国际经济与贸易专业外文翻译--中国对外贸易模式研究
国际经济与贸易专业外文翻译--中国对外贸易模式研究
国际经济与贸易专业外文翻译中国对外贸易模式研究外文原文Analysis on the model o f Chinese foreign tradeThis p aper clarified contact actual implementation in China shall actively future import substitution and export-oriented strategy model combining the compound in view,and expounds the select and implement the strategic mode of economic exhibition should consider the problem.A country's foreign economic development strategy mode can be summarized as import substitution and export-oriented two basic modes of population,th e market in China,its large capacity development space,bu t also vast exist,and per capita under developed productivity development and utilization of natural resources are limited and economic efficiency,low enough and limited capital accumulation restraints.This kind of situation determines that China cannot implement single import-substituted strategy,also cannot implement single export-oriented strategy should be implemented,and import substitution and export-oriented combination of complex strategy,can we mak e full use of and development of domestic and foreign two resources and markets,t o better achieve strategic balance and China's economic development goals.1.Implementation o f import substitution and export-orientedstrategy model combining with China1.1In China since last century the development situation o f ppBy the middle of the last century,in a single planned economic system restriction and the influence of political and economic environment at home and abroad,China's foreign economic development strategy,with a single plan experience associated economic system closing economic development strategy mode namely single import-substituted strategy mode.In this economy under the guidance of the strategic thought,from the1950s t o the late 1970s,after20years of construction and development,our preliminary realized industrialization,creating a mor e complete suitable for China's national conditions of industrial system,and have achieved some results.However,implementing a single import substitution didn't achieve desired success.When our country is economically backward agricultural country,the construction funds shortage,industrial technology is low,national low per capita income,residents purchasing power and consumption level is very low,this kind of situation has determined t he domestic market at the limited space in China.Therefore, in the implementation of import substitution strategy,development in the process of import substitution industry difficulties and of all obstacles.Meanwhile,the industrial system in China in countries under the highly pr otected is established and developed,enterprise mainly rely on increase production inputs t o expand the scale of production,t o realize the economic growth,its economic infrastructure,technology strength rather weak,the industrial equipment dated,enterprise's lack of market ideas,a lack of market awareness,consumption,high cost of enterprise and economic high quality and economic benefit is low,the international market competition ability and export disabilities,this kind of situation is serious impact on the alternative levels of improving,and restricted the development of import and export trade in China.First incompetence,and export export ability inadequacy and influenced directly restricts the import,introduce adv anced technology from abroad,and the end result is the proportion of China in international trade from the19531.5%dropped to1977o.6%.And in the s ame period,Japan and other emer ging east Asian economies bu t borrowing and seize this period world economic prosperity and international trade development will bring gr eat opportunity,implement export-oriented strategy,mak e full use of the international market andits resources,and actively develop export-oriented economy,the development of its economy, its much to raise the economic strength.Unfortunately,our country missed the chance to develop export-oriented economy.1.2Since China's reform and opening trade developmentIn1979China began to gradually implement opening,economic reform policy.S tarted from a single planned economy into planned economy to market economy,combining economic system then to1992established a system of socialist market economy.China's economic development strategy is also associated with the reform of the economic structure and g e t innovation,in the implementation of import substitution strategy is introduced, meanwhile,export orientation strategy,began t o develop export-oriented economy and achieved considerable development.Our country is a developing country,industrialization development process is in the intermediate stage,according t o the international development of the general rule of industrialized countries,a period of our country should implement Jackie import substitution and export orientation and development strategy,this is actually "composite"industrialization development strategy.According t o the international division of labor theory,a comparative adv antage in our country should be within the industry,such as labor-intensive industries thr ough foreign absorbing funds,technology,project,talent and so on a series of can in a relatively short period of time effectively improve our country industrialization level,improve our pr oduct international market competition ability of the measur es and formulate actively encourage export foreign trade policy,encourage and mak e efforts to expand the product export.However,in the international market competition developed countries in manipulation and control status,developing countries at a no t equal status,developing country exports primary pr oducts imported products for export trading prices of primary products,developing countries disadvantage.Therefore,our country should in product,price,cost of a comparative adv antage n o t capital intensive industries and tech-intensive industry field,continue t o implement the strategy of import substitution to set up,consolidate,the development of domestic industrial base,perfect our country's industrial development system.2.Import substitution and combination of export-orientedstrategy is necessary2.1China international and domestic market2.1.1China trade dev elopment prospectsFor our country,our domestic market for development space,although economic volume is broad,only accounted for25%of the Japanese,American12%.But China's economic growth rate faster growth rate of7%-every year,mo r e than9%,far higher than the3%t o4% in developed countries.The national economy growth,determines the rapid growth of the national income,the rapid growth of the national income personal income increase makes residents,thereby improving the residents purchasing power and consumption levels,it exp anded the total social needs.Then,if the single export-oriented strategy,mainly rely on imported from abr o ad commodity t o meet the need of domestic market consumption market, obviously doesn't work,is also unable t o realize.Can predict,in our country's huge population b ase in front,the future of social purchasing power and a gg r ega te demand will continue t o improve,new consumer market will k eep formation and appear.The expansion of domestic market this market and the growth of total,is not only the market"quantity"of simple expansion,and the market's"mass''get promoted continuously.From this point,China's domestic market in the future for quite a long time,it is quite wide development space for the enterprise,it will be a huge market opportunities,it is import substitution industrial development o pe n s up a br o ad prospect and space.Therefore,our country industrialization development direction,and its overall goal should be facing domestic market,its pr oduct market objectives should be also the domestic market of the consumers.That is,thr ough meet domestic market demand,from domestic market to promote economic development. Therefore,impossible t o China's economy as a whole and all industrial areas have included the export-oriented orbit.2.1.2China's import and export orientedOf course,we cannot therefore refute export-oriented,if n ot export orientation,do no t expand export,import substitution industry also could n ot succeed.In the development of import substitution of economy at the sa me time,should because when,in parts of the situation,part industry,part of the enterprise the export orientation strategy,establish the export-oriented economy.In order t o mak e full use of the international economic conditionsobtained thr ough the development of export,import adv anced technology and foreign equipment,production replace imported products supply domestic market,economic globalization and regional economic integration has become the tr end of the economic development,if we pu t too much emphasis on the domestic market and ignore the huge international market is untimely;Similarly,if pu t too much emphasis on the international market and ignore the domestic market on economic growth role is one-sided.W e should mak e full use of both domestic and overseas market to provide power for sustained economic growth,which is implemented to China's national conditions,namely,the economic development strategy,import substitution and export orientation and development strategy, essence is a"composite''industrialization development strategy.3.Economic development strategy model selection anddetermined3.1Should be taken into account in the domestic and international economic and political environment impactFor a nation t o choose economic development strategy,establish economic development model,we should consider international economic and political environment,domestic social economic system and national economic development foundation and development goals of influence and restriction role.Must a country period of economic development strategy, economic development pattern should a d a pt and obey the period of international economic and political environment,domestic social economic system and the development of domestic economy b a s e d and development objectives,and with the international economic and political environment,domestic social economic system and the development of domestic economy foundation and development goals change constantly adjusted by due to the above,avoid the development of influence and restriction factor to changes in the economic and strategic decision making mistakes.International economic and political environment contains the international political environment and change period,international security environment and change,the international economic relations and its development trend,the international market dynamic and change tr end and international economic relations theory and theories of the emergence,development,innovation and its role and influence.International economicand political environment is to develop export-oriented mode have t o first consider the question,of course,international economic and political environment on import substitution industrialization is also a major influence.For the domestic social and economic system,main is t o focus on this period of national economic system pr esent situation and future trends and possible targets and related measur es and policiesAnd regulations,etc.Domestic economic development foundation or refers to a country, including this situation of resource endowment,economic development at the stage and level, the domestic market pr oduct supply and demand relation and changes,economic structure and industrial technology present situation and u pg ra de of economic development tendency,and strategic goals and positioning,etc.Comprehensive national conditions,China's economic system,the international environment and the internal factors of economic and strategic consideration,the implementation of import substitution and export-oriented combination of economic development strategy will be long-term choice of science,and in the process of continuously according t o information feedback,promptly t o economic development strategy and the corresponding economic model appropriate adjustments,innovation,taking the strain of the new situation hair and requirements.3.2The applicable conditions strategic mode t o implement step, multilayered composite strategyFor this problem,should be taken into account in import substitution type and export-led strategic adv antage and applicable environment and conditions,and two strategic mutual stimulative effect.Generally speaking,should no t a comparative adv antage in the capital tech-intensive industry,continue t o import substitution competency of strategy.Because our country is still mo r e weak industrial base,and economic development,industrial development imbalance in foundation is bad,the industry in the field of production the durable alternative consumer products is necessary,shall continue in the durable consumer goods industries in implementing import substitution,achieved certain industrial scale and industrial level,its import substitution fields namely exp anded to the consumer durables industry and basic industries and development t o export-oriented industries.And in industry developing fast, technical level is higher,and even reached the international advanced level of industrial areasshould implement durable consumer goods,and to replace export-driven economic development.Meanwhile,a comparative adv antage in China within the labor-intensive industries in introducing foreign capital,continued thr ough a series of measur es to increase competitiveness,adopt of export encouraged policies implementation export-led strategy.3.3The government should take the necessary compound protection policy and incentivesImplement complex strategic pattern,the government should take the necessary compound protection policy and incentives.As to the import substitution industry cultivation and the protection and pr omotion of the industrial level,export orientation industry support and encourage and promote the original import substitution industry upgrading and translated into export-oriented industries.Practice has proved,import substitution and export-oriented model smoothly with whether the implementation of its success,all need consistent with the condition,need corresponding policy me ans and tools,and forming a corresponding mechanism and play a role.Meanwhile,the hybrid strategy model selection and implementation should also be considered,fully mobilize the enthusiasm of different market subjects,coordinating all social economic subject,in all sectors of the economy and regional balance development,and continuing t o inject new vitality into the economic development and power,mak e development,the innovation to become the aware behavior,mak e enterprises from different social economic subject parties bits,all levels play its internal power and vigor,form complex economic model effect.3.4Should export orientation and comprehensive evaluation o f import-substituted strategy modeFor import substitution and export-oriented strategy pattern appraisal,should combine two strategic mode the essential contents of the structure and the development conditions and environmental analysis scientific conclusions could be drawn.The s a me countries in different stages of development of implementing import-substituted strategy or export-oriented strategy in the allocation of resources when different emphasis.Import-substituted strategy emphasize development and use of domestic market resources,export orientation strategy emphasized incomparative advantage,emphasize the international division of labor,develop and utilize international market resources.These two ideas respectively expounds import-substituted strategy and export-oriented strategy thinking of the meaning,bu t he d o es no t throw import-substituted strategy or export-oriented strategy p aper tries to know,combined, evaluation and utilization,no comprehensive analysis of their interaction and mutual influence and consequences,because appear n o t too full.Only pu t import-substituted strategy and export-oriented strategy development strategic comprehensive up comprehensive analysis,by comparing t o clear their respective advantages,suitable condition and selection weaknesses and negative effect,can achieve in the implementation developing its long,avoid its short,realize two strategy model of complementary and alternative,accomplished already fully develop domestic market,and develop international market;Ma de full use of domestic resources,and mak e full use of international resources.中文译文中国对外贸易模式研究本文联系实际阐明我国今后应积极实施进口替代和出口导向相结合的复合型战略模式的观点，并阐述了在选择和实施经济展战略模式时应考虑的问题。
国际经济与贸易外文翻译外文文献英文文献.docx
国际经济与贸易外文翻译外文文献英文文献.docx外文文献翻译The effects of subjective norms on behaviour in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysisMark Manning*University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USAA meta-analysis investigated the effects of perceived injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms on behaviour (BEH) within the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in a sample of 196 studies. Two related correlation matrices (pairwise and listwise) were synthesized from the data and used to model the TPB relations with path analyses.Convergent evidence indicated that the relation between DN and BEH was stronger than the relation between IN and BEH. Evidence also suggested a significant direct relation between DN and BEH in the context of TPB. A suppressor effect of IN on DN in its relation with BEH was also noted? Moderator analyses indicated that the DN-BEH relation was stronger when there was more time between measures of cognition and behaviour, when behaviours were not socially approved, more socially motive and more pleasant: results were mixed in the case of the IN-BEH relation. Results imply that IN and DN are conceptually different constructs?As social beings, normative pressure inevitably affects our behaviour?Social nonns influence the way we dress, how we vote, what we buy, and a host of other behavioural decisions.Social psychologists have been exploring the influence of social norms on behaviour for decades? From AschM and Milgram s conformity- experiments (Asch, 19S6;Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz, 1969) through recent work by Cialdini andcolleagues(Cialdini, Reno. & Kallgren, 1990; Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1993), a substantial body of evidence has demonstrated that people conform to the judgments and behaviours of others.In experiments conducted by Cialdini and his colleagues (Cialdini et al., 1990; Reno et al., 1993), participants inferred behavioural norms for littering from environmental cues and acted in accord with these norms. The results highlight the fact that perceptions of norms, ratber than actual norms, can affect behaviour? Tlie relation between perceived norms and behaviour has receivedmuch empirical support (Borsari & Carey, 2003; Campo, Brossard. Fnizer. Marchell, Lewis, & Talbot, 2003; Gomberg, Schneider, & Dejong, 2(K)I; Grube, Morgan, & MeGree, 1986; Okun, Karoly, & Lutz,2002; Riniai & Real. 2005). However, one ofthc most influential models for predicting behaviour, the thcor>*of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzcn, 1991), posits that rather than a direct relation between norm and behaviour, perceived nortns influence behaviour indirectly by way of behavioural intentions. Investigating the perceived norm-behaviour relation in tlic context of this theory offers insight not only into the strength of the relation, but also into the extent to which perceived norms may directly influence behaviour counter to theoretical expectations.The present study used mcta-analytic path analyses to examine, the relation between two types of perceived norms (injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms; described below) and behaviour in the context of the TPB (Ajzcn. 