national treasury special-purposly synthetically.The special-purpose monitoring systems of security personnel of national treasury are in the national treasury , manage the storehouse on behalf of another , transporting the paper money garage to control strictly, the track record that personnel come in and go out, have and shake the warning sensor to every wall of national treasury , the camera, infrared microwave detector in every relevant rooms, set up the automation of controlling to control.In order to realize building intellectuality, the architect has finished complete indoor environment design, has created the comfortable , high-efficient working environment , having opened up the room internal and external recreation space not of uniform size, namely the green one hits the front yard and roofing, have offered the world had a rest and regulated to people working before automation is equipped all day , hang a design adopt the special building to construct the node in concrete ground , wall at the same time.2, has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force- dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technologyIn order to meet the requirement with high assurance that the architect puts forward , try to reduce the height of structure component in structure speciality, did not glue and form the flat roof beam of prestressing force concrete - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology after adopting.(1) Adopt prestressing force concrete roof beam board structure save than ordinary roof beam board concrete consumption 15%, steel consumption saves 27%, the roof beam reduces 300mm high.(2) Adopt flat roof beam structure save concrete about 10% consumption than ordinary roof beam board, steel consumption saves 6.6%, the roof beam reduces 200mm high.Under building total situation that height does not change , adopt above-mentioned structure can make the whole building increase floor area of a layer , have good economic benefits and social benefit.3, the temperature of the baseplate matches muscle technologyIn basement design , is it is it is it after calculating , take the perimeter to keep the construction technology measure warm to split to resist to go on to baseplate, arrange temperature stress reinforcing bar the middle cancelling , dispose 2 row receives the strength reinforcing bar up and down only, this has not only save the fabrication cost of the project but also met the basement baseplate impervious and resisting the requirement that splits.4, the foundation of the basement encloses and protects the new technology of design and operationAdopt two technological measures in enclosing and protecting a design:(1) Cantilever is it is it hole strength is it adopt form strengthen and mix muscle technology to design to protect to enclose, save the steel and invite 60t, it invests about 280,000 to save.(2) Is it is it protect of of elevation and keep roof beam technology to enclose , is it protect long to reduce 1.5m to enclose all to reduce, keep roof beam mark level on natural ground 1.5m , is it is it protect of lateral pressure receive strength some height to enclose to change, saving 137.9 cubic meters of concrete, steel 16.08t, reduces and invests 304,000 yuan directly through calculating.5, ice hold cold air conditioner technologyIce hold cold air conditioner technology belong to new technology still in our country , it heavy advantage that the electricity moves the peak and operates the expenses sparingly most. In design, is it ice mode adopt some (weight ) hold mode of icing , is it ice refrigeration to be plane utilization ratio high to hold partly to hold, hold cold capacity little , refrigeration plane capacity 30%-45% little than routine air conditioner equipment, one economic effective operational mode.Hold the implementation of the technology of the cold air conditioner in order to cooperate with the ice , has used intelligent technology, having adopted the computer to control in holding and icing the air conditioner system, the main task has five following respects:(1) According to the demand for user's cold load , according to the characteristic of the structure of the electric rate , set up the ice and hold the best operation way of the cold system automatically, reduce the operation expenses of the whole system;(2) Fully utilize and hold the capacity of the cold device, should try one's best to use up all the cold quantity held basically on the same day;(3) Automatic operation state of detection system, ensure ice hold cold system capital equipment normal , safe operation;(4) Automatic record parameter that system operate, display system operate flow chart and type systematic operation parameter report form;(5) Predict future cooling load, confirm the future optimization operation scheme.Ice hold cold air conditioner system test run for some time, indicate control system to be steady , reliable , easy to operate, the system operates the energy-conserving result remarkably.6, the compounding type keeps in the wall warm and insulates against heat To the area of Hangzhou , want heating , climate characteristic of lowering the temperature in summer in winter, is it protect building this structural design person who compound is it insulate against heat the wall to keep warm to enclose specially, namely: Fit up , keep warm , insulate against heat the three not to equal to the body , realize building energy-conservation better.Person who compound is it insulate against heat wall to combine elevation model characteristic , design aluminium board elevation renovation material to keep warm, its structure is: Fill out and build hollow brick in the frame structure, do to hang the American Fluorine carbon coating inferior mere aluminium board outside the hollow brick wall.Aluminium board spoke hot to have high-efficient adiabatic performance to the sun, under the same hot function of solar radiation, because the nature , color of the surface material are different from coarse degree, whether can absorb heat have great difference very , between surface and solar radiation hot absorption system (α ) and material radiation system (Cλ ) is it say to come beyond the difference this. Adopt α and Cλ value little surface material have remarkable result , board α、Cλ value little aluminium have, its α =0.26, Cλ =0.4, light gray face brick α =0.56, Cλ =4.3.Aluminium board for is it hang with having layer under air by hollow brick to do, because aluminium board is it have better radiation transfer to hot terms to put in layer among the atmosphere and air, this structure is playing high-efficient adiabatic function on indoor heating too in winter, so, no matter or can well realize building energy-conservation in winter in summer.7, popularize the technology of sectional electricity distribution roomConsider one layer paves Taxi " gold " value , the total distribution of the building locates the east, set up voltage transformer and low-voltage distribution in the same room in first try in the design, make up sectional electricity distribution room , save transformer substation area greatly , adopt layer assign up and down, mixing the switchyard system entirely after building up and putting into operation, the function is clear , the overall arrangement compactness is rational , the systematic dispatcher is flexible . The technology have to go to to use and already become the model extensively of the design afterwards.ConclusionThe whole mode designed of the building synthetically can raise the adaptability of the building , it will be the inevitable trend , environmental consciousness and awareness of saving energy especially after strengthening are even more important. Developing with the economy , science and technology constantly in our country, more advanced technology and scientific and technical result will be applied to the building , believe firmly that in the near future , more outstanding building global design will appear on the building stage of our country. We will be summarizing, progressing constantly constantly, this is that history gives the great responsibility of architect and engineer.译文：建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术21世纪将是多种学科技术并存的时代，它必将形成推动建筑发展的巨大动力，建筑结构整体设计也就越来越重要，建筑师必须把握时机，充分发挥建筑师的主导作用，主持好各项建筑工程设计。
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献On the other hand, there is a significant amount ofliterature in the field of architecture design that is writtenin foreign languages. While it may not be as readily accessible for non-native speakers, there are many benefits to exploring literature in other languages. For example, architects who are fluent in multiple languages can have a broader understanding of different cultural approaches to architecture. By reading literature in foreign languages, architects can gain insights into design concepts and practices that may not be covered in English-language sources. This can lead to a more diverse and innovative approach to design.However, one challenge with accessing literature in foreign languages is the accuracy of translations. Architecture is a technical field with specific terminology, and it is important to ensure that translations accurately convey the intended meaning. In some cases, the translation of technical terms and concepts may not accurately convey their full meaning, which can lead to misunderstandings or confusion. Architects who rely on translated literature should be cautious and ensure they verify the accuracy of the translations with experts in the field.Despite these challenges, it is essential for architects to explore literature in multiple languages to stay informed and to gain a global perspective on architecture design. By consideringboth English and foreign language translated literature, architects can access a wider range of resources and insights. Additionally, architects should consider collaborating with colleagues who are fluent in different languages to ensure accurate translation and interpretation of foreign language sources.In conclusion, architecture design is a field that benefits from accessing literature in multiple languages. English provides a wealth of resources and is the global language of academia. However, architects who can access and read literature in foreign languages can gain new perspectives and insights into different cultural approaches to design. While caution should be taken to verify the accuracy of translations, architects should explore literature in multiple languages to broaden their understanding and enhance their creative problem-solving skills.。