1991). The investigation explored the direct effects of IN and DN on behaviour as well as factors that may moderate the effect of subjective norms (SN) on behaviour?The theory of planned behaviourAccording to the TPB, the immediate antecedent of behaviour is the intention to pertbrm the behaviour (Figure 1). This behavioural intention is in turn a function of three major determinants: attitude towards the behaviour, perceived SN pertaining to the behaviour, and perceived degree of control over engaging in and ctJmpleting the behaviour (perceived behavioural control).The formation of attitudes (ATT), SN and perceived behavioural control (PBC) are respectively functions of behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs that a person holds with regards to the behaviour? Concerning ATT, the set of accessible beliefs that a person holds about the outcome of a behaviour will determine the evaluation of the behaviour, and thus influence the strength and direction of the ATT towards the behaviour.SN are a function of the normative beliefs that people relevant to the individual are perceived as having towards tbe behaviour coupled with the motivation of the individual to comply with the expected notins of these relevant persons? PBC is a function of the perceived factors that will influence the ability to engage in the behaviour coupled with the perception as to whether or not these factors will be present.In short, the TPB holds that favourable ATT, SN. And perceptions of control will lead to favourable intentions to engage in a given behaviour. Actual control over engaging in the behaviouris itself an important determinant? To the extent that individuals realistically appraise the amount of control that they have over the behaviour, the measure of PBC; can serve as a proxy for actual control. Perceived control is expected to have amoderating effect such that intentions will be reflected in actual behaviour to the extent that perceived control is high.The TPB has been applied successfully to a wide range of behaviours accounting for a sizable amount of variance (Armitage & Ckmner, 2001: Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt,2003; Hardeman. Johnston. Johnston, Bonetti, Wareham, & Kinmonth. 2002; Povey.Wellens, & Conner, 2001; Rise. Thompson. & Verplanken, 2003). Regarding the SN construct, the theory holds that the effect of SN on behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions? In other words, SN are not expected to have a direct effect (DE)on behaviour but instead influetice behaviours indirectly through their effect on intentions.Descriptive and injunctive normsTwo types of SN can be distinguished. IN are social pressures to engage in a behaviour based on the perception of what other people want you to do whereas DN are social pressures based on the observed or inferred behaviour of others? Tliis distinction has been empirically supported (Cialdini et al .,1990; Deutsch & Gerard.1955; Grube et al., 1986; Larimer & Neighbours, 2005; Larimer. Turner, Mallett. & Geisner, 2004; Reno et al.,1993; Rhodes & Courneya, 2003; White, Terry, & Hogg, 1994). Within the TPB, the SN construct was originally conceptualized as an injunctive norm (Ajzen, 1991). More recently, however, Ajzen and Fishbein (200S) have recommended including both types of normative measures in constructing planned behaviour stirveys? DN and IN will therefore be considered separately in the analyses to follow. Subjective norms-behaviour relationIn reviewing the SN construct in the planned behaviour context, Conner and Armitage(1998) have noted the lack of predictive power of the IN construct when predicting intention.Due to the paucity- of studies including DN in the planned behaviour context,conclusions regarding DN in this context are sparser. Recently, several investigators have included DN as predictors of intentions in the planned behaviour model (PBM;Fekadu &Kraft, 2002; MCiMUlan & Conner, 2(K)3; Okun et al.. 2002: Sheeran & Orbell, 1999b). Rivis and Sbeeran (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of DN in the planned behaviour context. Their analysis, based on 18 studies, demonstrated a significant relationship between DN and intention when controlling for otlier variables in the TPB.In that, these previous studies have investigated theeffects of SN on intentions, to date,no planned behaviour mcta-ana lysis has explored the potential for differences in the effects of SN on behaviour in the planned behaviour context.Deutsch and Gerard (1955) have suggested that DN and IN refer to different sources of motivation. Regarding DN, it has been shown that perceptions of behaviours of others lead one to behave in similar manners (Asch, 1956;Milgram et al., 1969). Descriptive normative information functions as a heuristic with regards to behavioural decisions offering cues as to what is appropriate behaviour iii a given situation (Cialdini et al., 1990; van Knippenberg, 2000). IN on the other iiand operate more through the role of motivation to comply with social sanctions (Ajzen, 1991;Lapinski & Rimal, 2005). To the extent that individuals are motivated to comply with perceived behavioural expectations of relevant referents, they avoid social sanctions?Though several studies have looked at the effect of one or botli types of norms on particular behaviours, there has yet to be a single meta-analytical review that compares the relationshipbetween the two types of norms and behaviours across a spectrum of behaviours. Consequently, on a general level it is unknown whether one type of norm has a stronger effect on behaviour than the other it may be hypothesized that DN have a stronger effect on behaviour than IN because DN are activated in the immediate behavioural situation. Furthermore, processing of DN for behavioural decisions may require less cognitive effort relative to the processing of IN, in that DN may rely more on heuristic than systematic informatioprocessing?Perhaps, this advantage contributes to efficient behavioural decision?making in line with descriptive normative information. In fact, researchers have shown that conditions that facilitate the use of heuristic information-processing lead participants to act more in line with DN (Hertel, Neuhof, Theucr, & Kerr, 2000). It is expected therefore, that DN will have a stronger effect on behaviour relative to IN.Direct effect ofSN on behaviourThe TPB posits that the relationship between SN and behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973)? However, a number of planned behaviour studies that have included normative constructs as a behavioural predictor have found direct effects of SN on behaviour (Christian & Abrams, 2004 -Study 2; Christian & Arm 让age, 2002; Christian, Armitage, & Abrams, 2003; Okun et al.,2002; Trafimow & Finlay, 2001). In most research with the TPB, the effect of the normative component on intentions has received most attention (Armitage & Conner,2001; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003) while the potential for a DE of SN onbehaviour has received little empirical or meta-analytical scrutiny.One reason to explore, the potential for a DE may be the hypothetical nature under which most people report cognitionspertaining to behaviour in planned behaviour studies? Hypothetical contexts may not accurately reflect the relations between cognitions and behaviours that are evident in real behavioural contexts (Ajzen, Brown, & Carvajal, 2004). Furthermore, when an individual reports an intention to engage in a particular behaviour in one instance, that behavioural intention may be subject to change from the instance it is formed to the moment when an opportunity for behavioural engagement arises (Ajzen, 1991).For example, in the classic linn (1965) study, hotel managers expressed little intent to allow Chinese couples to stay in their hotels, however allowed them to do so when the instance arose? It is less likely that perceptions of norms related to the behaviour will change over time. Consequently, there is the potential for reported normative perceptions to have stronger relations with behaviour compared with relations between reported behavioural intentions and behaviour. This may be reflected in the presence of a DE of SN on the particular behaviour. The present meta-analjtical synthesis provides the opportunity* to gauge the potential for a direct relation between SN and behaviour in the context of the TPB.Variation in the magnitude of the SN^ehaviour relationship The possibility of a DE of SN on behaviour within the TPB implies that there are two ways in which SN can affect behaviour. There can be the theoretically posited indirect effect on behaviour mediated through intentions, and there may be a DE on behaviour. The total effect therefore is the sum of these two effects? In accord with the prediction that DN have a stronger relation with behaviours compared to the IN-behaviour relation, it is expected that the total effect of DN on behaviour is greater than the total effect of IN on behaviour. In addition to predicteddifferences between DN and IN in their effects on behaviour, there is the potential for differences in the magnitude of the effect within each type of norm. Compatibility* between measures of cognition and behaviour and the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour are expected to lead to differences in the magnitudes of the effects of SN on behaviour. Additionally, the potential moderating effect of three further variables will be explored;the level of social approval of the behaviour, the extent to which social motives underlie behaviour, and the extent to which a behaviour is uselial versus pleasant may all contribute to variance in the relationship between norms and behaviour.CompatibilityElements of a particular behaviour can be defined in terms of the behavioural target, the action involved in the behaviour, the context in which the behaviour is performed, and the time at wliich it is performed. The relationship between cognitive predictors of a particular behaviour and engagement in the behaviour will be stronger if behavioural elements and cognitive assessment of the behaviour are compatible (Ajzen, 1996; Ajzen & Fishbein. 1977). That is to say., for instance, that if an investigator would tike to pretlict someone's propensity* to exercise 3 days a week for half an hour, measures should assess cognitions regarding exercising 3 days a week for half an hour rather than cognitions to be healthy, or some other general cognition regarding exercise?Tenned the ”principle of compatibility0, it holds that measurements of planned behaviour variables must be compatible with the target behaviour in terms of target, action, context, and time. Given the effect of compatibility and the magnitude of the correlations betweenplanned behaviour variables and behavioural measures, it is expected that studies where the cognitive and behavioural measures are fully compatible will feature stronger relations between SN and behaviour. It is also expected that among studies where measures are more compatible, the intention mediated relation between SN and behaviour will be stronger than any unmediated relation, in line with theoretical dictates, whereas among studies that are less compatible there will potentially be greater direct effects of SN on behaviour.Time interval between measures of SN and behaviourAccording to Ajzen ( 1991 ). cognitive precursors of behaviour that are measured closer to the target behaviour should be more predictive of behavioural engagement. Due to motivational considerations, measures of the intention to engage in a particular behaviour will vary as a function of proximity to behavioural engagement (Bandura & Schunk. 1981; Kamiol & Ross, 1996; Steel & Konig, 2006) in that tlie ftirther in the future is the potential behavioural engagement, the less predictive are intentions to engage in this behaviour. As Ibe relation between stated intentions and actual behaviour decreases over time, the potential exists for SN to be relatively more predictive of behaviour. This potential is evident in light of the argument outlined above wherein SN pertaining to a behaviour are less likely to change over time compared to behavioural intentions. As such, it is expected that as the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour increases, SN will be reflected to a greater extent in actual behaviour.Furthermore, as the relation between intentions and behaviour diminishes, it is likely that the DE of SN on behaviour will be stronger as more time passes between measures of cognition and behaviour.。
国贸毕业外文文献及其翻译
China’s Competitive Performance: A Threat To East Asian Manufactured Exports?There is growing concern in Southeast and East Asia about the competitive threat posed by China’s burgeoning exports, exacerbated by its accession to the WTO. The threat is not confined to labor-intensive products but spans the whole technological and skill range. At the same time, China is rapidly raising its imports from the region, and it is not clear whether its burgeoning exports will damage its neighbors. We examine the dime nsions of China’s competitive threat in the 1990s, benchmarking competitive performance by technology and market, and finds that market share losses are so far mainly in low technology products, with Japan being the most vulnerable market. We analyze market share changes and highlight product groups that are directly or indirectly exposed to a competitive threat. We examine intra-regional trade and find that China and its neighbors are raising high technology exports in tandem: the nature of the international production systems involved lead to complementarily rather than confrontation. China is thus acting as an engine of export growth for its neighbors in terms of direct trade. However, this will change as China moves up the value chain and takes on the activities that have driven East Asian export growth.IntroductionConcern about China’s competitive threat is widespread (in developed economies like US as well as developing ones like Mexico), but is strongest in East and Southeast Asia. China’s burgeoning exports–backed by cheap and productive labor, a large stock of technical manpower, huge and diversified industrial sector, attractiveness to foreign investors, pragmatic use of industrial policy, and, now, freer access to world markets under WTO – lead to apocalyptic visions of export losses.2 China is most threatening to neighbors that rely primarily on low wages for their export advantage. However, as it upgrades its export structure, the more advanced economies (Singapore, Hong Kong, Korea and Taiwan) also fear for their competitiveness. The current hollowing out of their low-end manufacturing may soon extend to complex production, design, development and related services. Domestic markets are also threatened by China, but so far most attention seems to have been on exports.Offsetting this threat are the promise of the giant Chinese market (WTOaccession is only one of several initiatives to liberalize regional trade) and the potential for collaboration with it in exporting to the rest of the world. Trade within the East Asian region is flourishing. China is a growing importer from the region of natural resources that it does not possess. It is also raisin g imports of manufactured products. Its advanced neighbors are selling it sophisticated consumer and producer goods, and using it as a base for processing exports to third countries. The multinational companies (MNCs) that now account for around half of Chinese exports (and far more of its high technology exports, UNCTAD,2002) are incorporating China into production systems spanning the region (‘fragmentation’ and‘segmentation’ are used to describe this phenomenon3), so promoting considerable intra-firm trade with other regional bases. China’s own enterprises are likely to specialize with respect to reg ional counterparts and so raise intra-industry trade in differentiated products. Perhaps worryingly for competitors in other regions, such integration can lead China to complement regional competitiveness as a whole, rather than substitute its exports for those of its neighbors.It is difficult to assess, however, whether complementarily between China and the regional economies will fully offset its competitive threat. The dynamics and complexity of the interactions make it impossible to quantify the outcome, even to predict broad directions. The basic issue is whether China’s higher wage neighbors can move into more advanced export activities or functions rapidly enough to permit continued export expansion. If they can, they can continue with export-led growth. If they cannot, they will suffer export deceleration and/or a shift in specialization towards primary products or slow-growing segments of manufactured exports. The outcome, in other words, will depend on the relative growth of technological and other capabilities in Chinese and regional enterprises, with the former having such advantages as lower wages, larger scale economies, greater industrial depth, pools of technical skill and a proactive government. However, as East Asian countries differ widely in these factors (Lall, 2001), they face different kinds and intensity of competitive threat. The nature of the threat depends, moreover, on the organization of the production and marketing system: independent local firms are likely to compete more directl y than affiliates of thesame MNC spread over different countries in an integrated system.This paper does not try to measure China’s competitive threat or its effects, but to map relative export performance in the 1990s by technology and destination and so assess where the threat appears most intense. We focus on major East Asian exporters5 and on exports to third markets, but we also analyses complementarities between China and East Asia, particularly in electronics, the region’s largest export and the one where MNC systems dominate. As the 1990s predate China’s WTO accession, we do not go into the implications of this accession; however, the analysis of competitive trends has implications for the evolution of future trade by the region as liberalization grows.Background on Chinese export performanceChinese manufactured exports grew by 16.9% per annum over 1990-2000, compared to 6.4% for the world, 12.0% for all developing countries and 10.3% for the rest of East Asia. Its share of world manufactured exports rose from 1.7% to 4.4% over the decade and continued rising rapidly. 6 Thus, by 2002 China accounted for 5.1% of world merchandise exports; it was then the fifth largest exporter (after USA, Germany, Japan and France, and ahead of the UK). China’s share of developing world manufactured exports rose from 11% to 20% over the 1990s and of the East Asian region excluding China from 18.7% to 41.8%. Its export gains (see below) spanned the entire technological spectrum, and were most dynamic in the complex end of the range, in products that have recently driven the export growth of the rest of East Asia.This export surge is likely to be sustained for some time to come. China has ‘spare capacity’ in that its per capita exports are still relatively small,7 wages are much lower than in its main neighbors and it has large reserves of cheap and disciplined labor (though drawing it into exports will involve the cost of building links with the interior).8 More importantly, its advantages are not static (confined to cheap labor); they are upgrading rapidly. China is investing heavily in technology and advanced skills; for example, the share of the relevant age group enrolled in tertiary education rose from 9 percent in 1997 to 13 percent in 2000 (UNESCO website). It is exploiting the scale offered by its giant market to become competitive in capital-intensive activities beyond the reach of manyneighbors. It is using its diverse industrial base to deepen local content. It is drawing in export-oriented FDI at an impressive rate, using its market attractions to induce investors to raise local R&D and linkages; till now it has been able to impose performance requirements of the type soon to be banned under WTO rules.WTO accession may constrain China’s ability to use indust rial policy (Nolan, 2001) but it will also open up new export opportunities, particularly in textiles and garments.9 Accession may also enhance its domestic competitiveness: it will improve the investment climate for FDI, make imported inputs cheaper (for enterprises outside special export regimes) and induce faster restructuring of domestic enterprises (Ianchovichinaetal, 2003, and Lemoyne and Unal-Kesenci, 2002).Market share changes in major developed country marketsWe analyze market shares of China and its neighbors in three major markets: Japan, the US and West Europe, according to technology categories (Annex Table 1). In terms of value, the most important market for China in 2000 is the US ($49 billion), followed by Japan ($36 billion) and West Europe ($38 billion). However, the rest of the world is almost as large a destination for Chinese exports as these together ($106 billion in 2000) and within this the rest of East Asia is larger than any major OECD market by itself ($74.6 billion).The competitive position of each country can be analyzed in terms of the market share in 1990 and 2000 and the change over the decade. The annex table shows the following:Total manufactured exports: China does best in Japan, followed at some distance by the US. In common with most neighbors, its market share gain is weakest in West Europe. Korea loses market shares in both Japan and US, while Taiwan loses only in the US. Hong Kong’s loses market shares in all markets, particularly in the US and Japan. Like Taiwan, Singapore loses only in the US. The new Tigers gain share in all markets. With the exception of Indonesia, with a rather tepid performance, the others all gain most share in the Japanese market. Resource based products: China again leads the region in terms of market share increases, with a pattern similar to that for total exports. However, Korea has alarge gain in Japan, in contrast to Taiwan and Singapore, which lose shares; the latter two also lose in the US. Thailand is a big gainer in Japan while Indonesia and the Philippines lose out in the US. Low technology products: China’s massive market share gains are again concentrated in Japan. The four mature Tigers generally suffer losses in market share, but Singapore sees an increase in Japanese market share. The best overall performance among the new Tigers is by Indonesia.Medium technology products: While the Chinese pattern of success recurs, the new Tigers make significant gains in Japan and Korea incurs a significant loss. Taiwan and Singapore suffer losses in the US market. High technology exports: Taiwan again diverges from Korea in its performance in Japan, the former showing the second largest gain in the group (after China) and the latter the largest loss. In the US market, the situation is reversed, with Singapore joining Taiwan in losing market shares. Among the new Tigers, Malaysia and the Philippines are the big gainers in Japan, but the other two also benefit significantly. The Philippines is the second largest winner in the group in the US market. In sum, China’s main market share gains in the developed world are concentrated in Japan (though the US accounts for a larger dollar value of export growth). This is also true of its neighbors with the exceptions of Korea and Indonesia (Hong Kong was an all-round loser). To the extent that we can interpret market share changes to be causally related to China’s export surge, it would seem that the mature Tigers suffered the most from Chinese competition. The largest such loss is in low technology products, which is to be expected, but this not take into account the growth of LT exports by Korea and Taiwan to China. The relatively low gains by the lower-income new Tigers in LT may also reflect the impact of Chinese competition – without the offsetting increase in exports of intermediates to China.ConclusionsChina’s export surge has raised grave concerns in the region. While some of the apocalyptic predictions may have been overdone, it is certainly possible that rapid export growth by such a massive entrant will adversely affects export growth in its neighbors. As this analysis shows,however, the outcome is complex.For a start, the rise in China’s exports is matched by that in its imports – within the region its import growth outpaces its export growth. With appropriate restructuring of activities to match new competitive needs, its neighbors should be able to maintain high rates of export growth.There are two main drivers of regional exports to China. The first is to meet its burgeoning demand for imported products: primary products and resource-based manufactures that it cannot produce capital goods and intermediates for domestic -oriented production and more sophisticated consumer goods than its industry can currently provide. The second is to meet the needs of its export industries. This has two components: ‘processing’ activity in special economic zones that use imported inputs for export activities, and other exporters that also need imports. Processing activity is increasingly organized as part of integrated production systems, particularly its high technology segments, though some domestic oriented industries are also being plugged into this system as they realize scale and learning economies and become globally competitive. Both drivers are likely to continue into the foreseeable future, though their composition will change as Chinese and regional capabilities develop.中国竞争力的表现：是对东亚制成品出口的威胁吗？越来越多的东南亚和东亚地区关注中国出口的迅速增长所带来的竞争威胁，中国加入WTO后，更加剧了这种情况。
国贸专业外文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Introduction2010,Risks in Global MarketWhere there’s an opportunity,there’s a risk.Traders always face risks in any market,from the richest countries to the least developed economies. And as the global economic crisis changed markets,some risks for international trades might have been unveiled or worsened.The risks,which derive from the diversity and vicissitude of market structures,jurisdictions,commerce rules, cultures,languages,and even psychosociological factors,may exist in any sector and stage of the trade process,such as destination marketing,customs clearance,financial support,debts and solvencies,and adherence to WTO rules.A report by the Ministry of Commerce of China specified the risks of investing and doing business in many countries.Zhou Mi,an expert on the research panel,argued that the global market is undergoing a wave of restructuring and rebalancing because consumption in developed countries has waned and the emerging economies will accordingly wield greater influence in the world economy.The newest updates of this report will reveal more specifics, and some of them are listed here in advance.A senior manager from Ernst& Young analyzes the effect that corporate reshaping could have on customs clearance.China Export&Credit Insurance Corporation evaluates the risk factors in the financial systems and debt structures of some important markets.An expert from China’s Economic Diplomacy defines some risks created by WTO rules and offers advice on how to handle the risks.译文介绍2010年，在全球市场的风险那里是一个机会，还有一个风险。
中国的对外贸易英文版
China's Foreign Trade (English Edition) China has emerged as a global economic powerhouse,largely due to its robust foreign trade activities. As the world's secondlargest economy, China plays a pivotal role in international trade, exporting a vast array of goods and importing resources and technology to fuel its growth.The Foundations of China's Trade SuccessMajor Export CategoriesMachinery: Ranging from construction equipment to industrial machinery, China's machinery exports are in high demand globally.Textiles and Apparel: Known for its quality and variety, China's textile and apparel industry is a significant contributor to the country's export revenue.ImportDependenciesWhile China is a major exporter, it also relies heavilyon imports, particularly for raw materials and advanced technology. The country's top import categories include: Oil and Minerals: To meet the energy needs of itsgrowing economy, China imports significant amounts of oil, coal, and various minerals.Agricultural Products: China imports a variety of agricultural goods, including soybeans, grains, and meat, to supplement its domestic production.Trade PartnersChina has a wide range of trade partners, with itslargest being the United States, European Union, and ASEAN countries. Despite occasional trade tensions, these relationships are crucial for China's economic health. The country's participation in regional trade agreements, such as the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), further solidifies its trade network.Challenges and OpportunitiesChina's foreign trade faces several challenges, including trade disputes, currency fluctuations, and the need to upgrade its manufacturing base to highervalue industries. However, there are also significant opportunities. The push for digital transformation, the development of green energy technologies, and the expansion of services trade present new avenues for growth.(To be continued)China's Foreign Trade (English Edition) ContinuationTrade Policies and InitiativesChina has implemented various policies and initiatives to promote its foreign trade. The "Belt and Road Initiative"aims to enhance regional connectivity and trade investing in infrastructure projects across Asia, Africa, and Europe. Additionally, China has been streamlining customs procedures and reducing tariffs to facilitate trade.Sustainable Trade PracticesRecognizing the importance of environmental sustainability, China is gradually integrating green trade practices. This includes promoting the export of environmentally friendly products and technologies, as well as adopting stricter standards for imports that could harm the environment.The Role of Free Trade ZonesFree Trade Zones (FTZs) in China are designed to attract foreign investment and promote international trade. These zones offer tax incentives, relaxed customs regulations, and a more businessfriendly environment. FTZs are also testing grounds for new trade policies and reforms.Cultural and Service ExportsBeyond physical goods, China is also expanding its exports of services and cultural products. The country's film industry, for example, is gaining global recognition, with Chinese movies and series finding audiences worldwide. Additionally, China's tourism sector is a significantcontributor to service exports, as the country attracts millions of international visitors annually.Navigating Trade DisputesTrade disputes, particularly with major trading partners like the United States, have posed challenges for China's foreign trade. The country has been working to resolve these disputes through negotiations and diversifying its trade relationships to reduce dependency on any single market.The Future of China's Foreign Trade(To be continued)China's Foreign Trade (English Edition) ContinuationThe Shift Towards Services and Intellectual PropertyTrade Balance and Currency DynamicsThe Role of Multinational CorporationsPromoting Made in China 2025Responding to Global Trade ChallengesThe global trade landscape is fraught with challenges, including protectionism and trade barriers. China has been proactive in responding to these challenges engaging in bilateral and multilateral negotiations, seeking to lower trade barriers and promote a more open international trading system.The Impact of Trade on SocietyTrade has a profound impact on society, affecting jobs, living standards, and cultural exchange. In China, the growth of foreign trade has led to the creation of millions of jobs and has been a driving force behind the country's economic growth. However, it has also brought about the need for continuous skills development among the workforce to adapt to changing market demands.Conclusion。
中国的对外贸易外文翻译及原文
外文翻译原文Foreign T rade o f ChinaMaterial Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka1.IntroductionOn December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing:•In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44%•In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1•In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2•In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province•In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere2.Evolution of China’s Trade RegimeEqually remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a muchfaster rate than exports of primary goods.As a result,the share of manufactur ed goods increased t o90.1%,and that of primary good decr eased to9.9%by2001.Also shown in those tables are five subgr oups for manufactur ed goods and primary goods.China’s export was highly dependent on its exports of coal, petroleum,and petr oleum products until mid-80s.The large export volume of petr oleum was also support ed by a sharp rise in oil prices during the period.In1985, the share of mineral fuels is26.1%.In1986,the su d d en decline in the share of primary goods in total exports occurs,which is largely associated with the decline in the export volume of mineral fuels.The price reforms coupled with the declined world petr oleum price areattributable t o the decline.Domestic agriculture production expanded during the1980’s in response to the higher prices thr ough the price reforms and mo r e opportunities given t o the producers to market their products.Although the share of food and live animals in total exports has declined over time,China has become a net exporter of such products since1984.T urning to the manufactur ed goods,the large increase in the share of the manufactur ed goods in the total exports since mid-80s is largely accounted for by the increase in the export in the textile category and the miscellaneous products category.These two gr oups include labor-intensive products such as textiles,apparel, footwear,and toys and sporting goods.During the1990s,the category that exhibited the mos t significant surge in exports is machinery and transport equipment.Its share exp anded from9.0%in1990t o35.7%in2001.3.China’s Processing Trade and Trade by For eign Invested FirmsChina established the legal framework for processing and assembly arrangements in1979.Since then,China has built up considerable strengths in assembling and processing of industrial parts and components.It covers a wide range of industries such as electric machinery,automobile,aerospace,and shipbuilding.T able3a and T able3b demonstrate the amount of processing exports and imports and the importance of stateowned enterprises(SOEs)and foreign-invested enterprises(FIEs)in such forms of trade for1995-2001. Throughout the period from1995to2001,the shares of these two types of processing exports exceed more than half of China’s total exports.In2001，processing exports account for55.4%of the total exports.As is seen in T able3a, process&assembling was dominat ed by SOEs in1995.However,the tr end has been changing.The share of SOEs in process&assembling has been steadilydeclining over the years from84%in1995to62%in2001.The other type of trade, process with imported materials was largely conducted by FIEs and their shares have been gradually increasing from81%in1995to88%in2001.In China’s imports(see T able3b),processing trade is relatively small comp a r ed to exports. After it peak ed at49%in1997,processed imports decline to39%in2001.The decreasing importance of SOEs can be seen in China’s imports as well.Shares by SOEs decr eased from81%in1995t o58%in2001for process&assembling,and from18%to7%for process with imported materials.The decr eased role for SOEs in processing trade may reflect the inefficiency in conducting their business.Since 1997,the Chinese government decided t o implement the shareholding system and t o sell a large numbe r of medium-and small-sized SOEs to the private sector.A n u mbe r of larger enterprise gr oups will be established in various industries thr ough mergers,acquisitions,and leasing and contracting.The restructuring of SOEs is intended to increase profits and to improve their competitive edge.4.China’s Tr ade by Provinces and RegionsA regional breakdown of exports and imports reveals important characteristics of the foreign trade in China.In1997,89.1%of the total exports came from the Eastern region of China(Beijing,Tianjin,Heibei,Lioaning,Guangxi,Shanghai, Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Fujian,Shangdong,Guandong and Hainan).Within the East,the Southeast region accounts for76.3%of China's exports in1997.4Gu ang dong alone pr oduces41.6%of the total exports for the sa me year.Such regional imbalances in exporting activities persist to the present day.In2001,Guandong's share of the national exports is36.0%.For the Southeast and the East,the shares are respectively 79.0%and91.1%.This imbalance of the regional growth in foreign trade may partially be attributed t o the various geographic-specific and sequential o pen-d oo r policies China has exercised thr oughout the last twenty years.The strong growth of th e export sector in the coastal area has been support ed by the massive use of foreign direct investment(FDI).FDI was first attracted by the creation of the Special Economic Zones(SEZ).FDI was concentrated in the provinces of the Southeast coast,namely,Guandong and Fujian.The multinational enterprises that are export-oriented or use adv anced technologies are able to enjoy various preferential policies in the SEZs,such as r educed or ex empt e d corporate income tax,exemption from import tariffs on imported equipment and raw materials.In1984,fourteen coastal cities were opened and were grant ed similar policies as SEZs.Out of thosefourteen cities,ten are located in the Southeast coast regions and four are in the rest of the Eastern regions.Furthermore in1985,similar preferential policies were grant ed t o other coastal economic regions,Pearl River Delta,Y angtze River Delta and Minnan Delta which is t o the south of Fujian.In1990,Pu d o n g in Shanghai was opened and was grant ed extensive preferential policies.Since1984,the Chinese government established thirty-two national-level Economic and T echnological Development Zones(ETDZs).The share of exports in The Y angtze River Delta,the home of Shanghai and two provinces,Jiangsu and Zhejiang has grown steadily during the period1997to 2001.The share of those three regions grew to10.1%,11.0%,and9.1%in2001 from8.1%,7.9%and5.9%in1997,respectively.As the role of high-tech industry beco mes mo r e significant in China’s output and China’s comparative advantage in skilled-labor and capital-intensive industries beco mes higher,the Y angtze River Delta be co mes a new magnet for investment by foreign enterprises.These foreign investments in turn lead to mo r e export and trade.5.Foreign T rade by Major World RegionsUsing China’s official statistics,Table4a and4b highlight merchandise export s and imports t o and from major world regions for1993-2001:Asia,Africa,Europe, Latin America,North America and Oceania.As we see from Table4a,China’s most important export region has always been Asia,which absorbs53%of China’s exports in2001.However,their share of absorption declines from almost62%,their peak level of1995.The importance of North America and Europe in China’s exports, however,has been increasing since1998.In2001,North America takes in mo r e than22%of exports and Europe takes in mo r e than18%.6.China’s Merchandise Exports and Imports by Major Trading PartnersTable5a and Table5b document China’s merchandise exports to and imports from its major trading partners,using China’s official statistics.According to Tabl e 5a,the major exports markets for China in2001are:the United States(20.4%), Hong Kong(17.5%),Japan(16.9%)and the European Union(15.4%).It is well-known that a large proportion of Chinese exports to Hong Kong are re-exported elsewhere so that the true size of the Hong Kong export market has t o be estimated. T o save space for this paper,we will just rely on the official Chinese figures.6Even without adjusting for re-exports,the United States in2001is the largest export market for China.Thus,from an international trade perspective alone,the most important bilateral trade relationship for China is the relationship with the UnitedStates.T ogether t he United States,Hong Kong,Japan and the European Union take in70.2%of China’s exports in2001.Within ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations),Singapore has been the largest export market for China.In2001, 31.5%of China’s total exports to ASEAN is destined for Singapore.Within the European Union(EU),Germany is the largest market with23.8%of the total Chinese exports going to the EU.9.ConclusionIn the future,we see that there are at least two challenges facing China in the area of international trade.First,with China’s competitiveness growing,many countries will perceive that their producers will no t be able to c o mpe t e with the Chinese exports,either in the third market or in their own domestic market.The backlash will take the form of an increased use of anti-dumping duties and safeguards.W e have already seen the use of such trade instruments against China from a variety of countries,including Japan,the European Union and the United States.A relatively new development is that even developing countries such as India and Mexico are using anti-dumping measur es against Chinese exports to their countries.The difficulty with anti-dumping duties is that they are generally WT O-consistent.Thus joining the WTO d o es no t mean that other countries will reduce their use of anti-dumping duties against China.A second challenge facing China is how t o manage its trade relationship with the United States.The United States is the largest economy on earth.The United States is China’s largest export market.It is also a critical source of technology.A stable and healthy relationship with the United States is important for China’s economic development.It is always a difficult adjustment process for countries to accept a newly e mer gen t economic power.The United States as well as other countries may perceive China as a potential economic threat.Judging from the experience of the relationship betw een the United States and a rising Japan in the 1970s and the1980s,it will n o t be too har d to imagine that there will be difficulties in the trade relationship betw een the United States and China.Managing and smoothing such a relationship should be an important goal for China.译文中国的对外贸易资料来源:万方数据库作者：Hitomi Iizaka1、简介2001年12月11日，中国正式加入世界贸易组织（WTO），成为其第143个成员，中国在世界经济中的作用将继续增强和深化。
国际经济与贸易专业外文翻译--国外市场进入模式