建筑施工质量管理体系外文翻译参考文献
建筑施工质量管理体系外文翻译参考文献1. GB/T -2016 英文名称：Quality management systems--Requirements《质量管理体系要求》2. GB/T -2016 英文名称：Quality management systems--Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001:2015《质量管理体系应用指南》3. GB -2013 英文名称：Code for construction quality acceptance of building engineering《建筑工程质量验收规范》4. GB -2011 英文名称：Code for acceptance of constructional quality of masonry engineering《砌体工程施工质量验收规范》5. GB -2010 英文名称：Code for design of concrete structures《混凝土结构设计规范》6. GB -2013 英文名称：Standard for building drawing standardization《建筑施工图件编制规范》7. GB -2001 英文名称：Code for acceptance of construction quality of pile foundation engineering《桩基工程施工质量验收规范》8. /T 11-2017 英文名称：Technical specification for concrete structure of tall building《高层建筑混凝土结构技术规范》9. 63-2013 英文名称：Technical specification for strengthening of building structures using carbon fiber reinforced plastics 《建筑结构加固碳纤维布增强复合材料技术规范》10. 81-2002 英文名称：Technical specification for application of sprayed mortar in building construction and acceptance of quality 《建筑喷涂砂浆工程施工及质量验收技术规定》。
建筑结构设计及材料中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structure in Design of ArchitectureAnd Structural MaterialWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic,preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic ofhis or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasiswill be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specificform of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile forcewhich, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting.A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel materialbetween them under high heat.Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
建筑外文文献及翻译(参考模板)
外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。
建筑防火中英文对照外文翻译文献
- 1 -中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文文献外文文献: :Designing Against Fire Of BulidingABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electricalsystems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are consideredin the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far more than simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build-ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations regulations––since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 Introduction Wind and earthquakes can be considered to b Wind and earthquakes can be considered to be “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena over which designers ver which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving the design of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possibleto influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. Inoc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect ofthe use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival.2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion willbe accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floorsystem may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity –– insufficient fuel, and/or(b) the fire is of insufficient severity(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an orderof magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirdsof fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin.If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing the likelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transm itted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capableof limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundariesto restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire engineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2or kg/m 2of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail,hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.V arious methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ς likely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models,as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations including the Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a lossof structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approvalapproval––although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. Allcovered––the provision of emergency exits, aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are coveredspacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to anotherto deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking into account the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state thata designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simplya set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic” approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of thebuilding.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against such an act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSificantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes in significantlyFire differs signrespect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However,。
建筑英文文献及翻译
建筑英文文献及翻译第一篇：建筑英文文献及翻译外文原文出处: NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009, Increasing Seismic Safety by Combining Engineering Technologies and Seismological Data, Pages 147-149动力性能对建筑物的破坏引言：建筑物在地震的作用下，和一些薄弱的建筑结构中，动力学性能扮演了一个很重要的角色。
特别是要满足最基本的震动周期，无论是在设计的新建筑，或者是评估已经有的建筑，使他们可以了解地震的影响。
许多标准(例如：欧标，2003；欧标，2006)，建议用简单的表达式来表达一个建筑物的高度和他的基本周期。
这样的表达式被牢记在心，得出标定设计(高尔和乔谱拉人，1997)，从而人为的低估了标准周期。
因为这个原因，他们通常提供比较低的设计标准当与那些把设计基础标准牢记在心的人(例：乔普拉本和高尔，2000)。
当后者从已进行仔细建立的数字模型中得到数值(例：克劳利普和皮诺，2004；普里斯特利权威，2007)。
当数字估计与周围震动测量的实验结果相比较，有大的差异，提供非常低的周期标准(例：纳瓦洛苏达权威，2004)。
一个概述不同的方式比较确切的结果刊登在马西和马里奥(2008)；另外，一个高级的表达式来指定更有说服力的坚固建筑类型，提出了更加准确的结构参数表(建筑高度，开裂，空隙填实，等等)。
联系基础和上层建筑的震动周期可能发生共振的效果。
这个原因对于他们的振动，可能建筑物和土地在非线性运动下受到到破坏，这个必须被重视。
通常，结构工程师和岩土工程师有不同的观点在共振作用和一些变化的地震活动。
结构工程师们认为尽管建筑物和土壤的自振周期和地震周期都非常的接近。
但对于建筑物周期而言，到底是因为结构还是非结构造成的破坏提出了疑问。
建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age scienceresearch with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation.Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short todistribute.Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharplyconstringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity ofHang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce throughsex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight.Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow.The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious.The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following.Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot.Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature.Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time.Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete.Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control.Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature.Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rockand old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off.At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5.Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack.In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention.Main of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone.Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali.Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar ually of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer.Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good.Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid.Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsiscoating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability.Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing.The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of purpose.The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose.The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire,plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure.The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method:The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material.The in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of antisepsis.Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method.The advantage of this kind of method is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(suchas contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》译文：建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Housing Problems and Options for the Elderly 1. IntroductionHousing is a critical element in the lives of older persons. The affordability of housing affects the ability of the elderly to afford other necessities of life such as food and medical care. Housing that is located near hospitals and doctors, shopping, transportation, and recreational facilities can facilitate access to services that can enhance the quality of life. Housing can also be a place of memories of the past and a connection to friends and neighbors. Housing with supportive features and access to services can also make it possible for persons to age in place. In this session, we will be examining housing problems andoptions for the elderly. Along the way, we will be testing your housing IQ with a series of questions and exercises.2. Housing Situation of Older PersonsHow typical is the housing situation of the olders?We will begin by examining five areas :（1）Prevalence of home ownership （2）Length of stay in current residence （3）Living arrangements （4）Attachments of older persons to where they live （5）Moving behavior.With whom older persons live can influence housing affordability, space needs, and the ability to age in place. About 54% of older persons live with their spouses, 31% live alone, almost 13% live with related persons other than their spouse and about 2% live with unrelated persons. With increasing age, older persons (primarily women) are more likely to live alone or with a relative other than a spouse. Frail older women living alone are the persons most likely to reside in homes with ‘extra’ rooms and to need both physically supportive housing features and services to "age in place". This segment of the population is also the group most likely to move to more supportive housing settings such as assisted living.Many older persons have strong psychological attachments to their homes related to length of residence. The home often represents the place where they raised their children and a lifetime of memories. It is also a connection to an array of familiar persons such as neighbors and shopkeepers as well as near by places including houses of worship, libraries and community services. For manyolder persons, the home is an extension of their own personalities which is found in the furnishings . In addition, the home can represent a sense of economic security for the future, especially for homeowners who have paid off their mortgages. For owners, the home is usually their most valuable financial asset. The home also symbolizes a sense of independence in that the resident is able to live on his or her own. For these types of reasons, it is understandable that in response to a question about housing preferences, AARP surveys of older persons continue to find that approximately 80% of older persons report that what they want is to "stay in their own homes and never move." This phenomena has been termed the preference to "age in place."Although most older persons move near their current communities, some seek retirement communities in places with warmer weather in the southwest, far west and the south.3. The Federal Government's Housing Programs for the ElderlyThe federal government has had two basic housing strategies to address housing problems of the elderly. One strategy, termed the "supply side" approach, seeks to build new housing complexes such as public housing and Section 202 housing for older persons. Public housing is administered by quasi-governmental local public housing authorities. Section 202 Housing for the elderly and disabled is sponsored by non-profit organizations including religious and non-sectarian organizations. Approximately 1.5 million olderpersons or 3% of the elderly population live in federally assisted housing, with about 387,000 living in Section 202 housing. Over time, the government has shifted away from such new construction programs because of the cost of such housing, the problems that a number of non-elderly housing programs have experienced, and a philosophy that the government should no longer be directly involved with the building of housing. Section 202 housing, a very popular and successful program, is one of the few supply-side programs funded by the federal government, although the budget allocation during the last ten years has allowed for the construction of only about 6,000 units per year compared to a high of almost 20,000 units in the late 1970s. Instead of funding new construction, federal housing initiatives over the last decade have emphasized ‘demand side’ subsidies that provide low-income renters with a certificate or a voucher that they can use in a variety of multiunit settings, including apartments in the private sector that meet rental and condition guidelines. These vouchers and certificates are aimed at reducing excessive housing costs. Some certificates are termed ‘project based’ subsidies and are tied to federally subsidized housing such as Section 202. Because housing programs are not an entitlement, however, supply-side and demand side programs together are only able to meet the needs of about 1/3 of elderly renters who qualify on the basis of income.While advocates for housing have been trying to hold on to the existing programs in the face of huge budget cuts at HUD, much of the attention has been shifting towards meeting the shelter and service needs of the frail elderly. This emphasis reflects the increasing number of older persons in their eightiesand nineties who need a physically supportive environment linked with services. This group of older persons includes a high percentage of older residents of public and Section 202 housing. Initially built for independent older persons who were initially in the late sixties and early seventies, this type of housing now includes older persons in their eighties and nineties, many of whom have aged in place. Consequently, the government is faced with creating strategies to bring services into these buildings and retrofit them to better suit the needs of frail older persons. A major initiative of the early 1990s, which may be stalled by current budget problems at HUD, has been for the federal government to pay for service coordinators to assess the needs of residents of government assisted housing complexes and link them with services. As of 1998, there were approximately 1,000 service coordinators attached to government assisted housing complexes across the country.4. The Housing Continuum: A Range of Options for ElderlyA long-standing assumption in the field of housing has been that as persons become more frail, they will have to move along a housing continuum from one setting to another. As the figure on housing options suggests, along this continuum are found a range of housing options including single family homes, apartments, congregate living, assisted living, and board and care homes (Kendig & Pynoos, 1996). The end point of the housing continuum has been thenursing home. These options vary considerably in terms of their availability, affordability, and ability to meet the needs of very frail older persons.The concept of a continuum of supportive care is based on the assumption that housing options can be differentiated by the amount and types of services offered; the supportiveness of the physical setting in terms of accessibility, features, and design; and the competency level of the persons to whom the housing is targeted. The figure on housing options indicates how such options generally meet the needs of older persons who are categorized,as independent, semi-dependent and dependent. Semi-dependent older persons can be thought of as needing some assistance from other persons with instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) such as cooking, cleaning, and shopping. In addition to needing assistance with some IADLs, dependent older persons may require assistance with more basic activities such as toileting, eating and bathing. Although semi-dependent and dependent older persons can be found throughout the housing continuum, independent older persons are very unlikely to reside in housing types such as assisted living specifically designed and equipped to meet the needs of frail older persons unless their spouses require these needs.Although the continuum of housing identifies a range of housing types, there is increasing recognition that frail older persons do not necessarily have to move from one setting to another if they need assistance. Semi-dependent or dependent older persons can live in a variety of settings, including their own homes and apartments, if the physical environment is made more supportive, caregivers are available to provide assistance and affordable services areaccessible.5. ConclusionsHousing plays a critical role in the lives of older persons. Most older homeowners who function independently express a high level of satisfaction with their dwelling units. However, high housing costs, especially for renters, remain a financial burden for many older persons and problems associated with housing condition persist especially for low- income renters and persons living in rural areas. Federal housing programs such as public housing, Section 202 housing, and Section 8 housing certificates have only been able to address the basic housing problems of only about one-third of eligible older persons because of limited budgets. Moreover, a shortage of viable residential options exists for frail older persons. Up until the last decade, housing for the elderly was conceived of primarily as shelter. It has become increasingly recognized that frail older persons who needed services and physically supportive features often had to move from their homes or apartments to settings such as board and care or nursing homes to receive assistance. Over time, however, the concept of a variety of housing types that can be linked has replaced the original idea of the continuum of housing. It is possible for frail older persons to live in a variety of existing residential settings, including their own homes and apartments with the addition of services and home modifications. Consequently, the last decade has seen a number of efforts to modify homes, add service coordinators to multi-unit housing and create options such as accessory and ECHO units. Although thesestrategies have been enhanced by a somewhat greater availability of home care services, Medicaid policy still provides incentives to house frail older persons in nursing homes. The most visible development in the field of housing for frail older persons has been the growth of private sector assisted living which is now viewed by many state governments as a residential alternative to nursing homes. The AL movement itself has raised a number of regulatory and financing issues that cross-cut housing and long term care such as what constitutes a residential environment, insuring that residents can age in place, accommodating resident preferences, protecting the rights of individuals and insuring quality of care. Nevertheless, the emergence of AL along with a wider range of other housing options holds out the promise that older persons will have a larger range of choices among living arrangements.译文：老年人的住宅问题与选择一、简介住宅在老年人生活的极为重要。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译资料讲解