外文原文：Foreign Market Entry ModesThe decision of how to entry a foreign market can have a significant impact on the results. Expansion into foreign markets can be achieved via the following four mechanisms.•Exporting•Licensing•Joint Venture•Direct Inve stmentExportingExporting is the marketing and direct sale of domestically-produced goods in another country. Exporting is a traditional and well-established method of reaching foreign Markets. Since exporting does not require that the goods be produced in the target country, no investment in foreign production facilities is required. Most of the costs associated with exporting take the form of marketing expenses.Exporting commonly requires coordination among four players.•Exporter•Importer•Trans port provider•GovernmentLicensingLicensing essentially permits a company in the target country to use the property of the licensor. Such property usually is intangible, such as trademarks, patents, and production techniques. The license pays a fee in exchange for the rights to use the intangible property and possibly for technical assistance.Because little investment on the part of the licensor is required, licensing has the potential to provide a very large ROL. However, because the licensee produces and markets the product, potential returns from manufacturing and marketing activities may be lost.Joint VentureThere are five common objectives in a joint: market entry, risk/reward sharing, technology sharing and product development, and conforming to government regulations. Other benefits include political connections and distribution channel access that may depend on relationships.Such alliances often are favorable when:•the par tners’ strategic goals converge while their competitive goals diverg e;•the partners’ size, market power, and resources are small compared to the industry leaders ；• partners ‘ are able to learn from one another while limiting access to their own proprietary skills.Foreign direct investmentForeign direct investment（FDI）is the direct ownership of facilities in the target country. It involves the transfer of resources including capital, technology, and personnel. Direct foreign investment may be made through the acquisition of an existing entity or the establishment of a new enterprise.Direct ownership provides a high degree of control in the operations and the ability to better know the consumers and competitive environment. However, it requires a high level of resources and ahigh degree of commitment.The case of Euro DisneyDifferent modes of entry may be more appropriate under different circumstances，and the mode of entry is an important factor in the success of the project. Walt Disney Co. faced the challenge of building a theme park in Europe. Disney’s mode of entry in Japan had been licensing. However, the firm chose direct investment in its European theme park, owning 49% with the remaining 51% held publicly.Besides the mode of entry, another important element in Disney’s decision was exactly where in Europe to locate. There are many factors in the site selection decision, and a company carefully must define and evaluate the criteria for choosing a location. The problems with the euro Disney project illustrate that even if a company has been successful in the past, as Disney had been with its California, Florida, and Tokyo theme parks, futures success is not guaranteed, especially when moving into a different country and culture. The appropriate adjustments for national differences always should be made.（From：Strategic Management）中文译文：国外市场进入模式如何进入外国市场有着重大的影响。
中国的对外贸易外文翻译及原文
外文翻译原文Foreign Trade of ChinaMaterial Source: Wanfang Database Author: Hitomi Iizaka1. IntroductionOn December 11, 2001, China officially joined the World Trade Organization(WTO) and became its 143rd member. China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen. The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development. At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial to all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and more varieties of imported consumer goods, raw materials and intermediate products. China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment, the outcome is fundamentally a win-win situation. In this paper we would like to provide a survey of the various institutions, laws and characteristics of China’s trade. Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing:∙ In 2001, total trade to gross domestic product (GDP) ratio in China is 44%∙ In 2001, 47% of Chinese trade is processed trade1∙ In 2001, 51% of Chinese trade is conducted by foreign firms in China2∙ In 2001, 36% of Chinese exports originate from Guangdong province∙ In 2001, 39% of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere2. Evolution of China’s Trade RegimeEqually remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports. Table 2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time. In 1980, primary goods accounted for 50.3% of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for 49.7%. Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of 1980’s, it remains at 50.6% in 1985. Since then, exports of manufactured goods have grown at a muchfaster rate than exports of primary goods. As a result, the share of manufactured goods increased to 90.1%, and that of primary good decreased to 9.9% by 2001.Also shown in those tables are five subgroups for manufactured goods and primary goods. China’s export was highly dependent on its exports of coal, petroleum, and petroleum products until mid-80s. The large export volume of petroleum was also supported by a sharp rise in oil prices during the period. In 1985, the share of mineral fuels is 26.1%. In 1986, the sudden decline in the share of primary goods in total exports occurs, which is largely associated with the decline in the export volume of mineral fuels. The price reforms coupled with the declined world petroleum price areattributable to the decline.Domestic agriculture production expanded during the 1980’s in response to the higher prices through the price reforms and more opportunities given to the producers to market their products. Although the share of food and live animals in total exports has declined over time, China has become a net exporter of such products since 1984.Turning to the manufactured goods, the large increase in the share of the manufactured goods in the total exports since mid-80s is largely accounted for by the increase in the export in the textile category and the miscellaneous products category. These two groups include labor-intensive products such as textiles, apparel, footwear, and toys and sporting goods. During the 1990s, the category that exhibited the most significant surge in exports is machinery and transport equipment. Its share expanded from 9.0% in 1990 to 35.7 % in 2001.3. China’s Processing Trade and Trade by For eign Invested FirmsChina established the legal framework for processing and assembly arrangements in 1979. Since then, China has built up considerable strengths in assembling and processing of industrial parts and components. It covers a wide range of industries such as electric machinery, automobile, aerospace, and shipbuilding. Table 3a and Table 3b demonstrate the amount of processing exports and imports and the importance of stateowned enterprises (SOEs) and foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) in such forms of trade for 1995-2001. Throughout the period from 1995 to 2001, the shares of these two types of processing exports exceed more than half of China’s total exports. In 2001，processing exports account for 55.4% of the total exports. As is seen in Table 3a, process & assembling was dominated by SOEs in 1995. However, the trend has been changing. The share of SOEs in process & assembling has been steadilydeclining over the years from 84% in 1995 to 62% in 2001. The other type of trade, process with imported materials was largely conducted by FIEs and their shares have been gradually increasing from 81% in 1995 to 88% in 2001. In China’s imports (see Table 3b), processing trade is relatively small compared to exports. After it peaked at 49% in 1997, processed imports decline to 39% in 2001. The decreasing importance of SOEs can be seen in China’s imports as well. Shares by SOEs decreased from 81% in 1995 to 58% in 2001 for process & assembling, and from 18% to 7% for process with imported materials. The decreased role for SOEs in processing trade may reflect the inefficiency in conducting their business. Since 1997, the Chinese government decided to implement the shareholding system and to sell a large number of medium- and small-sized SOEs to the private sector. A number of larger enterprise groups will be established in various industries through mergers, acquisitions, and leasing and contracting. The restructuring of SOEs is intended to increase profits and to improve their competitive edge.4. China’s Tr ade by Provinces and RegionsA regional breakdown of exports and imports reveals important characteristics of the foreign trade in China. In 1997, 89.1% of the total exports came from the Eastern region of China (Beijing, Tianjin, Heibei, Lioaning, Guangxi, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shangdong, Guandong and Hainan). Within the East, the Southeast region accounts for 76.3% of China's exports in 1997.4 Guangdong alone produces 41.6% of the total exports for the same year. Such regional imbalances in exporting activities persist to the present day. In 2001, Guandong's share of the national exports is 36.0%. For the Southeast and the East, the shares are respectively 79.0% and 91.1%.This imbalance of the regional growth in foreign trade may partially be attributed to the various geographic-specific and sequential open-door policies China has exercised throughout the last twenty years. The strong growth of the export sector in the coastal area has been supported by the massive use of foreign direct investment (FDI). FDI was first attracted by the creation of the Special Economic Zones (SEZ). FDI was concentrated in the provinces of the Southeast coast, namely, Guandong and Fujian. The multinational enterprises that are export-oriented or use advanced technologies are able to enjoy various preferential policies in the SEZs, such as reduced or exempted corporate income tax, exemption from import tariffs on imported equipment and raw materials. In 1984, fourteen coastal cities were opened and were granted similar policies as SEZs. Out of thosefourteen cities, ten are located in the Southeast coast regions and four are in the rest of the Eastern regions. Furthermore in 1985, similar preferential policies were granted to other coastal economic regions, Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and Minnan Delta which is to the south of Fujian. In 1990, Pudong in Shanghai was opened and was granted extensive preferential policies. Since 1984, the Chinese government established thirty-two national-level Economic and Technological Development Zones (ETDZs) .The share of exports in The Yangtze River Delta, the home of Shanghai and two provinces, Jiangsu and Zhejiang has grown steadily during the period 1997 to 2001. The share of those three regions grew to 10.1%, 11.0%, and 9.1% in 2001 from 8.1%, 7.9% and 5.9% in 1997, respectively. As the role of high-tech industry becomes more significant in China’s output and China’s comparative advantage in skilled-labor and capital-intensive industries becomes higher, the Yangtze River Delta becomes a new magnet for investment by foreign enterprises. These foreign investments in turn lead to more export and trade.5. Foreign Trade by Major World RegionsUsing China’s official statistics, Table 4a and 4b highlight merchandise export s and imports to and from major world regions for 1993 - 2001: Asia, Africa, Europe, Latin America, North America and Oceania. As we see from Table 4a, China’s most important export region has always been Asia, which absorbs 53% of China’s exports in 2001. However, their share of absorption declines from almost 62%, their peak level of 1995. The importance of North America and Europe in China’s exports, however, has been increasing since 1998. In 2001, North America takes in more than 22% of exports and Europe takes in more than 18%.6. China’s Merchandise Exports and Imports by Major Trading PartnersTable 5a and Table 5b document China’s merchandise exports to and imports from its major trading partners, using China’s official statistics. According to Tabl e 5a, the major exports markets for China in 2001 are: the United States (20.4%), Hong Kong (17.5%), Japan (16.9%) and the European Union (15.4%). It is well-known that a large proportion of Chinese exports to Hong Kong are re-exported elsewhere so that the true size of the Hong Kong export market has to be estimated. To save space for this paper, we will just rely on the official Chinese figures.6 Even without adjusting for re-exports, the United States in 2001 is the largest export market for China. Thus, from an international trade perspective alone, the most important bilateral trade relationship for China is the relationship with the UnitedStates. Together the United States, Hong Kong, Japan and the European Union take in 70.2% of China’s exports in 2001. Within ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), Singapore has been the largest export market for China. In 2001, 31.5% of China’s total exports to ASEAN is destined for Singapore. Within the European Union (EU), Germany is the largest market with 23.8% of the total Chinese exports going to the EU.9. ConclusionIn the future, we see that there are at least two challenges facing China in the area of international trade. First, with China’s competitiveness growing, many countries will perceive that their producers will not be able to compete with the Chinese exports, either in the third market or in their own domestic market. The backlash will take the form of an increased use of anti-dumping duties and safeguards. We have already seen the use of such trade instruments against China from a variety of countries, including Japan, the European Union and the United States. A relatively new development is that even developing countries such as India and Mexico are using anti-dumping measures against Chinese exports to their countries. The difficulty with anti-dumping duties is that they are generally WTO-consistent. Thus joining the WTO does not mean that other countries will reduce their use of anti-dumping duties against China.A second challenge facing China is how to manage its trade relationship with the United States. The United States is the largest economy on earth. The United States is China’s largest export market. It is also a critical source of technology. A stable and healthy relationship with the United States is important for China’s economic development. It is always a difficult adjustment process for countries to accept a newly emergent economic power. The United States as well as other countries may perceive China as a potential economic threat. Judging from the experience of the relationship between the United States and a rising Japan in the 1970s and the 1980s, it will not be too hard to imagine that there will be difficulties in the trade relationship between the United States and China. Managing and smoothing such a relationship should be an important goal for China.译文中国的对外贸易资料来源: 万方数据库作者：Hitomi Iizaka1、简介2001年12月11日，中国正式加入世界贸易组织（WTO），成为其第143个成员，中国在世界经济中的作用将继续增强和深化。
国际经济与贸易外文翻译出口退税
X X X X 大学学生学士学位论文（设计）外文译文假设有两个下游企业——分别为一家国内企业和一家外国企业——产生一种同质产品,国内企业加工进口的半成品以生产最终产品，并供应国内市场和出口到第三国市场,外国企业使用进口的中间产品以制造最终产品，并全部出口到第三国市场。
假设国内政府对进口的中间产品征收关税,但为了鼓励出口，采用了一个按比例退还所有由国内公司为出口货物所支付的进口关税的退税政策,。
国内企业最终输出的商品包括对国内销售部分和出口部分。
用D表示国内企业对国内市场最终产品的输出，用E表示出口最终产品的输出。
假设外国公司的最终产品全部出口,用Y表示其最终产品的输出。
为了简化分析,把国内市场和在第三国市场的逆需求函数假定为线性,分别如下:=a-bD（1a）=α-β（E+Y）（1b）其中，a,b,α，β>0; 和本别表示最终产品在国内市场和国际市场的价格，并且国内市场和第三国市场互相隔离。
为了研究需要，我们假定以单位的中间产品可以生产一单位的最终产品。
国内企业的利润函数可以表示为：其中是国内公司的利润函数,c是由使用输入产品而不是利用中间产品以生产最终产品所产生的边际成本,t是中间产品的进口关税,m是中间产品的进口价格,γ是出口退税率。
在式中,第一和第三项,分别是国内公司来自国内的收入和出口销售额减去生产成本;第二和第四项分别表示在国内和出口市场销售的最终产品的进口成本,包括中间产品的采购成本和税收成本;方程的最后一个项是出口退税的数额。
外国企业的利润函数表示为：其中表示由使用输入产品而不是利用中间产品以生产最终产品所产生的边际成本。
在上述假定条件下，国内政府决定使用出口退税以补贴国内企业出口的进程被描述为两个阶段。
在第一阶段,国内政府根据公司的生产策略决定出口退税率，以使社会福利最大化。
在第二阶段,知道了由政府提供的出口退税率,国内公司不仅决定了国内销售的输出D,也分别决定了它本身和外国竞争者在在第三国市场古诺数量竞争的最优输出E和Y。
国际贸易理论外文翻译文献
国际贸易理论外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)新制度主义与新贸易理论：反思比较优势和贸易政策新制度主义与新贸易理论比较优势理论在国际贸易理论中一直占主导地位。
这一理论的主张，除了少数负面例子外，大多数国家的贸易都因此而变好。
虽然如此，这个理论也承认（斯托尔珀和萨缪尔森1941）贸易的收益因资本和劳动力份额的多少而变动，并且个体因素会带来更大的损失。
然而，失去的因素，原则上在贸易中仍然可以得到充分补偿。
虽然这些现象在实践中由于政治经济原因是很少发生的。
比较优势理论起到了促进自由贸易和全球化的中心作用。
虽然大多数专业经济学家都接受这个理论，但其中还有一些经济学家就充分就业的存在和市场能力对国家生产（帕利2003得）及全球配置理论的假设产生质疑。
制度经济学家也质疑其体制形式不很严密，特别是跨国公司及其复杂的对外合作对贸易格局的影响。
比较优势贸易理论中的批评也越来越多地夹杂在政治层面。
因此，更多的政治家和市民质疑贸易全球化到底能带来多大的利益。
特别是，越来越担心未来境外生产及外包很可能对人们的福利产生巨大影响。
本文探讨了当前戈莫里和鲍莫尔（2000）和萨缪尔森（2004）最近的工作 -GBS- 研究了这些问题。
特别是观点的一致性，本文着重在挖掘和澄清戈莫里以及鲍莫尔在经济问题上的分歧。
GBS在比较优势的均衡理论（尤其是萨缪尔森）在传统理论中占有优势，同时它还探讨了如何改变全球生产模式从而带来贸易收益分配的影响。
他们发现在全球化贸易中隐含着比传统贸易理论更多的东西。
GBS的研究结果也揭示了一些新古典贸易理论与贸易理论和制度主义融合的东西。
这种衔接工作表现在许多层面，从贸易的政策上来分析。
首先，贸易扩张未必是双赢的结果，系统和贸易的扩大可能造成单赢的结果。
第二，GBS的论点强调了国家与国家之间的技术转让和生产方法的交流，这些转让的背后隐含的现象对产品周期理论的链接是息息相关的。
三，规模收益递增（IRTS）发挥核心作用。
国际经济与贸易 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 .docx
外文文献翻译The effects of subjective norms on behaviour in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysisMark Manning*University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USAA meta-analysis investigated the effects of perceived injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms on behaviour (BEH) within the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in a sample of 196 studies. Two related correlation matrices (pairwise and listwise) were synthesized from the data and used to model the TPB relations with path analyses.Convergent evidence indicated that the relation between DN and BEH was stronger than the relation between IN and BEH. Evidence also suggested a significant direct relation between DN and BEH in the context of TPB. A suppressor effect of IN on DN in its relation with BEH was also noted・ Moderator analyses indicated that the DN-BEH relation was stronger when there was more time between measures of cognition and behaviour, when behaviours were not socially approved, more socially motive and more pleasant: results were mixed in the case of the IN-BEH relation. Results imply that IN and DN are conceptually different constructs・As social beings, normative pressure inevitably affects our behaviour・Social nonns influence the way we dress, how we vote, what we buy, and a host of other behavioural decisions.Social psychologists have been exploring the influence of social norms on behaviour for decades・ From AschM and Milgram s conformity- experiments (Asch, 19S6;Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz, 1969) through recent work by Cialdini and colleagues(Cialdini, Reno. & Kallgren, 1990; Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1993), a substantial body of evidence has demonstrated that people conform to the judgments and behaviours of others.In experiments conducted by Cialdini and his colleagues (Cialdini et al., 1990; Reno et al., 1993), participants inferred behavioural norms for littering from environmental cues and acted in accord with these norms. The results highlight the fact that perceptions of norms, ratber than actual norms, can affect behaviour・ Tlie relation between perceived norms and behaviour has receivedmuch empirical support (Borsari & Carey, 2003; Campo, Brossard. Fnizer. Marchell, Lewis, & Talbot, 2003; Gomberg, Schneider, & Dejong, 2(K)I; Grube, Morgan, & MeGree, 1986; Okun, Karoly, & Lutz,2002; Riniai & Real. 2005). However, one ofthc most influential models for predicting behaviour, the thcor>*of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzcn, 1991), posits that rather than a direct relation between norm and behaviour, perceived nortns influence behaviour indirectly by way of behavioural intentions. Investigating the perceived norm-behaviour relation in tlic context of this theory offers insight not only into the strength of the relation, but also into the extent to which perceived norms may directly influence behaviour counter to theoretical expectations.The present study used mcta-analytic path analyses to examine, the relation between two types of perceived norms (injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms; described below) and behaviour in the context of the TPB (Ajzcn. 