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of theactual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，随着国民经济的快速、持久发展，各种钢筋混凝土建筑结构大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大的发展。
建筑工程外文文献(含翻译)
外文文献：Construction of the competition and competition strategy Engineering and construction firms from the United States dominated the global market for many decades but recent world events have altered their position.To investigate the driving forces and trends that will affect engineering and construction competition in the next decade, a research project, called the "Anatomy of Construction Competition in the Year 2000", was sponsored by the Construction Industry Institute's Construc—tion 2000 Task Force— The project examined the factors that affect competitiveness, including the following, The shaping of corporate capabilities; vertical integration and horizontal expansion to increase corporate capabilities and market share, including acquisition and mergers by offshore conglomerates and the acquisition of foreign firms by U. S. companies.Financing options； the role of privatization， build-own-transfer projects， and the nature of project financing in future markets，Management, organization， and structure; future management and organizational approaches, structures, and techniques to attract personnel to perform in a global competitive environment.Work force characteristics; future availability of engineering and construction workers at the professional and craft levels.Technological issues：how technology will affect competition and be used to offset work force shortages.Research Objectives and ScopeThis research project's goal is to collect information， to adapt to the 2000 and the engineering construction after adjustment，formulate strategies needed to provide insight and formulate 2000 engineering construction of possible development plan. This study reviewed the project construction process of history, current development trend， to determine the impact of the industry, and the impetus to the future industrial enterprises are related to reshape the ability, privatisation and financing methods of potential function and management, organization structure, methods for future development direction。
建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文
建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：《Advanced Encryption Standard》文献、资料发表（出版）日期:2004.10.25系（部）：建筑工程系生：陆总LYY外文文献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with Contemporary architecture1, is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his "fireproof design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, πDark satanic millsπof places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan∙ Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright,s Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner,s Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities- The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright r s career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modem Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as πmachines for living,∖but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines- Even Philip Johnson admitted he was πbored with the box∕,Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a πstyleπthat threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin ,,At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion/1At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question πModern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?11In New York, the coup d r etat appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of πair rights,∖[l] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to ,,severπthe Park Avenue streetscape and πtarnishπthe reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中文译文:现代建筑现代建筑，不被混淆与‘当代建筑’，是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点，主要的简化形式,消除装饰等.虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并大量造就了一些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品，很少有现代的建筑物，建于20世纪上半叶.第二次大战后的三十年，但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问题，息息相关的工程中的现代性, 从而影响了启蒙运动，导致社会和政治革命.另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展，那就是获得新的建筑材料，如钢铁，混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术，它作为工业革命的一部分.1796年，Shrewsbury查尔斯bage首先用他的‘火’的设计，后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板.这些建设大大加强了结构，使它们能够容纳更大的机器.由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,一些早期建筑失败.直到1830年初，伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁，导致广泛使用钢架建设，工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌,英国北部领导的描述，〃黑暗魔鬼作坊〃的地方如曼彻斯特和西约克郡.水晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重大展览，1851年,是一个早期的例子, 钢铁及玻璃施工；可能是一个最好的例子，就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼.早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的建筑表达（而非纯粹功利结构），包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近，劳埃德赖特的统一宫，建于1926 年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂,.但无论原因为何，约有1900多位建筑师，在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法,将传统的先例（比如哥特式）与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔，安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那，奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳，其中之一可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要人物，在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声.三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国，密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国.密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董事的包豪斯，其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术.赖特的建筑生涯中，也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们.赖特与格罗皮乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览，艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势，内容相似,有一个共同的目的, 巩固了他们融入国际化风格这是一个重要的转折点.在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国，芝加哥，到哈佛大学设计黑山书院.当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑，是学校（专业领导）的唯一可接受的，设计解决方案，从约1932年至约1984 年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。
建筑类外文翻译+译文
Architecture in a Climate of ChangePage52-Page62Low energy techniques for housingIt would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buildings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs generated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid change without pain.In fact,upgrading buildings, especially the lower end of the housing stock,creates a cluster of interlocking virtuous circles. Construction systemsHaving considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.In the UK housing has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it has been common practice to introduce insulation into the cavity.For a long time it was mandatory to preserve a space within the cavity and a long rearguard battle was fought by the traditionalists to preserve this‘sacred space’.Defeat was finally conceded when some extensive research by the Building Research Establishment found that there was no greater risk of damp penetration with filled cavities and in fact damp through condensation was reduced.Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.The advantages of masonry construction are:● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago the entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise considerably if it receives a rendered finish.● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonryinternal walls and concrete floors.Framed constructionVolume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appear identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With timber framing it is difficult to avoid piercing the barrier.There can also be problems achieving internal fixings.For the purist,the ultimate criticism is that it is illogical to have a framed building clad in masonry when it cries out for a panel,boarded,slate or tile hung external finish.Pressed steel frames for homes are now being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.Innovative techniquesPermanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an insulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/m2K.Above three storeys the addition of steel reinforcement is necessary. The advantages of this system are:● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possible.● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and placement of concrete.● The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.Solar designPassive solar designSince the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic response is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.Access to solar radiation is determined by a number of conditions:● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);● site orientation and slope;● existing obstructions on the site;● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the use of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to be plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and the solar trajectories indicate times of transition between sunlight and shade. Normally a different chart is constructed for use at different latitudes (at about two degree intervals).Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physical models with a heliodon.Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly program which should be well within normal undergraduate competence. The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50 N,rows of houses on a 10 north-facing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.Passive solar design can be divided into three broad categories:● direct gain;● indirect gain;● attached sunspace or conservatory.Each of the three categories relies in a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is of a much longer wavelength than the incoming radiation.This is because the re-emission is from surfaces at a much lower temperature and the glazing reflects back such radiation to the interior.Direct gainDirect gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Solar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s housein Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design characteristics are:● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.● Windows facing west may pose a summer overheating risk.● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.● The main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building.● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involved in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.● In the case of solid floors,insulation should be beneath the slab.● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing portion of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone. During the day and into the evening the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended: ● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the year when it is beneficial. ● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and position of the absorbing surfaces.In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.Indirect gainIn this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the space to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirectway.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The main elements● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall are 20–30 cm.● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air can be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as in the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.At times of excess heat gain the system can provide alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.Indirect gain options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.Attached sunspace/conservatoryThis has become a popular feature in both new housing and as an addition to existing homes.It can function as an extension of living space,a solar heat store,a preheater for ventilation air or simply an adjunct greenhouse for plants.On balance it is considered that conservatories are a net contributor to global warming since they are often heated.Ideally the sunspace should be capable of being isolated from the main building to reduce heat loss in winter and excessive gain in summer.The area of glazing in the sunspace should be 20–30 per cent of the area of the room to which it is attached.The most adventurous sunspace so far encountered is in the Hockerton housing development which will feature later.Ideally the summer heat gain should be used to charge a seasonal thermal storage element to provide background warmth in winter.At the very least,air flow paths between the conservatory and the main building should be carefully controlled.Active solar thermal systemsA distinction must be drawn between passive means of utilising the thermal heat of the sun, discussed earlier,and those of a more‘active’nature Active systems take solar gain a step further than passive solar.They convert direct solar radiation into another form of energy.Solar collectors preheat water using a closed circuit calorifier.The emergence of Legionella has highlighted the need to store hot water at a temperature above 60 C which means that for most of the year in temperate climes active solar heating must be supplemented by some form of heating.Active systems are able to deliver high quality energy.However,a penalty is incurred since energy is required to control and operate the system known as the ‘parasitic energy requirement’.A further distinction is the difference between systems using the thermal heat of the sun,and systems,such as photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy directly into electrical power.For solar energy to realise its full potential it needs to be installed on a district basis and coupled with seasonal storage.One of the largest projects is at Friedrichshafen.The heat from 5600 m2 of solar collectors on the roofs of eight housing blocks containing 570 apartments is transported to a central heating unit or substation.It is then distributed to the apartments as required.The heated living area amounts to 39 500 m2.Surplus summer heat is directed to the seasonal heat store which,in this case, is of the hot water variety capable of storing 12 000 m3.The scale of this storage facility is indicated by Figure 5.9.The heat delivery of the system amounts to 1915 MWh/year and the solar fraction is 47 per cent.The month by month ratio between solar and fossil-based energy indicates that from April to November inclusive,solar energy accounts for almost total demand,being principally domestic hot water.In places with high average temperatures and generous sunlight,active solar has considerable potential not just for heating water but also for electricity generation.This has particular relevance to less and least developed countries.环境变化影响下的建筑学房屋设计中的低能耗技术显而易见，在工业化国家，最好的营救机会依赖于建筑环境，因为不论是在使用的建筑或者是在建设的建筑，都是最大的、单一的、间接地由化石燃料的燃烧所引起的碳排放的源头，而这些站了所有排放的50%。
土木工程建筑外文文献及翻译
土木工程建筑外文文献及翻译土木工程建筑外文文献及翻译Cyclic behavior of steel moment frame connections under varying axial load and lateral displacementsAbstractThis paper discusses the cyclic behavior of four steel moment connections tested under variable axial load and lateral displacements. The beam specim- ens consisted of a reducedbeam section, wing plates and longitudinal stiffeners. The test specimens were subjected to varying axial forces and lateral displace- ments to simulate the effects on beams in a Coupled-Girder Moment-Resisting Framing system under lateral loading. The test results showed that the specim- ens responded in a ductile manner since the plastic rotations exceeded 0.03 rad without significant drop in the lateral capacity. The presence of the longitudin- al stiffener assisted in transferring the axial forces and delayed the formation of web local buckling.1. IntroductionAimed at evaluating the structural performance of reduced-beam section(RBS) connections under alternated axial loading and lateral displacement, four full-scale specimens were tested. These tests were intended to assess the performance of the moment connection design for the Moscone Center Exp- ansion under the Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) and the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). Previous research conducted on RBS moment connections [1,2] showed that connections with RBS profiles can achieve rotations in excess of 0.03 rad. However, doubts have been cast on the quality of the seismic performance of theseconnections under combined axial and lateral loading.The Moscone Center Expansion is a three-story, 71,814 m2 (773,000 ft2) structure with steel moment frames as its primary lateral force-resisting system. A three dimensional perspective illustration is shown in Fig. 1. The overall height of the building, at the highest point of the exhibition roof, is approxima- tely 35.36 m (116ft) above ground level. The ceiling height at the exhibition hall is 8.23 m (27 ft) , and the typical floor-to-floor height in the building is 11.43 m (37.5 ft). The building was designed as type I according to the requi- rements of the 1997 Uniform Building Code. The framing system consists of four moment frames in the East–West direct- ion, one on either side of the stair towers, and four frames in the North–South direction, one on either side of the stair and elevator cores in the east end and two at the west end of the structure [4]. Because of the story height, the con- cept of the Coupled-Girder Moment-Resisting Framing System (CGMRFS) was utilized.By coupling the girders, the lateral load-resisting behavior of the moment framing system changes to one where structural overturning moments are resisted partially by an axial compression–tension couple across the girder system, rather than only by the individual flexural action of the girders. As a result, a stiffer lateral load resisting system is achieved. The vertical element that connects the girders is referred to as a coupling link. Coupling links are analogous to and serve the same structural role as link beams in eccentrically braced frames. Coupling links are generally quite short, having a large shear- to-moment ratio.Under earthquake-type loading, the CGMRFS subjects its girders to wariab- ble axial forces in addition to their endmoments. The axial forces in theFig. 