1991). The investigation explored the direct effects of IN and DN on behaviour as well as factors that may moderate the effect of subjective norms (SN) on behaviour・The theory of planned behaviourAccording to the TPB, the immediate antecedent of behaviour is the intention to pertbrm the behaviour (Figure 1). This behavioural intention is in turn a function of three major determinants: attitude towards the behaviour, perceived SN pertaining to the behaviour, and perceived degree of control over engaging in and ctJmpleting the behaviour (perceived behavioural control).The formation of attitudes (ATT), SN and perceived behavioural control (PBC) are respectively functions of behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs that a person holds with regards to the behaviour・ Concerning ATT, the set of accessible beliefs that a person holds about the outcome of a behaviour will determine the evaluation of the behaviour, and thus influence the strength and direction of the ATT towards the behaviour.SN are a function of the normative beliefs that people relevant to the individual are perceived as having towards tbe behaviour coupled with the motivation of the individual to comply with the expected notins of these relevant persons・ PBC is a function of the perceived factors that will influence the ability to engage in the behaviour coupled with the perception as to whether or not these factors will be present.In short, the TPB holds that favourable ATT, SN. And perceptions of control will lead to favourable intentions to engage in a given behaviour. Actual control over engaging in the behaviouris itself an important determinant・ To the extent that individuals realistically appraise the amount of control that they have over the behaviour, the measure of PBC; can serve as a proxy for actual control. Perceived control is expected to have a moderating effect such that intentions will be reflected in actual behaviour to the extent that perceived control is high.The TPB has been applied successfully to a wide range of behaviours accounting for a sizable amount of variance (Armitage & Ckmner, 2001: Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt,2003; Hardeman. Johnston. Johnston, Bonetti, Wareham, & Kinmonth. 2002; Povey.Wellens, & Conner, 2001; Rise. Thompson. & Verplanken, 2003). Regarding the SN construct, the theory holds that the effect of SN on behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions・ In other words, SN are not expected to have a direct effect (DE)on behaviour but instead influetice behaviours indirectly through their effect on intentions.Descriptive and injunctive normsTwo types of SN can be distinguished. IN are social pressures to engage in a behaviour based on the perception of what other people want you to do whereas DN are social pressures based on the observed or inferred behaviour of others・ Tliis distinction has been empirically supported (Cialdini et al .,1990; Deutsch & Gerard.1955; Grube et al., 1986; Larimer & Neighbours, 2005; Larimer. Turner, Mallett. & Geisner, 2004; Reno et al.,1993; Rhodes & Courneya, 2003; White, Terry, & Hogg, 1994). Within the TPB, the SN construct was originally conceptualized as an injunctive norm (Ajzen, 1991). More recently, however, Ajzen and Fishbein (200S) have recommended including both types of normative measures in constructing planned behaviour stirveys・ DN and IN will therefore be considered separately in the analyses to follow. Subjective norms-behaviour relationIn reviewing the SN construct in the planned behaviour context, Conner and Armitage(1998) have noted the lack of predictive power of the IN construct when predicting intention. Due to the paucity- of studies including DN in the planned behaviour context,conclusions regarding DN in this context are sparser. Recently, several investigators have included DN as predictors of intentions in the planned behaviour model (PBM;Fekadu &Kraft, 2002; MCiMUlan & Conner, 2(K)3; Okun et al.. 2002: Sheeran & Orbell, 1999b). Rivis and Sbeeran (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of DN in the planned behaviour context. Their analysis, based on 18 studies, demonstrated a significant relationship between DN and intention when controlling for otlier variables in the TPB.In that, these previous studies have investigated theeffects of SN on intentions, to date,no planned behaviour mcta-ana lysis has explored the potential for differences in the effects of SN on behaviour in the planned behaviour context.Deutsch and Gerard (1955) have suggested that DN and IN refer to different sources of motivation. Regarding DN, it has been shown that perceptions of behaviours of others lead one to behave in similar manners (Asch, 1956;Milgram et al., 1969). Descriptive normative information functions as a heuristic with regards to behavioural decisions offering cues as to what is appropriate behaviour iii a given situation (Cialdini et al., 1990; van Knippenberg, 2000). IN on the other iiand operate more through the role of motivation to comply with social sanctions (Ajzen, 1991;Lapinski & Rimal, 2005). To the extent that individuals are motivated to comply with perceived behavioural expectations of relevant referents, they avoid social sanctions・Though several studies have looked at the effect of one or botli types of norms on particular behaviours, there has yet to be a single meta-analytical review that compares the relationship between the two types of norms and behaviours across a spectrum of behaviours. Consequently, on a general level it is unknown whether one type of norm has a stronger effect on behaviour than the other it may be hypothesized that DN have a stronger effect on behaviour than IN because DN are activated in the immediate behavioural situation. Furthermore, processing of DN for behavioural decisions may require less cognitive effort relative to the processing of IN, in that DN may rely more on heuristic than systematic informatioprocessing・Perhaps, this advantage contributes to efficient behavioural decision・making in line with descriptive normative information. In fact, researchers have shown that conditions that facilitate the use of heuristic information-processing lead participants to act more in line with DN (Hertel, Neuhof, Theucr, & Kerr, 2000). It is expected therefore, that DN will have a stronger effect on behaviour relative to IN.Direct effect ofSN on behaviourThe TPB posits that the relationship between SN and behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973)・ However, a number of planned behaviour studies that have included normative constructs as a behavioural predictor have found direct effects of SN on behaviour (Christian & Abrams, 2004 -Study 2; Christian & Arm让age, 2002; Christian, Armitage, & Abrams, 2003; Okun et al.,2002; Trafimow & Finlay, 2001). In most research with the TPB, the effect of the normative component on intentions has received most attention (Armitage & Conner,2001; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003) while the potential for a DE of SN onbehaviour has received little empirical or meta-analytical scrutiny.One reason to explore, the potential for a DE may be the hypothetical nature under which most people report cognitions pertaining to behaviour in planned behaviour studies・ Hypothetical contexts may not accurately reflect the relations between cognitions and behaviours that are evident in real behavioural contexts (Ajzen, Brown, & Carvajal, 2004). Furthermore, when an individual reports an intention to engage in a particular behaviour in one instance, that behavioural intention may be subject to change from the instance it is formed to the moment when an opportunity for behavioural engagement arises (Ajzen, 1991).For example, in the classic linn (1965) study, hotel managers expressed little intent to allow Chinese couples to stay in their hotels, however allowed them to do so when the instance arose・ It is less likely that perceptions of norms related to the behaviour will change over time. Consequently, there is the potential for reported normative perceptions to have stronger relations with behaviour compared with relations between reported behavioural intentions and behaviour. This may be reflected in the presence of a DE of SN on the particular behaviour. The present meta-analjtical synthesis provides the opportunity* to gauge the potential for a direct relation between SN and behaviour in the context of the TPB.Variation in the magnitude of the SN^ehaviour relationshipThe possibility of a DE of SN on behaviour within the TPB implies that there are two ways in which SN can affect behaviour. There can be the theoretically posited indirect effect on behaviour mediated through intentions, and there may be a DE on behaviour. The total effect therefore is the sum of these two effects・ In accord with the prediction that DN have a stronger relation with behaviours compared to the IN-behaviour relation, it is expected that the total effect of DN on behaviour is greater than the total effect of IN on behaviour. In addition to predicted differences between DN and IN in their effects on behaviour, there is the potential for differences in the magnitude of the effect within each type of norm. Compatibility* between measures of cognition and behaviour and the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour are expected to lead to differences in the magnitudes of the effects of SN on behaviour. Additionally, the potential moderating effect of three further variables will be explored;the level of social approval of the behaviour, the extent to which social motives underlie behaviour, and the extent to which a behaviour is uselial versus pleasant may all contribute to variance in the relationship between norms and behaviour.CompatibilityElements of a particular behaviour can be defined in terms of the behavioural target, the action involved in the behaviour, the context in which the behaviour is performed, and the time at wliich it is performed. The relationship between cognitive predictors of a particular behaviour and engagement in the behaviour will be stronger if behavioural elements and cognitive assessment of the behaviour are compatible (Ajzen, 1996; Ajzen & Fishbein. 1977). That is to say., for instance, that if an investigator would tike to pretlict someone's propensity* to exercise 3 days a week for half an hour, measures should assess cognitions regarding exercising 3 days a week for half an hour rather than cognitions to be healthy, or some other general cognition regarding exercise・Tenned the ”principle of compatibility0, it holds that measurements of planned behaviour variables must be compatible with the target behaviour in terms of target, action, context, and time. Given the effect of compatibility and the magnitude of the correlations between planned behaviour variables and behavioural measures, it is expected that studies where the cognitive and behavioural measures are fully compatible will feature stronger relations between SN and behaviour. It is also expected that among studies where measures are more compatible, the intention mediated relation between SN and behaviour will be stronger than any unmediated relation, in line with theoretical dictates, whereas among studies that are less compatible there will potentially be greater direct effects of SN on behaviour.Time interval between measures of SN and behaviourAccording to Ajzen ( 1991 ). cognitive precursors of behaviour that are measured closer to the target behaviour should be more predictive of behavioural engagement. Due to motivational considerations, measures of the intention to engage in a particular behaviour will vary as a function of proximity to behavioural engagement (Bandura & Schunk. 1981; Kamiol & Ross, 1996; Steel & Konig, 2006) in that tlie ftirther in the future is the potential behavioural engagement, the less predictive are intentions to engage in this behaviour. As Ibe relation between stated intentions and actual behaviour decreases over time, the potential exists for SN to be relatively more predictive of behaviour. This potential is evident in light of the argument outlined above wherein SN pertaining to a behaviour are less likely to change over time compared to behavioural intentions. As such, it is expected that as the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour increases, SN will be reflected to a greater extent in actual behaviour.Furthermore, as the relation between intentions and behaviour diminishes, it is likely that the DE of SN on behaviour will be stronger as more time passes between measures of cognition and behaviour.计划行为理论根据TPB理论，行为的直接前因是执行行为的意向。
中国对外贸易英文版
中国对外贸易英文版China's Foreign TradeChina is one of the world's largest players in international trade. The country has experienced significant growth in export and import activities over the years, becoming a major contributor to global trade flows. Here are some key points about China's foreign trade:1. Exports: China is known for its vast manufacturing capabilities and has emerged as the world's largest exporter of goods. The country exports a wide range of products, including electronic goods, machinery, textiles, and toys. Chinese exports are valued at billions of dollars annually, providing employment and economic growth.2. Imports: China also has a high demand for imported goods. The country imports a variety of products, including machinery, chemicals, ores, and petroleum. China's growing middle class has contributed to increased demand for imported consumer goods, such as luxury items and automobiles.3. Trade Surplus: China has maintained a trade surplus for many years, meaning it exports more goods than it imports. This has led to some concerns among trading partners, who argue that China's trade practices may be unfair and pose a threat to domestic industries. As a result, there have been ongoing trade disputes and efforts to address trade imbalances.4. International Trade Partners: China has built strong traderelationships with numerous countries around the world. The country's largest trading partners include the United States, European Union, and ASEAN countries. China also actively participates in regional and international trade agreements, such as the Belt and Road Initiative and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership.5. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): China has become an attractive destination for foreign investors, thanks to its large consumer market, skilled workforce, and improved business environment. Foreign companies have set up manufacturing facilities and service centers in China to tap into its domestic market and take advantage of its export opportunities.6. Free Trade Zones: China has established several free trade zones (FTZs) across the country to promote foreign trade and attract foreign investments. These zones provide preferential policies, streamlined customs procedures, and tax benefits to businesses operating within their boundaries.7. Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): China's BRI is a massive infrastructure project aiming to enhance connectivity and trade between China and other countries. It includes building roads, railways, ports, and other infrastructure to facilitate trade along the ancient Silk Road routes.China's foreign trade has played a crucial role in its economic development and global engagement. However, it also faces challenges such as trade tensions, protectionism, and market access barriers. The Chinese government continues to implement policiesto support and strengthen its foreign trade, aligning it with its broader economic goals.。
国际经济与贸易 外文翻译
目录1 外文文献图片 (1)2 外文文献译文 (6)3外文文献原文 (12)外文文献译文总结：在最近的这几年来，贸易自由化对于国内的影响一直受到严密的监控。
贸易自由化和全球化的其它方面被指责成造成美国的收入不均和欧洲的失业率的根本原因。
问题的关键还在于低工资发展中国家的贸易。
虽然经济学家一直都在研究这个问题,但是却并没有找到明确的答案。
本文探讨了这种模棱两可的问题的一些原因。
内生性和同时性虽然可以产生主要的问题，但这引起业内人士指责，还是应该应该适当地归因于其他因素的发展。
但是即使仅仅针对贸易自身，它也有不能确定的影响。
这只是在最简单的赫克歇尔-俄林理论下,批评者对贸易自由化可以预测的明确结果。
1介绍在最近几年来，贸易和经济开放一直在增长,于是各个利益集团的获利影响一直被争论。
低技能工人的工资和薪水在因为全球化可能引起的潜在后果，受到特别的关注。
由于工业化国家与发展中低薪水国家的贸易份额得到增加，导致这场争论已经愈演愈烈。
在美国以及欧洲，人们对于工作，工资和生活标准时刻处于风险当中而感到恐惧的情况普遍存在，尤其是在和那些从底薪国家来的工人直接与直接竞争的地区尤为严重。
在经济学家中，争论集中在美国收入显著不平等的兴起和欧洲的失业率持续增加引起的贸易和技术变革的相对贡献。
贸易经济学家们倾向于应该减少在这些发达国家的交易规则，而大量的劳动经济学家则抱持着相反的意见。
尽管这场争论远远没有解决争端,但是它在理论和实证两个方面揭示了极其复杂的问题。
第二节列出了基本问题以及在所有商品自由流通的基础上交易的两个产品-三个要素模型对工资和就业影响的后果。
第三节部分认为最终产品就是非流通股，但它的一些部件和组件可以流通，从而可以从境外进行采购。
境外采购可能涉及海上生产和对外直接投资。
第四节探讨了资本流动的影响。
第五部分在讲述潜在的失业问题。
第六节提供了一些结论性的意见。
2海外采购和相对工资传统贸易理论的奠基石之一是在因素比例在测定专业化和贸易时的作用。
国际经济与贸易毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述
国际经济与贸易论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Research on the Approaches of the participation of China’sSMEs in International Trade under Financial CrisisAbstract Over the past 30 years, China's rapid growth of economy has been benefited from the tremendous contribution of SMEs,especially in foreign trade. However, the greatest impact of the financial crisis on China is on exports, and SMEs unavoidably is suffering hardest hit from it. Therefore, it is necessary to examine how SMEs participate in international trade under the new environment thereby contributing better and faster development to our economy. After the analysis of the development of SMEs in international trade, it has been drawn that the current trend of the overall development of SMEs in China is good, but there existing some internal problems, which will cause SMEs facing unprecedented challenges and opportunities in the financial crisis .As a result, SMEs should take the approaches to participate in international trade, such as adhering to independent innovation to enhance the market competitiveness of products; taking the use of operating flexibility to seek for new market space; taking full advantage of new tools to explore international market space; paying attention to avoiding trade barriers, and actively responding to anti-dumping lawsuits;actively investing abroad to conduct transnational business, etc., by which SMEs will soon be out of difficulties and fundamentally improve the depth and level of participation in international tradeKey words: SME, Financial crisis, Participation in international trade1. Development of SMEs in International TradeSME is the important part of GDP throughout of the world, and China's rapid growth of economy also benefited from the tremendous contribution of SMEs over the past 30 years. Until June 2007, China's total number of SMEs has reached more than 4200 million, accounting for 99.8% of the total number of national enterprises, including more than 430 million small and medium enterprises registered by the business sector, and more than 3800 million self-employed households, which accounted for 76.6% of total employment, 64.5% of industrial output value, especially 68% of total merchandise exporting value.unavoidably is suffering hardest hit from it. Therefore, it is necessary to examine how SMEs participate in international trade under the new environment thereby contributing better and faster development to our economy. In recent years, more and more SMEs have been "going out" to expand overseas market, which has driven China's economy further to the market-oriented transition to large extent, and caused China's economy integrating with the world economy more and more closely.1.1 Growth of Exports of SMEsSince the reform and opening up, China has got sustained and rapid development of foreign trade, total value of exports increasing from 20.601 billion U.S. dollars of 1978 to 2.1738 trillion U.S. dollars of 2007 with average annual growth rate of 14.77%, so exports have become one of the most important factors to push national economy, obviously the exports growth rate of SMEs in China also remains high for a long time. Department of SMEs of National Development and Reform Commission chose some small and medium enterprises as samples for analysis and research to form “Research report of export-oriented SMEs” which has been registered in the State General Administration of Customs from 2003 to 2005, with total value of exports from the one million to 20 million U.S. dollars and annual growth rate of over 25%. The report showed that the value of China's exports in 2005 amounted to 761.999 billion U.S. dollars, and SMEs’ exports reached 518.159 billion U.S. dollars, accounting for 68% of total exports. Since most of our export enterprises are SMEs, export orders index of PMI index can be selected to reflect the export situation of China's SMEs.