1. Moscone Center Expansion Project in San Francisco, CAgirders result from the accumulated shear in the link.2. Analytical model of CGMRFNonlinear static pushover analysis was conducted on a typical one-bay model of the CGMRF. Fig. 2 shows the dimensions and the various sections of the 10 in) and the ?254 mm (1 1/8 in ?model. The link flange plates were 28.5 mm 18 3/4 in). The SAP 2000 computer ?476 mm (3 /8 in ?web plate was 9.5 mm program was utilized in the pushover analysis [5]. The frame was characterized as fully restrained(FR). FR moment frames are those frames for 1170 which no more than 5% of the lateral deflections arise from connection deformation [6]. The 5% value refers only to deflection due to beam–column deformation and not to frame deflections that result from column panel zone deformation [6, 9].The analysis was performed using an expected value of the yield stress and ultimate strength. These values were equal to 372 MPa (54 ksi) and 518 MPa (75 ksi), respective ly. The plastic hinges’ load–deformation behavior was approximated by the generalized curve suggested by NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Rehab ilitation of Buildings [6] as shown in Fig. 3. △y was calcu- lated based on Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) from [6], as follows: P–M hinge load–deformation model points C, D and E are based on Table 5.4 from [6] for△y was taken as 0.01 rad per Note 3 in [6], Table 5.8. Shear hinge load- load–deformation model points C, D and E are based on Table 5.8 [6], Link Beam, Item a. A strain hardening slope between points B and C of 3% of the elastic slope was assumedfor both models.The following relationship was used to account for moment–axial load interaction [6]:where MCE is the expected moment strength, ZRBS is the RBS plastic section modulus (in3), is the expected yield strength of the material (ksi), P is the axial force in the girder (kips) and is the expected axial yield force of the RBS, equal to (kips). The ultimate flexural capacities of the beam and the link of the model are shown in Table 1.Fig. 4 shows qualitatively the distribution of the bending moment, shear force, and axial force in the CGMRF under lateral load. The shear and axial force in the beams are less significant to the response of the beams as compared with the bending moment, although they must be considered in design. The qualita- tive distribution of internal forces illustrated in Fig. 5 is fundamentally the same for both elastic and inelastic ranges of behavior. The specific values of the internal forces will change as elements of the frame yield and internal for- ces are redistributed. The basic patterns illustrated in Fig. 5, however, remain the same.Inelastic static pushover analysis was carried out by applying monotonically increasing lateral displacements, at the top of both columns, as shown in Fig. 6. After the four RBS have yielded simultaneously, a uniform yielding in the web and at the ends of the flanges of the vertical link will form. This is the yield mechanism for the frame , with plastic hinges also forming at the base of the columns if they are fixed. The base shear versus drift angle of the model is shown in Fig. 7 . The sequence of inelastic activity in the frame is shown on the figure. An elastic component, a long transition (consequence of the beam plastic hinges being formed simultaneously) and a narrow yield plateaucharacterize the pushover curve.The plastic rotation capacity, qp, is defined as the total plastic rotation beyond which the connection strength starts to degrade below 80% [7]. This definition is different from that outlined in Section 9 (Appendix S) of the AISC Seismic Provisions [8, 10]. Using Eq. (2) derived by Uang and Fan [7], an estimate of the RBS plastic rotation capacity was found to be 0.037 rad:Fyf was substituted for Ry?Fy [8], where Ry is used to account for the differ- ence between the nominal and the expected yield strengths (Grade 50 steel, Fy=345 MPa and Ry =1.1 are used).3. Experimental programThe experimental set-up for studying the behavior of a connection was based on Fig. 6(a). Using the plastic displacement dp, plastic rotation gp, and plastic story drift angle qp shown in the figure, from geometry, it follows that:And:in which d and g include the elastic components. Approximations as above are used for large inelastic beam deformations. The diagram in Fig. 6(a) suggest that a sub assemblage with displacements controlled in the manner shown in Fig. 6(b) can represent the inelastic behavior of a typical beam in a CGMRF.The test set-up shown in Fig. 8 was constructed to develop the mechanism shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b). The axial actuators were attached to three 2438 mm × 1219 mm ×1219 mm (8 ft × 4 ft × 4 ft) RC blocks. These blocks were tensioned to the laboratory floor by means of twenty-four 32 mm diameter dywidag rods. This arrangement permitted replacement of the specimen after each test.Therefore, the force applied by the axial actuator, P, can beresolved into two or thogonal components, Paxial and Plateral. Since the inclination angle of the axial actuator does not exceed , therefore Paxial is approximately equal to P [4]. However, the lateral 3.0 component, Plateral, causes an additional moment at the beam-to column joint. If the axial actuators compress the specimen, then the lateral components will be adding to the lateral actuator forces, while if the axial actuators pull the specimen, the Plateral will be an opposing force to the lateral actuators. When the axial actuators undergoaxial actuators undergo a lateral displacement _, they cause an additional moment at the beam-to-column joint (P-△effect). Therefore, the moment at the beam-to column joint is equal to: where H is the lateral forces, L is the arm, P is the axial force and _ is the lateral displacement.Four full-scale experiments of beam column connections were conducted.The member sizes and the results of tensile coupon tests are listed in Table 2All of the columns and beams were of A572 Grade 50 steel (Fy 344.5 MPa). The actual measured beam flange yield stress value was equal to 372 MPa (54 ksi), while the ultimate strength ranged from 502 MPa (72.8 ksi) to 543 MPa (78.7 ksi).Table 3 shows the values of the plastic moment for each specimen (based on measured tensile coupon data) at the full cross-section and at the reduced section at mid-length of the RBS cutout.The specimens were designated as specimen 1 through specimen 4. Test specimens details are shown in Fig. 9 through Fig. 12. The following features were utilized in the design of the beam–column connection:The use of RBS in beam flanges. A circular cutout was provided, as illustr- ated in Figs. 11 and 12. For all specimens, 30% of the beam flange width was removed. The cuts were made carefully, and then ground smooth in a direct- tion parallel to the beam flange to minimize notches.Use of a fully welded web connection. The connection between the beam web and the column flange was made with a complete joint penetration groove weld (CJP). All CJP welds were performed according to AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code Use of two side plates welded with CJP to exterior sides of top and bottom beam flan- ges, from the face of the column flange to the beginning of the RBS, as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The end of the side plate was smoothed to meet the beginning of the RBS. The side plates were welded with CJP with the column flanges. The side plate was added to increase the flexural capacity at the joint location, while the smooth transition was to reduce the stress raisers, which may initiate fractureTwo longitudinal stiffeners, 95 mm × 35 mm (3 3/4 in × 1 3/8 in), were welded with 12.7 mm (1/2 in) fillet weld at the middle height of the web as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The stiffeners were welded with CJP to column flanges.Removal of weld tabs at both the top and bottom beam flange groove welds. The weld tabs were removed to eliminate any potential notches introduced by the tabs or by weld discontinuities in the groove weld run out regionsUse of continuity plates with a thickness approximately equal to the beam flange thickness. One-inch thick continuity plates were used for all specimens.While the RBS is the most distinguishing feature of these test specimens, the longitudinal stiffener played an important role indelaying the formation of web local buckling and developing reliable connection4. Loading historySpecimens were tested by applying cycles of alternated load with tip displacement increments of _y as shown in Table 4. The tip displacement of the beam was imposed by servo-controlled actuators 3 and 4. When the axial force was to be applied, actuators 1 and 2 were activated such that its force simulates the shear force in the link to be transferred to the beam. 0.5_y. After The variable axial force was increased up to 2800 kN (630 kip) at that, this lo- ad was maintained constant through the maximum lateral displacement.maximum lateral displacement. As the specimen was pushed back the axialforce remained constant until 0.5 y and then started to decrease to zero as the specimen passed through the neutral position [4]. According to the upper bound for beam axial force as discussed in Section 2 of this paper, it was concluded that P =2800 kN (630 kip) is appropriate to investigate this case in RBS loading. The tests were continued until failure of the specimen, or until limitations of the test set-up were reached.5. Test resultsThe hysteretic response of each specimen is shown in Fig. 13 and Fig. 16. These plots show beam moment versus plastic rotation. The beam moment is measured at the middle of the RBS, and was computed by taking an equiva- lent beam-tip force multiplied by the distance between the centerline of the lateral actuator to the middle of the RBS (1792 mm for specimens 1 and 2, 3972 mm for specimens 3 and 4). The equivalent lateral force accounts for the additional moment due to P–△effect. Therotation angle was defined as the lateral displacement of the actuator divided by the length between the centerline of the lateral actuator to the mid length of the RBS. The plastic rotation was computed as follows [4]:where V is the shear force, Ke is the ratio of V/q in the elastic range. Measurements and observations made during the tests indicated that all of the plastic rotation in specimen 1 to specimen 4 was developed within the beam. The connection panel zone and the column remained elastic as intended by design.5.1. Specimens 1 and 2The responses of specimens 1 and 2 are shown in Fig. 13. Initial yielding occurred during cycles 7 and 8 at 1_y with yielding observed in the bottom flange. For all test specimens, initial yielding was observed at this location and attributed to the moment at the base of the specimen [4]. Progressing through the loading history, yielding started to propagate along the RBS bottom flange. During cycle 3.5_y initiation of web buckling was noted adjacent to the yielded bottom flange. Yielding started to propagate along the top flange of the RBS and some minor yielding along the middle stiffener. During the cycle of 5_y with the increased axial compression load to 3115 KN (700 kips) a severe web buckle developed along with flange local buckling. The flange and the web local buckling became more pronounced with each successive loading cycle. It should be noted here that the bottom flange and web local buckling was not accompanied by a significant deterioration in the hysteresis loops.A crack developed in specimen 1 bottom flange at the end of the RBS where it meets the side plate during the cycle 5.75_y. Upon progressing through the loading history, 7_y, the crackspread rapidly across the entire width of the bottom flange. Once the bottom flange was completely fractured, the web began to fracture. This fracture appeared to initiate at the end of the RBS，then propagated through the web net section of the shear tab, through the middle stiffener and the through the web net section on the other side of the stiffener. The maximum bending moment achieved on specimen 1 during theDuring the cycle 6.5 y, specimen 2 also showed a crack in the bottom flange at the end of the RBS where it meets the wing plate. Upon progressing thou- gh the loading history, 15 y, the crack spread slowly across the bottom flan- ge. Specimen 2 test was stopped at this point because the limitation of the test set-up was reached.The maximum force applied to specimens 1 and 2 was 890 kN (200 kip). The kink that is seen in the positive quadrant is due to the application of the varying axial tension force. The load-carrying capacity in this zone did not deteriorate as evidenced with the positive slope of the force–displacement curve. However, the load-carrying capacity deteriorated slightly in the neg- ative zone due to the web and the flange local buckling.Photographs of specimen 1 during the test are shown in Figs.14 and 15. Severe local buckling occurred in the bottom flange and portion of the web next to the bottom flange as shown in Fig. 14. The length of this buckle extended over the entire length of the RBS. Plastic hinges developed in the RBS with extensive yielding occurring in the beam flanges as well as the web. Fig. 15 shows the crack that initiated along the transition of the RBS to the side wing plate. Ultimate fracture of specimen 1 was caused by a fracture in the bottom flange. This fracture resulted in almost total loss of the beam- carrying capacity. Specimen 1 developed0.05 rad of plastic rotation and showed no sign of distress at the face of the column as shown in Fig. 15.5.2. Specimens 3 and 4The response of specimens 3 and 4 is shown in Fig. 16. Initial yielding occured during cycles 7 and 8 at 1_y with significant yielding observed in the bottom flange. Progressing through the loading history, yielding started to propagate along the bottom flange on the RBS. During cycle 1.5_y initiation of web buckling was noted adjacent to the yielded bottom flange. Yielding started to propagate along the top flange of the RBS and some minor yielding along the middle stiffener. During the cycle of 3.5_y a severe web buckle developed along with flange local buckling. The flange and the web local buckling bec- ame more pronounced with each successive loading cycle.During the cycle 4.5 y, the axial load was increased to 3115 KN (700 kips) causing yielding to propagate to middle transverse stiffener. Progressing through the loading history, the flange and the web local buckling became more severe. For both specimens, testing was stopped at this point due to limitations in the test set-up. No failures occurred in specimens 3 and 4. However, upon removing specimen 3 to outside the laboratory a hairline crack was observed at the CJP weld of the bottom flange to the column.The maximum forces applied to specimens 3 and 4 were 890 kN (200 kip) and 912 kN (205 kip). The load-carrying capacity deteriorated by 20% at the end of the tests for negative cycles due to the web and the flange local buckling. This gradual reduction started after about 0.015 to 0.02 rad of plastic rotation. The load-carrying capacity during positive cycles (axial tension applied in the girder) did not deteriorate as evidenced with the slope of the force–displacement envelope for specimen 3 shownin Fig. 17.A photograph of specimen 3 before testing is shown in Fig.18. Fig. 19 is aFig. 16. Hysteretic behavior of specimens 3 and 4 in terms of moment at middle RBS versus beam plastic rotation.photograph of specimen 4 taken after the application of 0.014 rad displacem- ent cycles, showing yielding and local buckling at the hinge region. The beam web yielded over its full depth. The most intense yielding was observed in the web bottom portion, between the bottom flange and the middle stiffener. The web top portion also showed yielding, although less severe than within the bottom portion. Yielding was observed in the longitudinal stiffener. No yiel- ding was observed in the web of the column in the joint panel zone. The un- reduced portion of the beam flanges near the face of the column did not show yielding either. The maximum displacement applied was 174 mm, and the maximum moment at the middle of the RBS was 1.51 times the plastic mom ent capacity of the beam. The plastic hinge rotation reached was about 0.032 rad (the hinge is located at a distance 0.54d from the column surface,where d is the depth of the beam).5.2.1. Strain distribution around connectionThe strain distribution across the flanges–outer surface of specimen 3 is shown in Figs. 20 and 21. The readings and the distributions of the strains in specimens 1, 2 and 4 (not presented) showed a similar trend. Also the seque- nce of yielding in these specimens is similar to specimen 3.The strain at 51 mm from the column in the top flange–outer surface remained below 0.2% during negative cycles. The top flange, at the same location, yielded in compression only Thelongitudinal strains along the centerline of the bottom–flange outer face are shown in Figs. 22 and 23 for positive and negative cycles, respectively. From Fig.23, it is found that the strain on the RBS becomes several times larg- er than that near the column after cycles at –1.5_y; this is responsible for theflange local buckling. Bottom flange local buckling occurred when the average strain in the plate reached the strain-hardening value (esh _ 0.018) and the reduced-beam portion of the plate was fully yielded under longitudinal stresses and permitted the development of a full buckled wave.5.2.2. Cumulative energy dissipatedThe cumulative energy dissipated by the specimens is shown in Fig. 24. The cumulative energy dissipated was calculated as the sum of the areas enclosed the lateral load–lateral displacement hysteresis loops. Energy dissipation sta- rted to increase after cycle 12 at 2.5 y (Fig. 19). At large drift levels, energy dissipation augments significantly with small changes in drift. Specimen 2 dissipated more energy than specimen 1, which fractured at RBS transition. However, for both specimens the trend is similar up to cycles at q =0.04 radIn general, the dissipated energy during negative cycles was1.55 times bigger than that for positive cycles in specimens 1 and2. For specimens 3 and 4 the dissipated energy during negative cycles was 120%, on the average, that of the positive cycles. The combined phenomena of yielding, strain hardening, in-plane and out- of-plane deformations, and local distortion all occurred soon after the bottom flange RBS yielded.6. ConclusionsBased on the observations made during the tests, and on the analysis of the instrumentation, the following conclusions weredeveloped:1. The plastic rotation exceeded the 3% radians in all test specimens.2. Plastification of RBS developed in a stable manner.3. The overstrength ratios for the flexural strength of the test specimens were equal to 1.56 for specimen 1 and 1.51 for specimen4. The flexural strength capacity was based on the nominal yield strength and on the FEMA-273 beam–column equation.4. The plastic local buckling of the bottom flange and the web was not accompanied by a significant deterioration in the load-carrying capacity.5. Although flange local buckling did not cause an immediate degradation of strength, it did induce web local buckling.6. The longitudinal stiffener added in the middle of the beam web assisted in transferring the axial forces and in delaying the formation of web local buckling. How ever, this has caused a much higher overstrength ratio, which had a significant impact on the capacity design of the welded joints, panel zone and the column.7. A gradual strength reduction occurred after 0.015 to 0.02 rad of plastic rotation during negative cycles. No strength degradation was observed during positive cycles.8. Compression axial load under 0.0325Py does not affect substantially the connection deformation capacity.9. CGMRFS with properly designed and detailed RBS connections is a reliable system to resist earthquakes.AcknowledgementsStructural Design Engineers, Inc. of San Francisco financially supported the experimental program. The tests were performedin the Large Scale Structures Laboratory of the University of Nevada, Reno. The participation of Elizabeth Ware, Adrianne Dietrich and of the technical staff is gratefully acknowledged.References受弯钢框架结点在变化轴向荷载和侧向位移的作用下的周期性行为摘要这篇论文讨论的是在变化的轴向荷载和侧向位移的作用下，接受测试的四种受弯钢结点的周期性行为。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土构造中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，伴随国民经济旳迅速、持久发展，多种钢筋混凝土建筑构造大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大旳发展。