( MENG Shan-shan, 2007)If the export orders index is above 50%, it will indicate the export expansion for a period of time, and opposite is true. From January 2005 onwards, the export orders index had maintained at above 50%, while with the gradual expansion of the financial crisis emerged in US. In 2007, the exports of SMEs have declined more and more quickly.As shown in Table1, in January 2008 the export orders index was 49.0%, which has dropped to below 50% for the first time since January 2005. Especially since from September 2008, PMI index began to decline, driving the export orders index to fall down in November 2008 to the lowest of 29%, which reflected China's external demand being further weakened. Although the index has rebounded gradually since then and rose to nearly 50% in April 2009, export enterprises in China especially SMEs are still being confronted with a severe test.luggage and other light industrial products, household plastic products and metal hardware, etc. are almost provided by SMEs. In recent years, SMEs are also actively involved in exports of high-tech and higher value-added products such as machinery equipment, electrical and electronic products, and chemical products, etc., and the proportion of SMEs in these three products has respectively amounted to 35%, 14.53% and 12.05%,rapidly growing trend being sustained. However, generally speaking, the structure of exporting goods of SMEs is still irrational, a long way for innovation and research to go. Most exporting products of SMEs are mainly resource-intensive and labor-intensive ones, therefore, the irrational structure of exporting products has brought a lot of obstacles to the survival and rapid development of SMEs. Though the state has strongly advocated "Improving trade with science and technology," but the improvement of exporting high-tech products was not obvious. According to statistics, the proportion for China's SMEs to invest in technology development is less than 40% of the national research funding, far below the level of 70% in developed countries. In particular, most private small and medium enterprises mainly rely on "imitation technology innovation" to develop, which involves small investment, short cycle, and quick pay back, but because of the ambiguity of property rights and low barriers to entry, enterprises do not have obvious advantages, and the additional value of the products produced by them is often low.1.3 Regional distribution of exporting SMEs and destination countries of exporting goodsExporting SMEs are mainly located along the coastal areas, from Bohai gulf centered by Shandong, and Liaoning,Yangtze River Delta centered by Zhejiang and Jiangsu, to the Pearl River Delta centered by Guangdong and Fujian,which have taken full advantage of the window status to and actively guide SMEs to take the road of export-oriented economy, thereby promoting the continuous development of the regional economy. Exporting destination countries mainly concentrated in the United States, Japan, Europe and other countries, which are the main trading partner of China for a long time, while the worst affected areas by the present financial crisis are Europe and America, which caused tremendous obstacles to the export of SMEs. So SMEs should actively explore new markets in order to avoid the risks of financial crisis. According to statistics of customs, in the first 8 months of 2009, the total value of bilateral trade between China and Brazil has amounted to 25.41 billion U.S. dollars, Brazil ranking as one of China's top 10 tradelevel of technology, irrational export structure, concentration of destination of exporting countries, and weak anti-risk ability. Therefore, SMEs of China are facing unprecedented challenges with the internal problems together with the high degree of harm of the financial crisis, but opportunities also existing side by side.2. Opportunities and Challenges Faced by SMEs in International Trade under the Financial Crisis2.1 Challenges2.1.1 Reduced demand for exports leading SMEs inadequate productionWith proliferation and the severe impact of the U.S. sub-prime crisis, the world economy further slows down. The sluggish consumption growth in the United States and Europe, and the weakened importing demand lead to marked drop in the exporting growth of SMEs especially in processing trade, and varying degrees of reduction in exporting orders. Statistics shows that China's exports to U.S. will decrease by 4% whenever the economic growth of U.S. Drops by l%. According to the statistics from General Administration of customs of China, in 2008, the total value of bilateral Sino-US trade amounted to 333.74 billion U.S. dollars, growing by 10.5% compared with 2007, which reaching the lowest growth rate during the seven years after entry into WTO. And the exporting value of China to the U.S. was 252.3 billion U.S. dollars at an increase rate of 8.4%, which dropping to single digit the first time in seven years. Facing the sharp reduction in orders, the unique countermeasure many companies can apply is to “Produce as orders”, i.e. Stopping production without orders, expectant. As the result of limited production, a large number of raw materials companies had purchased have been piled up in warehouses, together with many machinery and equipments, most SMEs have to maintaining a simple production in order to retain workers. In short, considerable number of enterprises is working under capacity. (Chen Lijin, 2009)2.1.2 Financing difficulties causing a serious shortage of working capitalMost SMEs are in urgent need of funds in the early stage of development and access to rapid growth period. However,due to financing difficulties, enterprises can not acquire the large amount of fund needed for development. Even with the current turmoil globalconsumer credit more difficult, as the result of the deficiency of the SMEs, small scale, poor ability to resist risks, short life and low level of credit Banks would provide more strict loan conditions to SMEs comparing with large enterprises for consideration of reducing credit risks which would cause the community reducing aggregate demand and the macro-economic environment deteriorate, and then SMEs would be lack in orders or even stop production or semi-cut-off.2.1.3 Economic efficiency decreasing significantlyAccording to the survey on nearly 2,000 key enterprises by Ministry of Commerce of China, during the first half of 2009, average export profit margin is only 1.5%, decreasing by 6.2%, part of exporting SMEs facing difficulties, which is mainly reflected in the following facts, Firstly, export growth rate of SMEs lowering as result of sharply reducing overseas orders; secondly, SMEs being at the edge of loss because declining cost of export swap rate can not keep up with the appreciation of exchange rate; thirdly, profit margin of exporting SMEs has been severely squeezed with the superposition effect of the changes of tax refund rates, exchange rates, interest rates, raw material prices, labor costs and the monetary policy environment. Since most exporting enterprises of China belong to processing SMEs, already in the end of industry value chain, with the weak ability of price transfer, it is difficult for enterprises to cover operational costs through increasing prices and profit margins of them are further squeezed. in buyer's market.2.2 OpportunitiesDespite enormous difficulties faced by SMEs, opportunities of development also come so that SMEs should seize these opportunities to continue development in the new platform.2.2.1 Opportunities of global industrial transferAfter the outbreak of the financial crisis, the pattern of the world economic development needs to be re-adjusted. From the perspective of the manufacturing sector, thecurrent global manufacturing industry mainly lies in North America, Europe and East Asia, and East Asia represented by Japan and South Korea. At present, China's manufacturing industry occupies an important position in the world, second-largest manufacturing great-power, accounting for 13.2% of that of the global value, but still far below the 20%the edge of a recession, so that the manufacturing industry in developed countries will undoubtedly accelerate the speed of transfer to developing countries to offset the adverse effects on local economy, which will help speed up the formation of China's "world factory" and bring a historic opportunity for the development of manufacturing industry. So far, despite a cyclical downturn of macroeconomic trends faced by China, the degree of the manufacturing sector still remains at a high level. Therefore, after the financial crisis of the industrial structure adjustment, China will strengthen its manufacturing center, and in the near future is likely to replace the U.S. as the world's largest manufacturing base, by which SMEs can get greater share of international trade in the global industrial transfer to drive China's economy out of shadow of the financial crisis.2.2.2 Opportunities of industrial upgradingWith the development of economic globalization, new industrial revolution and the core technologies is providing an opportunity of "reshuffle" to help backward countries achieve economic development by leaps and bounds through the development of new leading industries. The long-term development of export-oriented SMEs in China and the problems, (such as the low level of technology, mainly engaged in processing trade and low value-added products) focusing in the current financial crisis make China’s SMEs in an urgent need to conduct industrial upgrading in process. Thus, we must seize the current favorable opportunity to actively undertake the transfer of global industry and accelerate the optimization and upgrading of industrial structure to achieve sound and fast economic development, which is bound to provide unprecedented opportunities for the development and innovation of China's SMEs and new opportunities for China's industrial and product upgrading.2.2.3 Opportunities of favorable domestic policiesIn order to help SMEs cope with the financial crisis, in 2008,the central and local governments of China have adopted a series of policies and measures to secure steady and rapid development of SMEs, such as improving export tax rebate rate of some labor-intensive products, guiding the SMEs credit guarantee institutions to make greater effort to ease the difficulties of production and management for SMEs activating a package of over 4 trillion yuan construction plans to promote economic development. In addition, the commercial banks have also introduced new measures to support SMEs’ development, such as simplifying procedures of small business loans, separately arranging credittremendous opportunities for development. (NELSON K. H., 2003)Therefore, SMEs should actively take advantage of these policy supports and resource to create conditions for thegovernment loan assistance, further expand exports and strengthen their leading role in driving China's exports.3. Approac h Choices of SMEs’ Participation in International Trade3.1 Adhering to independent innovation to enhance the market competitiveness of productsIt is often ineffective for SMEs to survive only by the simple strategy to reduce prices owing to their small-scale, low level of technology and weak market capacity. Only if SMEs implement their own innovative strategies, take the way of "small but specialized, specialized but tertiary", manage to raise the added value of products, enhance market competitiveness and create differentiated products, would they get rid of difficulties to expand their own market space.Firstly, fully understand the importance of innovation. Many SMEs do not really recognize the importance of innovation and R & D, usually putting production and operation income in the first place while ignoring long-term development of enterprises. Therefore, it is much important to work out relationship between production and R & D. Secondly, orient the innovation of SMEs to market demand. R & D and innovation are aimed at better development of SMEs in the future market competition for them to occupy a dominant position to get more profit. Therefore, all innovation and R & D need to carry out according to the actual needs of the market.Thirdly, obtain innovative technologies outside SMEs through introduction, cooperation and mergers. SMEs can get access to innovative technologies after the correct assessment on the market, its capacity and partners through introduction, cooperation and mergers. (HUANG Bin FANG , 2009)3.2 Taking the use of operating flexibility to seek for new market spaceDue to less restriction of traditional economic system, SMEs are strongly interest-driven and market-oriented with flexibility and variability, which request SMEs own a large number of daring entrepreneurs who can take full advantage of their own strengths and market opportunities to develop their business with the absolute control overrequirements of the times to come into the market areas usually ignored by large enterprises, as which there existing characteristics as short product life cycle, low but stable profits, inadequate market capacity, and small quantity of production. At present, exporting goods of SMEs are mainly distributed in the United States and Europe, which were badly hit by the financial crisis, so SMEs should actively explore new markets, actively stepping out the shadow from the financial crisis.3.3 Taking full advantage of new tools to explore international market spaceDuring the global economic crisis, facing the situation of shrinking export markets, many SMEs have to tighten expenditure thereby changing the traditional sales methods in order to reduce marketing costs, which concerns that SMEs can acquire complete information quickly through e-commerce, greatly reducing the search costs and improving the efficiency of the search; find suppliers on line to reduce purchasing costs and improve the international market competitiveness of products and expand overseas market through searching purchasers on line. According to “2009 Annual Report on the development of Network e nterprises” issued by Alibaba, after 10 years of development, network enterprises of China have gradually realized the integration with the mainstream of socio-economic system. Till the first half of 2009, the amount of China's network enterprises has been expanded to 63 million, with the growing social impact. Thus, SMEs can make use of e-commerce to help enhance mutual exchanges, and to gain more effective means than traditional means of marketing channels to expand the volume of foreign trade.3.4 Paying attention to avoiding trade barriers, and actively responding to anti-dumping lawsuitsSince small differences of exporting goods of the majority of SMEs in China led to the situation of export order in chaos and dramatic price competition, when SMEs were expanding overseas rapidly, they have been exposed to an increasing number of barriers to trade, anti-dumping lawsuits and intellectual property litigation. At present, due to the impact of financial crisis on the global trade, countries are expected to protect their own economy by stimulating domestic demand or taking import substitution measures, while most exporting goods of China's SMEs are labor-intensive, low value-added and easily substitutable, so China's exporting goods ran into hardest hit by trade barriers. (Ruta Aidis, 2005)awareness of barriers to trade, and pay attention to the harm caused by trade barriers, on the one hand, avoiding trade barriers through a variety of ways and means to reduce the harm by trade barriers; on the other hand, emphasizing on the anti-dumping lawsuits to actively respond to them. And then, each SME should strengthen its integration to hedge their risks by the full use of the power of community organizations.3.5 Actively investing abroad to conduct transnational businessWith the expansion of globalization and the increasingly fierce international competition, China's SMEs expand overseas investment and international co-operation not only to avoid the above-mentioned barriers to trade, but also to get the interests of international competition and to serve as a useful complement to the expansion of exporting goods. At present, the main force of China's foreign investment is large enterprises, foreign investment of SMEs is still in its infancy. SMEs should actively carry out foreign investment, do develop cross-border operations with the use of their own advantages.4. ConclusionSMEs’ participation in international trade is a complicated systematic project, and can not be solved only by themselves.In face of financial crisis, SMEs should continuously improve themselves and seek for the space to survive and develop in the environment for changes. At the same time, the Government has the responsibility and obligation to provide the necessary support to help SMEs survive in difficulties. It is believable that SMEs will soon be out of difficulties and fundamentally improve the depth and level of participation in international trade with the efforts of both the government’s policy support and the creating ability of SMEs.References[1] Fenxi Mining. (2009). Study on the Payment Incentive Mechanism of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises under the Financial Crisis. Rural Economy. (Vol 8) (91-93). [2] HUANG, Binfang. (2009).Technological Achievement and the Sustainable Development of Regional Medium and Small Export Enterprises: Corresponding Renovating Countermeasures. Journal of International Trade. (Vol7)(106-108).[3] Lijin Chen. (2009). The Impact of Global Financial Crisis on China's Small & Medium-Sized Enterprises and Their Corresponding Strategies. REFORMATION & STRATEGY, 25(6): (85-87).[4] Shan-shan MENG & Hui-ying WANG. (2007). Solutions to small and medium-sized enterprises’ financial services of China. China-USA Business Review, Mar. Volume 6, No.3 (Serial No.45) (79-82).[5] NELSON K. H. TANG. (2003). Development of an Electronic business Planning Model for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises. International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications, Vol. 6, No. 4, (289-304)[6] Ruta Aidis. (2005). Institutional Barriers to Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprise Operations in Transition Countries.Small Business Economics, 25: 305–318.金融危机下中国中小企业参与国际贸易的途径研究摘要在过去30年来，中国经济的快速增长一直得益于中小企业的巨大贡献，特别是中小企业在对外贸易中的贡献。
国际经济与贸易 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 国际海运业_国际产业的国际规则
INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING:GLOBAL REGULATION FOR A GLOBAL INDUSTRYSource:[1]Krishna Prasad,Changing Role of Ship-Brokers,Journal of Information Technology,2004[2]European Community,Overview of the International CommercialShipbuilding Industry,First Marine International Limited.2003[3]ICS,IMO,International shipping:Global Regulation For a GlobalIndustry,International Chamber of Shipping,2007Conclusions from Modal Workshop 4at the 2009 International Transport ForumStatement by the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO)The following statement reflects the discussion during Modal Workshop 4, International Shipping: Global Regulation for a Global Industry, which took place at the 2009 International Transport Forum in Leipzig, Germany, on 27 May 2009.Following several years of incredibly buoyant shipping markets, for many trades the best in living memory, much of the international shipping industry has fallen prey to the worldwide economic downturn. Shipping is inherently the servant of the economy, so the contraction in trade, following the beginning of the ‘credit crunch’ in late 2008, has translated into a dramatic and abrupt reduction in demand for shipping.Initially worst hurt were the containership trades. By the spring of 2009 some 10% of the fleet was already laid up, much of it too modern and expensive to go to recycling yards. However, the dry bulk trades have also been severelyaffected, particularly by the reduction in demand for raw materials from China, with spot market freight rates for some bulk carriers being a fraction of the peak prices achieved in 2008. By April 2009, rates for crude, product and chemical tankers had also fallen very sharply. In general most shipping markets present a rather bleak picture.A major concern of ICS national shipowners’ associations therefore is to discourage governments from responding to the crisis with protectionist measures, which will only damage world trade further. More particularly,governments must avoid measures that restrict fair and open access to shipping markets. Although most shipping today enjoys relatively liberalised trading conditions compared to the days of national cargo reservation in the 1980s,shipping is unusual in that it is one of the few major industries not yet covered by a global multilateral trade agreement. However, the prospect of a new agreement under the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO) looks increasingly uncertain. The industry must therefore be extremely vigilant inreacting to any moves towards protectionism in maritime trades, especiallythose using safety and security as a pretext.The shipping industry does not expect special treatment, or the billions of dollars of support being granted by some governments to the likes of the banking and automobile industries. However, to operate competitively and efficiently in very difficult circumstances, shipping requires the maintenance of a regulatory ‘level playing field’, and continuation of the certainty no w provided by the tonnage tax regimes that apply to shipowners in many countries.Shipping is notoriously volatile, and its more experienced practitioners are familiar with the cyclical boom and bust nature of maritime freight rates.However, the contraction resulting from the general global downturn could well be exacerbated by the large number of new buildings due to come into service during the next few years, notwithstanding efforts by many