高层建筑中英文对照外文翻译文献
高层建筑中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献英文原文Components of A Building and Tall Buildings1. AbstractMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.2. Load-Carrying FrameUntil the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. Thisconstruction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Buildi ng built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curta in walls were used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After thewar, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using thewalls of the building as a tube；the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.3. SkinThe skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction；it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard.4. FloorsThe construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks areoften used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.5. Mechanical and Electrical SystemsA modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of building by frankly expressing them；for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.6. Soils and FoundationsAll building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation dependson many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition；they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic properties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building；that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects—the building maylean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Wherefirm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa,have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may causeserious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.中文译文建筑及高层建筑的组成1 摘要材料和结构类型是构成建筑物各方面的组成部分，这些部分包括承重结构、围护结构、楼地面和隔墙。
建筑英文作文和翻译
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毕业论文外文文献翻译-高层建筑
外文翻译题目：高层建筑学院土木建筑工程学院专业土木工程（建筑工程方向）班级学号姓名指导教师Tall BuildingsAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for bothstrength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York.Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story building.Fig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frame. Curves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf = 0. 048kPa.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft (442 m), is the world's tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete Building in Houston)for structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52—story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wallSystems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore，Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing，thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems．The 52—story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1．spectacular 壮观的，惊人的，引人注意的2．sway 摇动，摇摆，歪，使倾斜3．residential 居住的，住宅的，作住家用的4．commercial 商业的，商业上的，商务的5．innovation 革新，创新，新方法，新事物6．boundary 分界线，边界7．eliminate 排除，消除，除去8．apartment 公寓住宅，单元住宅9．column 柱，支柱，圆柱，柱状物10．demonstrate 示范，证明，演示，11．project 凸出，投射，计划，工程12．stress 应力，压力13．truss 构架，桁架14．bundle 捆，束，包15．terminate 使终止，使结尾，结束16．facade (房屋的)／E面，立面，表面17．perimeter 周，周围，周界，周长18．encroach 侵犯，侵占，蚕食19．high·rise building 高层建筑20．reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21．spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22．shear wall 剪力墙高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。
建筑学Modern-Architecture现代建筑大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：现代建筑文献、资料英文题目：Modern Architecture文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：《Advanced Encryption Standard》文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2004.10.25外文文献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中文译文：现代建筑现代建筑,不被混淆与'当代建筑' , 是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点, 主要的简化形式,消除装饰等. 虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并大量造就了一些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品,很少有现代的建筑物,建于20世纪上半叶. 第二次大战后的三十年, 但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问题, 息息相关的工程中的现代性,从而影响了启蒙运动,导致社会和政治革命.另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展, 那就是获得新的建筑材料,如钢铁, 混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术,它作为工业革命的一部分. 1796年, shrewsbury查尔斯bage首先用他的'火'的设计, 后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板. 这些建设大大加强了结构,使它们能够容纳更大的机器. 由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,一些早期建筑失败. 直到1830年初,伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁, 导致广泛使用钢架建设，工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌,英国北部领导的描述, "黑暗魔鬼作坊"的地方如曼彻斯特和西约克郡. 水晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重大展览, 1851年,是一个早期的例子,钢铁及玻璃施工; 可能是一个最好的例子,就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼. 早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的建筑表达(而非纯粹功利结构) ,包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近,劳埃德赖特的统一宫, 建于1926年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂,.但无论原因为何, 约有1900多位建筑师,在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法,将传统的先例(比如哥特式)与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔,安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那, 奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳,其中之一可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要人物,在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声. 三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国, 密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国. 密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董事的包豪斯, 其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术.赖特的建筑生涯中,也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们. 赖特与格罗皮乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览,艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势, 内容相似,有一个共同的目的,巩固了他们融入国际化风格这是一个重要的转折点. 在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国,芝加哥，到哈佛大学设计黑山书院. 当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑, 是学校(专业领导)的唯一可接受的, 设计解决方案,从约1932年至约1984年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。
高层建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structural Systems to resist lateral loadsmonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Tube-in-tube structures.6.Core-interactive structures.7.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.2.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriatecomputer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.3.Braced FramesThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.4.Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally (but not always) concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economicalthan steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The sys tem has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.5.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations,as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.6.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the flanges of the framed tube). In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced (i.e, shear-stiff) tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed (i.e, shear-flexible) tube.7.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systemspassing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft (28.6m) wide, 196ft(59.7m) long, and 601ft (183.3m)high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m) by 40 ft (12.2m), centered 90 ft (27.4m)apart in the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the longdirection.4. A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for thecenter50ft (15.2m) of each of the long sides.6. A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7. A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, becausethe shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.8.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft (3.66m) floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi (138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15 (12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in (1.9mm) per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in. (94mm) less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.抗侧向荷载的结构体系1.常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。
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外文原文出处:
C: , 2009, , 147-149
动力性能对建筑物的破坏
引言：建筑物在地震的作用下，和一些薄弱的建筑结构中，动力学性能扮演了一个很重要的角色。
特别是要满足最基本的震动周期，无论是在设计的新建筑，或者是评估已经有的建筑，使他们可以了解地震的影响。
许多标准(例如：欧标，2003；欧标，2006)，建议用简单的表达式来表达一个建筑物的高度和他的基本周期。
这样的表达式被牢记在心，得出标定设计(高尔和乔谱拉人，1997)，从而人为的低估了标准周期。
因为这个原因，他们通常提供比较低的设计标准当与那些把设计基础标准牢记在心的人(例：乔普拉本和高尔，2000)。
当后者从已进行仔细建立的数字模型中得到数值(例：克劳利普和皮诺，2004；普里斯特利权威，2007)。
当数字估计与周围震动测量的实验结果相比较，有大的差异，提供非常低的周期标准(例：纳瓦洛苏达权威，2004)。
一个概述不同的方式比较确切的结果刊登在马西和马里奥(2008)；另外，一个高级的表达式来指定更有说服力的坚固建筑类型，提出了更加准确的结构参数表(建筑高度，开裂，空隙填实，等等)。
联系基础和上层建筑的震动周期可能发生共振的效果。
这个原因对于他们的振动，可能建筑物和土地在非线性运动下受到到破坏，这个必须被重视。
通常，结构工程师和岩土工程师有不同的观点在共振作用和一些变化的地震活动。
结构工程师们认为尽管建筑物和土壤的自振周期和地震周期都非常的接近。
但对于建筑物周期而言，到底是因为结构还是非结构造成的破坏提出了疑问。
如果加大振动，建筑物减轻自身的重量对共振产生的破坏有很大的减轻效果。
岩土工程的工程师们还没有完全同意这个观点，因为土壤可以提高自身的振动周期，与建筑物有相同的振动周期，从而建立了产生共振的条件。
这个问题的处理在于这个增加量到底是多少？一般来说这种答案是不可能的，因为它取决于建筑类型和土壤类型。
例如，一些普通的混凝土建筑物，对这建筑物增加一个非常大的震动周期，可以知道在平常的振动下就会迅速的遭到破坏，尤其是那些砌体建筑，比如，马雪凯利建筑(2004)和克劳福建筑(2006)。
最后，估计在改装或者加固后参数表数字的变化，通过计算机计算来改变标准的振动周期，阻尼因数和振动波形。
这可以是一个非常好的评估工具对于存在的一些干扰(法拉斯等，2008)。
这种效果也可以作为一种诊断工具，对周围的振动测量很有帮助(布丁和汉斯，2008)。
对以上问题的进一步研究，强烈要求建立更加宽广的原地实验或者是实验室实验，得出实验结果来估算。
用一个经济实用的方式，来营造动态特性。
C: , 2009, , 147-149
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