shipowners to cancel or renegotiate contracts. Many of these ships were ordered at high prices at the top of the market.In the face of this two-way pressure, there is likely to be a considerable increase in the number of older vessels that will be sent for dismantling and recycling. In view of the adoption, in May 2009, of a new IMO Convention to address concerns about working and environmental conditions in ship recycling yards, the need for governments to identify facilities that are acceptable for use will become all the more pressing.As the IMO Secretary-General has forcefully identified, financial pressures on the industry must not be allowed to result in any reduction in standards. Much has been achieved in the last 20 years with regard to safety and environmental performance, and no one is suggesting a moratorium on new regulations that genuinely improve safety, which is always the industry’s overriding priority. However, governments need to understand that any immediate regulatory and policy decisions they take must avoid impacting negatively on shipping as it struggles to deal with the currenteconomic situation.Notwithstanding the current gloom and doom, the longer term outlook for the industry remains very good. The world’s population continues to expand, and emerging economies will continue to increase their requirements for the goods and raw materials that shipping transports so safely and efficiently. In the longer term, provided the politicians make sensible decisions, the fact that shipping is the most fuel efficient and carbon friendly form of commercial transport should work in favour of an even greater proportion of world trade being carried by sea.It is to be hoped that Ministers at the International Transport Forum willdeliver a strong statement in support of the maintenance of open shipping markets, and, more generally, promote an early conclusion of the WTO negotiations for a new global trade agreement.China has seen order intake rise steadily over the past five years, achieving a share of 13% by 2002. This has been in line with the plans of central government to develop the industry, with major investment in recent years. However, in terms of market share the industry is still well behind the two leaders in Japan and South Korea. Chinese builders focus in particular on tankers and bulk carriers to gain volume but participate in most market sectors apart from the LNG market. China expects to achieve the capability to build LNG carriers in the near future. It is also only recently that China has developed the capability to build large tankers (aframax and above) and the construction of a greater share of the VLCC market is an aim of the industry. A greater share of the container sector, in particular the large ship sector, is also a goal of the industry. To date container ship construction has been restricted to smaller ships only.The EU industry has seen order intake fall significantly in recent years, in particular due to a downturn in the ordering of cruise ships and loss of share of the container market. Market share in the EU industry is now down to 7%. EU shipyards have lost almost all share of the bulk carrier sector and most of the tanker sector. Container ship market share, the last volume sector in which EU yards have a foothold, has also fallen over the past five years. Increasing reliance has been placed on the passenger and specialised sectors, with shipyards taking a 54% share of ferry orders in 2002 and almost all cruise ship orders. Having said this, order volume for passenger ships was relatively low in 2002 and order intake into EUshipyards was correspondingly low.In effect the industry in the EU has had to retrench into a small number of market niches in recen years, predominantly small ships, passenger ships and specialised ships. The cruise market maintained some volume up to 2001 but with a sharp fall in order intake in that sector the industry as a whole has seen order intake and market share plummet.Japan has seen a steady order intake in recent years, with the market lead alternating with South Korea according to shifts in market and economic conditions. Japan had a very strong market lead in 2002. Japanese shipbuilding’s main product is bulk carriers for the home market, making up almost 40% of all orders taken in 2002. Oil and chemical tankers and gas carriers also make up a significant portion of the industry’s business. Japanese shipbuilding has lost a considerable share of the container ship market to South Korea.South Korea experienced a significant peak of order intake in 2000 and a relatively steady level in other years. South Korean shipyards took over 50% of the container ship market in 2002, over 40% of the oil tanker market and significant shares of the gas and chemical tanker markets. The industry has tried to exit the bulk carrier sector because of low value, although it has been forced to take orders recently to maintain production volume.South Korean builders have been trying to pursue a strategy to address the higher value sectors to maximise profitability, in particular the market for LNG carriers. The scope to do this is limited in relation to the volume of work needed to keep the industry in South Korea busy. The product focus tables included in appendix 3 to this report indicate that whilst there was a significant intake of LNG carriers in 2001, ordinarily this sector makes up less than 10% of the total order intake into South Korea. Korean builders have yet to penetrate the passenger ship sector to any significant degree, this being the other high added value sector that the yards may try to pursue. In a typical year up to around 80% of orders will be from the main bulk cargo sectors, tankers, bulk carriers and container ships.Shipbrokers are intermediaries between the two parties to a contract, whether they are Shipowners and Charterers or buyers and sellers. They may act for one principal and occasionally as the sole broker between the two contractingparties.They will be involved in most aspects of a contract, including circulation of tonnage and business to potential clients, negotiating the main terms of the fixture or sale, finalising the details of the contract and following the contract through toits conclusion. With few exceptions, virtually all second-hand ship purchases are conducted through a Shipbroker. The decision to buy or sell a vessel can have far reaching consequences for an owner in terms of profitability and market position. Shipbrokers are uniquely positioned to offer clients information on market activity that might not otherwise be available. Whilst such information is free to clients, Shipbrokers must earn their living by concluding sales or fixtures. The matter of trust between Shipbrokers and their clients is absolutely paramount and most Owners and Charterers have good relationships with their Brokers which have taken a considerable time to develop. Through their worldwide network of contacts Shipbrokers have a vast pool of information that is available to their clients on a confidential and competent basis.Ship brokering, as a profession, has been in vogue since the early days of commercial shipping. Initially the owner of the ship was also the trader – or in other words, the trader was the owner of the ship. He bought goods in one place, carried the goods in his ship to another place and sold it there. As the trade evolved, the trading activity and the shipping activity were separated; the ship owner merely carried cargo from the trader or various traders in one location to another location and handed it over to the buyers. With the evolution in trade specialization in shipping, the role of ship-brokers became more pronounced. The shipbroker was the intermediary who would find ships for the merchants; and cargoes for the ship owners who often traveled with the ship.The modern day shipping market comprises of, on one side, ship-owners with varying fleet sizes and operators, who though do not own ships but never the less control the commercial operations of ships and on the other side,charterers of varying sizes who control different cargoes – large and small lots; theship-broker as an intermediary between the owners and the Charterers. The primary role of the shipbroker remains to be‘finding ships for cargoes and cargoes for ships’ but modern day communication and computing tools are redefining the finer aspects of Shipbroking.This Paper looks at the role of the shipbrokers in the past, the impact of technology in the profession of ship brokering and the changing role of shipbrokers. Thedry-cargo market is taken for analysis as it is the least standardized shipping market – and perhaps one of the most complicated in terms of practices and commercial operations.This Paper looks at the role of the shipbrokers in the past, the impact of technology in the profession of ship brokering and the changing role of shipbrokers. Thedry-cargo market is taken for analysis as it is the least standardized shipping market – and perhaps one of the most complicated in terms of practices and commercial operations.SHIPBROKINGShipping is an international business. A person dealing with ship-chartering has to work with the conditions prevailing day by day in the international freight market.A large number of customs and rules of the trade have been established through the years all over the world. These rules and ethics are scrupulously followed by the practitioners worldwide else it is not possible to do business worth millions of dollars with parties across the world at short notice.Chartering work is essentially a form of exchange of information. It is a business where the right information at the right moment is essential to be successful. Everyone involved in chartering acts, to a large extent, as a collector, judge and distributor of information. Ship broking can be seen as an information network; a network of people as well as technology that facilitates information exchanges. A great deal of the flow of information consists of details on fixtures all over the world. "Making a fixture" means that the parties interested in a specific sea transport contract reach an agreement through negotiations.The parties involved in a chartering deal are, on the one hand, someone who owns, controls or operates a ship (as an owner, time chartered owner or disponent owner).We shall call him Owner for simplicity. On the other hand, there are persons who require some cargo to be carried by sea transport between two destinations. Normally (but not always) he is the cargo owner. Let us call him charterer. Charterer can act as an owner when he controls the tonnage. There can be various aspects as roles get redefined or can get complex.Ship-brokers normally specialize in a specific segment of the market; be it dry cargo, chemical, passenger vessels, RORO vessels etc. The various marketsegments have their own peculiarities and the market behavior is also varied –forcing the practitioners to adopt specializations.Ship-broking, particularly that of a competitive broker is an opportunity based business. As and when opportunities for new business crop up, the broker has to be on his toes to help conclude the deal. The importance of time is all the more important these days when certain segments of the market see highly volatile fluctuations.The charterers value the brokers’ information, knowledge, skills for negotiation as well as his perception of the market. As in other businesses, value added services generate goodwill and brokers who offer such services stand out among other ordinary ones.Chartering MethodologyThe chartering methodology is in the process of transformation as a result of the revolutionizing changes brought in by digital communication and computing power.Instead of a short list of close contacts, every broker now has hundreds of contacts. Each and every business is flashed to these contacts many times – sometimes more than once a day. This is in contrast to the olden days when, due the high cost of telex communication, businesses were given only to a few contacts.Even after commencement of the negotiation, it is not uncommon for owners (or Charterers) to look at other businesses. They may leave a negotiation half way through and choose to work another business. In the past, once the owner (or charterer) chose a particular business and started negotiations they tried to conclude it. Only if the chosen business fails do they go for another. One could say that the negotiations are no longer focused.The primary function of a shipbroker representing a ship-owner is to find employment for the ships under the control of his principal (the ship-owner or shipoperator).In the case of a ship broker representing a cargo interest, theship-brokers role is to find suitable ships for the cargo which his principal (the charterer) wants to transport. This function requires an in depth knowledge of ship and cargoes, information about Ports, methods of loading and discharging ofvarious cargoes, weather patterns,demand and supply of ships and so forth.With the advent of digital communication and powerful computing techniques ship- brokers’ network has grown far and wide. Each ship broker gets cargo and ship position from a hundred sources or so – over a thousand emails a day. Each broker circulates his prospective businesses – ships looking for cargoes or cargoes looking for suitable ships- to his contacts. Some of these are re-circulated again and again.Managing the vast number of email messages received by a ship broker everyday is a challenge in itself. It may appear that simple solutions like filters, ‘rules’ etc can be used to minimize the inflow of messages. But this may not an easy task considering the fact that almost every message with cargo and ship information is a source of information for the shipbroker. It shows the state of the market in terms of demand and supply of ship. Activating filters often sends many of the wanted messages to the ‘junk’ folder.In the olden times the shipbroker had rather limited reach. Each broker had a few contacts with whom he had interacted regularly using telex as the primary mode ofcommunication. Telex being expensive and less user friendly (relatively), the interaction was limited to bare essentials. Telephone, the other communication method available those days was prohibitively expensive and unreliable when used for long distance contacts. ‘Urgent’ and ‘Lightning’ calls were not connected for hours and hours.As said earlier, shipbrokers track the market activity closely. It is this information that is used by many owners and Charterers to formulate their business strategies.Large ship brokering houses have set up elaborate research outfits. These research units constantly collect data on a wide range of parameters and analyze them. Analytical reports are given to their clients and associates on a regular basis. The Baltic Exchange and some leading ship brokers publishes information on fixtures (contracts) concluded. They also publish indices on various segments of the market.The broker is also expected to advise on the possible trends of rates or availability of cargoes or ships etc. For example, if demand for iron ore increases, the shipsavailable for carriage of grain may drop and so much so, the grain freight rates may shoot up. Is it better to go in for long term time charter or prefer spot market for our requirement of space for next 12 months? An experienced broker can give sound advise in such matters.Disputes are unavoidable in any business deal – particularly when it is carried out across different cultures and under conditions which are dynamic and unpredictable. Although every contract provides a dispute resolution mechanism, the parties to the contract look forward to the intermediaries to anticipate potential dispute areas and take corrective actions. They also look forward to the ship-broker to help resolve any disputes that may come up in spite of the precautions. Ship-brokers, having built up a close rapport with the owner and the charterer are in a position to forge out formulas to find solutions to complicated problems. Commercial prudence can realize that legal disputes take much of time and money and both parties will accept a mutually acceptable and fair solution from a unbiased broker rather go in for costly litigation. Usually the parties to the contract resort to judicial and other dispute resolution mechanisms only after the intermediaries fail.The process of chartering starts with the pre fixture analysis when thetrader/charterer gives the basic details of the business to his broker (or in – house shipping department) who estimates the achievable freight rate. The broker, in addition to giving the freight rate also advises the trader about important parameters affecting the particular business. Using this information, the trader concludes the sale deed and asks the shipping department or the broker to fix the ship.The freight market is not a uniform one; it consists of various part markets that are not dependent on each other. The demand and supply and the market behavior of each of these segments are not necessarily inter related. Individual segments behave in their own way. It is not uncommon to see one segment riding the crest of a market boom when another one will be reeling under depressive pressures.The information and data required for analyzing the market trends for each segment is as different as the various segments in the industry. In addition to supply and demand, the state of the market also depends on economic situation, price of oil, war,strikes, weather and climatic factors, good or bad harvest, governmental policies, and so on and so forth. The hands-on broker need to have his data basespread over a wide variety of parameters to give meaningful information to his clients.Owning and operating a commercial ship in international and domestic trades is a complicated process that requires extensive experience and a large amount of capital (which limits entry by people unfamiliar to the business). You can't just buy a ship and sail off for a few months and then resell the ship to launder your money. Shipping is a highly cyclical business with volatile vessel values. Ship operation is very expensive – it costs $5-10,000 minimum per day to operate a ship and if someone does not know what they are doing, the losses can pile up fast.Offshore companies have been set up for decades with sophisticated structures that even financial institutions have trouble identifying who is the true ship owner - let alone the S&P broker who has no financial data available regarding a single purpose ship owning company.In the regular course of his business the S+P broker knows the market and what ships are or may become available for sale and who may be interested in purchasing them. The S+P broker provides sales candidates (i.e. a ship) to a buyer, arranges the inspection of the vessel, communicates the negotiations between the buyer / seller leading to an agreement, prepares the sales contract and coordinates the transaction until the ship is delivered and the agreed price is paid.We estimate that approximately 1,000 large ships are sold worldwide per year and the U.S. brokers may sell 25-50 of those (roughly 2.5-5.0 percent) .There are more than a hundred ship brokerage firms outside of the U.S.that provide sale and purchase services. In the U;S. there is only a handful, so it should be noted that putting restrictions on their activities would put them at a competitive disadvantage with foreign brokers. Regulations must be universal and apply to brokers in all countries – we estimate that 95-97 % of ship sale transactions take place outside of the U.S.If a ship owner has the choice between a foreign broker requiring no disclosure vs. a U.S. broker that requires extensive paperwork and registration, the choice is obvious and the small amount of business that currently gets done will dry up for the Americans.国际海运业：国际产业的国际规则Source:[1]Krishna Prasad,Changing Role of Ship-Brokers,Journal of Information Technology,2004[2]European Community,Overview of the International CommercialShipbuilding Industry,First Marine International Limited.2003 [3]ICS,IMO,International shipping:Global Regulation For aGlobal Industry,International Chamber of Shipping,2007在2009年国际航运公会和国际海事组织组织的国际运输论坛模型研讨会上得出的结论。
《国际贸易中商务英语翻译的文化差异及应对策略开题报告2400字》
[8]韩梦擎.浅谈中西方文化差异对商务英语翻译的影响及策略[J].佳木斯职业学院学报，2019(08)：170+173.
[9] 林砂立. 跨文化交际视角下的日中翻译[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2020.
李茜（2019）研究了《外贸英语翻译的特点及探究》。在本文中，李茜分析外贸英语翻译的特点包括:使用大量的贸易术语、专业词汇的运用、对准确性要求较高、固定搭配、文体正式、语言简洁，然后提出外贸英语翻译的标准。外贸英语翻译要准确，忠实，文体风格-致，符合习惯与规范。
赵璐(2017)在《经贸英语的文体特点及翻译原则的实例分析》认为译者在针对经贸合同进行翻译的过程中，必须要有专业的经贸意识，超强的职业素养，中外文功底深厚，外文素养高，同时也要把握好和翻译内容有关的数科专业知识。在进行翻译的时候，要依据文本的种类采用则对应的翻译技巧，尽可能让其和原文统一，把原文的意思正确地传递给读者。
[4]王文彦，聂雯.中西方文化差异对商务英语翻译的影响及对策研究[J].山东农业工程学院学报，2019，36(10)：167-168.
[5]廖澄懿.国际贸易中商务英语翻译的文化差异及应对[J].中外企业家，2019(29)：212.
[6]陈定.跨文化交际视角下的商务英语翻译研究[J].智库时代，2019(3月 日
学术背景：
在国际贸易中进行互动和交流的过程中，合同的签订是当事人之间必不可少的一步。由于国际贸易通常是跨国进行的，合同翻译就显得尤为重要。目前有学者或宏观或微观探讨外贸函电的语言特征和相应翻译策略，但是对中外国际贸易的文化差异与国际贸易文化内涵却鲜有深入研究，为避免因文化差异导致贸易过程中英语翻译过程中可能引起的争端。本研究从国际贸易中英语翻译的文化差异作为切入点，为国际贸易中从事商务英语翻译的译者提供便利。有了这样的认识，译者应该能够有效识别文化差异，能更准确地完成贸易翻译活动。
国际经济贸易专业毕业论文外文翻译
外文资料翻译译文绝对优势和比较优势介绍根据十九世纪英国经济学家大卫李嘉图引进的国际贸易的传统模式来解释这个模式，并冃.从贸易的比较优势中得出，它假定一个完全竞争和一个劳动生产单因素，不同的国家之间毎输出单位对不断需求的劳动力是不同的。
在李嘉图模熨中的贸易基础是国家之间的技术差界。
因此，冇两种不同的方法來描述技术差异：第i种方法，叫做绝对优势，是大多数人理解科学技术不同的方法。
第二种方法，叫做比较优势，是一个更为因难的概念。
绝对优势理论乂称绝对成木说(Theory of Absolute Cost)、地域分I.说(Theory of Territorial Division of Labor)o 该理论将一国内部不同职业之间、不同工种之间的分工原则推演到各国之间的分工，从而形成其国际分工理论。
绝对优势理论是最早的主张口由贸易的理论，宙英国古典经济学派主要代表人物亚当・斯密创立。
绝对优势的主要内容：⑴分工可以提高劳动生产率，增加国民财富。
斯密认为，交换是出丁•利己心并为达到利C冃的而进行的活动，是人类的一种天然倾向。
(2)分工的原则是成本的绝对优势或绝对利益。
斯密进而分析到，分工既然可以极人地提高劳动生产率，那么每个人专•门从爭他最冇优势的产品的纶产，然后彼此交换，则对每个人都是冇利的。
即分工的原则是成本的绝对优势或绝对利(3)国际分工是各种形式分工中的最简阶段，在国际分工基础上开展国际贸易,对呂国都会产生良好效果。
斯密由家庭推及国家，论证了国际分匚和国际贸易的必要性。
他认为，适用于…国内部不同个人或家庭之.间的分工原则，也适用于各国Z间。
国际分工是各种形式分工中的最高阶段。
(4)国际分工的基础是冇利的自然禀赋或厉夭的有利条件。
斯密认为，冇利的生产条件来源于冇利的自然禀赋或后天的冇利条件。
自然禀赋和后天的条件因国家而不同，这就为国际分工捉供了基础。
绝对优势是经济表现的最简单的方式。
它是对于其他国家的资源來说，能够以较低的成木來生产出一个产品。
毕业论文外文翻译-WTO与首都北京经济
WTO and Capital Peking’s EconomyJ effrey J . McMillan ABSTRACTChina’s accession to the WTO is an important event of our economic life in the course of reforms and opening. Therefore, Peking Municipal Government has established a special research team, wh ich is designated to the study on the subject of China’s accession to the WTO and its impacts on the economic development of the capital. Here are only some views on the primary results of the research.I. Impacts on the economy of the capitalChina’s accession to the WTO means that our country will integrate and participate in the course of the economic globalization with an unprecedented extent and depth, and Peking will be in a brand new environment of development. The requirements of the market system reflected by the free trade principles and rules advocated by the WTO and the industrial orientation implied in the furtherance of the new international division of labor are consistent with the general direction of the economic development of the capital. In front of the wider opening of the market system, Peking, a city as the center for international communication, is endowed with resources of advanced technology and education, stronger comprehensive economic power and a fully established foreign-oriented pattern of multiple levels involved in wide fields, and thus Peking is in a more favorable competitive position as compared with other areas possibly with some relative advantages in international competition. Therefore, with correctly determined development strategy and tactics and initiatives in making full use of advantages and avoiding disadvantages, Peking may maximally share the benefits and opportunities brought forth by China’s accession to the WTO and reduce the shocks and pulse, hence facilitating the promotion of the economic development of the capital.II. Basic principles to be observed in developing the economy of the capital upon China’s accession to the WTOUpon China’s accession to the WTO, the economic development of the capital shall abide by the principles of comparative advantages and stick to the principles of reforms and innovation and the principles of the balance of focus on both domestic and foreign opening, thus pushing the economic growth and increasingly expanding the three demands for investment, consumption and import and export.In view of investment, it is initially estimated that for the first years upon China’s accession to the WTO, the domestic investment growth will be impacted by about 1--2%, thegrowth of the utilization of foreign investment will be impacted by 8--10%, and calculated on the basis of the current investment composition, total investment of fixed assets will witness a growth of 2--3.5%. Based on the elasticity of fixed asset against GDP from 1982 through 1998, the growth of GDP will be promoted by 1.5--2.5%. In view of consumption, during the initial period, China’s accession to the WTO will promote the growth rate of total residential consumption by 1--1.5%, and the growth rate of the ultimate total annual consumption will be promoted by about 0.6%, which means that upon complete realization of the agreement commitments, China’s accession to the WTO will promote the growth of total residential consumption by 5--6% in Peking, with the growth of the ultimate total annual consumption promoted by about 4%, thus bringing forth the growth of GDP by 2--2.5%. In view of import and export, the export of the traditional advantageous products of Peking Municipality will witness more growth, especially that of light textile products and mechanic-electrical products. Upon China’s accession to the WTO, the demands for import of the whole municipality witnesses obvious increase at the growth rate over that of export, and the situation of more import than export may not change. In view of employment, general trend is that the sustained economic growth will bring forth the increase of total employment, and the situation of more supply of labor than demand may be alleviated. Especially, the total introduction of foreign investment by Peking will witness more growth, and the development of tertiary industry will be accelerated, which may create new jobs though the pressure of employment is still big in a short term. With the accession to the WTO，the economic development of the capital is sure to face a issue of optimization and upgrading of industrial composition. According to our analysis, the industries with more development opportunities of the capital mainly include agriculture, hi-tech, foods industry, light industry, tourism, scientific, educational, cultural and health causes, information consulting industry, and exhibition industry. The industries with more challenges of the capital include electronic and communication equipment manufacturing industry, petrochemical industry, auto industry, machinery industry, metallurgical industry, building material industry, financial and insurance industry, commercial and beverage industry, transportation and post industry. Accordingly, we will carry out adjustment of industrial composition based on the above-mentioned analysis.III. Impacts on foreign economy and trade of the capitalAt present, there exists obvious gaps between the foreign trade management system of our country and the requirements of the WTO, which are embodied as follows: （1）Incomplete system of laws and regulations;（2）High import tariffs;（3）Numerous onus administrative measures of import and export: currently, 35 varieties of import commodities and 59 varieties of export commodities adopt licensing administration, most of which are not permitted for imposition of import and export restrictions by the WTO;（4）Failure to fully implement non-discriminatory principles, such as not adopting national treatment with foreign investment enterprises;（5）Insufficient transparency in foreign economic and trade policies.（6）The resources control and environment pressurePeking belongs to serious water shortage region, person all the water resources shortage 300 sign a square rice, only occupy quantity for the national person of 1/8, person in world all occupies quantity of 1/30, the water resources supply and demand antinomy's turning worse continuously will be the suburban area economy to develop main check and supervision factor;Resources quantity in land is limited, spare resources shortage, the agriculture uses ground to reduce gradually;The village labor force character is hard to satisfy the objective demand that the economy develops quickly.In the meantime, the suburban area is the ecosystem natural cover of the capital city, the ecosystem environment foundation still weaker, constuct and protect ecosystem environment and carry out and can keep on a development to face huge mission of in the economy the development the process.Face new situation, the suburban area economy the development still exists some antinomies and problem, main performance at:The economic total amount and structure and capital city position,economy movement mechanism and market economy request,the industrialization level and modernization strategy,small town the development and construction internationalize the metropolis,the farmer income growth speed and contract the city country difference, etc. still exists not adapt of place.How develop the niche,science and technology,information of the suburban area well etc. advantage, resolve these antinomies and problem further, BE"15" periodses speed the suburban area economy development step,the exaltation agriculture and village modernize level face of important topic.The influence that joins WTO to the capital city outside traid mainly expresses for the traditional advantage product export growth, the exit of the traditional market steady growth, the newly arisen market export will have already greatlied compare to increase as well, each kind of product that export a business enterprise is subjected to the influence degree dissimilarity, the overseas-funded enterprises advantage is obvious, outside traid the professional company difficulty compare greatly, import may significant growth, serve thetrade income and expend all will with sooner the speed increase.Will exceed the goods trade to attain this year according to statistics 40 have another hundred million.Drawing on the foreign capital influence to the capital city to mainly express for the policy will make further adjustment;To the special policy of the overseas-funded enterprises to citizen the treatment change;Loosen outward a company the industry realm of the investment;Increase the clarity that the outside company invests law,laws.The impacts of the accession of the WTO on the foreign trade of the capital are mainly reflected as follows: the export of traditional advantageous industries will witness growth, the export of traditional market will witness stable growth, the export of the emerging market will also witness rapid growth, the impacts are different on the products of various export-oriented enterprises whereby the advantages of foreign-invested enterprises are obvious and while the difficulties of professional foreign trade companies may be big. Import may witness a big growth with the incomes and expenditures of trade in services growing even quicker. According to statistics, trade in services will exceed trade in goods by more than RMB4b.The impacts on the introduction of foreign investment of the capital are mainly as follows: policies will be further adjusted; the preferential policies with foreign-invested enterprises will shift to national treatment; the industrial fields will be extended for foreign investment; and the transparency will be enhanced in the laws and regulations on foreign investmentIV. Policy proposals on the foreign economic and trade development of the capital and speeding up the reforms of state-owned foreign trade enterprises.For the institutional reforms of foreign economic and trade systems, the administrative functions of the government will be changed in foreign economy and trade, and the municipal government will adopt measures for streamlining the establishment and institutions, simplifying the procedures of the approval and ratification functions, enhancing efficiency and improving the environment quality; speeding up the construction in foreign-related economic laws and regulations and policies; and making better use of the roles of foreign economic and trade intermediaries and institutions.For trade in goods, mainly making use of the advantages of the capital for creating a good trade environment; implementing the strategy of trade promotion based on science and technology, optimizing the composition of export commodities, increasing the export of hi-tech produces by even greater extent, and especially focusing on developing the software export in Peking; implementing the strategy of “going out” for development of transnational operations; and expending the subjects for operations of foreign trade, thus forming large-scale foreign economic and trade groups.In terms of trade in services, mainly establishing and perfecting the management system of the trade in services and formulating plans; perfecting the policy provisions on service industries and the policies on trade in services; and speeding up the cultivation of the talents in trade of services.In terms of utilization of foreign investment, mainly reinforcing the strength in improving investment climate; adjusting the strategy for introduction of foreign merchants and capital; and expanding the fields, channels and means.The measures for reforms of foreign trade enterprises include expansion of opening, adopting the important way of introduction of foreign investment and the process of industries, with the sales channels of foreign investment, thus reducing the threshold of policies; carrying out enterprise restructuring for advancement by streamlining; allowing for employees’ holding of shares, option incentives, and formulating relaxed systems for maximal maneuvering and scheduling of the initiatives of people; allowing for the adoption of conversion of debts into shares; and allowing for the bankruptcy of foreign trade companies.W T O 与首都北京经济[摘要]中国入世，是中国经济生活和改革开放进程中的重大事件。
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外文原文Analysis on the model of Chinese foreign tradeThis paper clarified contact actual implementation in China shall actively future import substitution and export-oriented strategy model combining the compound in view, and expounds the select and implement the strategic mode of economic exhibition should consider the problem.A country's foreign economic development strategy mode can be summarized as import substitution and export-oriented two basic modes of population, the market in China, its large capacity development space, but also vast exist, and per capita underdeveloped productivity development and utilization of natural resources are limited and economic efficiency, low enough and limited capital accumulation restraints. This kind of situation determines that China cannot implement single import-substituted strategy, also cannot implement single export-oriented strategy should be implemented, and import substitution and export-oriented combination of complex strategy, can we make full use of and development of domestic and foreign two resources and markets, to better achieve strategic balance and China's economic development goals.1. Implementation of import substitution and export-orientedstrategy model combining with China1.1 In China since last century the development situation of ppBy the middle of the last century, in a single planned economic system restriction and the influence of political and economic environment at home and abroad, China's foreign economic development strategy, with a single plan experience associated economic system closing economic development strategy mode namely single import-substituted strategy mode. In this economy under the guidance of the strategic thought, from the 1950s to the late 1970s, after 20 years of construction and development, our preliminary realized industrialization, creating a more complete suitable for China's national conditions of industrial system, and have achieved some results. However, implementing a single importsubstitution didn't achieve desired success. When our country is economically backward agricultural country, the construction funds shortage, industrial technology is low, national low per capita income, residents purchasing power and consumption level is very low, this kind of situation has determined the domestic market at the limited space in China. Therefore, in the implementation of import substitution strategy, development in the process of import substitution industry difficulties and of all obstacles. Meanwhile, the industrial system in China in countries under the highly protected is established and developed, enterprise mainly rely on increase production inputs to expand the scale of production, to realize the economic growth, its economic infrastructure, technology strength rather weak, the industrial equipment dated, enterprise's lack of market ideas, a lack of market awareness, consumption, high cost of enterprise and economic high quality and economic benefit is low, the international market competition ability and export disabilities, this kind of situation is serious impact on the alternative levels of improving, and restricted the development of import and export trade in China. First incompetence, and export export ability inadequacy and influenced directly restricts the import, introduce advanced technology from abroad, and the end result is the proportion of China in international trade from the 1953 1.5% dropped to 1977 o. 6%. And in the same period, Japan and other emerging east Asian economies but borrowing and seize this period world economic prosperity and international trade development will bring great opportunity, implement export-oriented strategy, make full use of the international market and its resources, and actively develop export-oriented economy, the development of its economy, its much to raise the economic strength. Unfortunately, our country missed the chance to develop export-oriented economy.1.2 Since China's reform and opening trade developmentIn 1979 China began to gradually implement opening, economic reform policy. Started from a single planned economy into planned economy to market economy, combining economic system then to 1992 established a system of socialist market economy. China's economic development strategy is also associated with the reform of the economic structure and get innovation, in the implementation of import substitution strategy is introduced, meanwhile, export orientation strategy, began to develop export-oriented economy and achieved considerable development. Our country is a developing country, industrializationdevelopment process is in the intermediate stage, according to the international development of the general rule of industrialized countries, a period of our country should implement Jackie import substitution and export orientation and development strategy, this is actually "composite" industrialization development strategy. According to the international division of labor theory, a comparative advantage in our country should be within the industry, such as labor-intensive industries through foreign absorbing funds, technology, project, talent and so on a series of can in a relatively short period of time effectively improve our country industrialization level, improve our product international market competition ability of the measures and formulate actively encourage export foreign trade policy, encourage and make efforts to expand the product export. However, in the international market competition developed countries in manipulation and control status, developing countries at a not equal status, developing country exports primary products imported products for export trading prices of primary products, developing countries disadvantage. Therefore, our country should in product, price, cost of a comparative advantage not capital intensive industries and tech-intensive industry field, continue to implement the strategy of import substitution to set up, consolidate, the development of domestic industrial base, perfect our country's industrial development system.2. Import substitution and combination of export-orientedstrategy is necessary2.1 China international and domestic market2.1.1 China trade development prospectsFor our country, our domestic market for development space, although economic volume is broad, only accounted for 25% of the Japanese, American 12%. But China's economic growth rate faster growth rate of 7% - every year, more than 9%, far higher than the 3% to 4% in developed countries. The national economy growth, determines the rapid growth of the national income, the rapid growth of the national income personal income increase makes residents, thereby improving the residents purchasing power and consumption levels, it expanded the total social needs. Then, if the single export-oriented strategy, mainly rely on imported from abroad commodity to meet the need of domestic market consumption market,obviously doesn't work, is also unable to realize. Can predict, in our country's huge population base in front, the future of social purchasing power and aggregate demand will continue to improve, new consumer market will keep formation and appear. The expansion of domestic market this market and the growth of total, is not only the market "quantity" of simple expansion, and the market's "mass ' 'get promoted continuously. From this point, China's domestic market in the future for quite a long time, it is quite wide development space for the enterprise, it will be a huge market opportunities, it is import substitution industrial development opens up a broad prospect and space. Therefore, our country industrialization development direction, and its overall goal should be facing domestic market, its product market objectives should be also the domestic market of the consumers. That is, through meet domestic market demand, from domestic market to promote economic development. Therefore, impossible to China's economy as a whole and all industrial areas have included the export-oriented orbit.2.1.2 China's import and export orientedOf course, we cannot therefore refute export-oriented, if not export orientation, do not expand export, import substitution industry also could not succeed. In the development of import substitution of economy at the same time, should because when, in parts of the situation, part industry, part of the enterprise the export orientation strategy, establish the export-oriented economy. In order to make full use of the international economic conditions obtained through the development of export, import advanced technology and foreign equipment, production replace imported products supply domestic market, economic globalization and regional economic integration has become the trend of the economic development, if we put too much emphasis on the domestic market and ignore the huge international market is untimely; Similarly, if put too much emphasis on the international market and ignore the domestic market on economic growth role is one-sided. We should make full use of both domestic and overseas market to provide power for sustained economic growth, which is implemented to China's national conditions, namely, the economic development strategy, import substitution and export orientation and development strategy, essence is a "composite ' 'industrialization development strategy.3. Economic development strategy model selection anddetermined3.1 Should be taken into account in the domestic and international economic and political environment impactFor a nation to choose economic development strategy, establish economic development model, we should consider international economic and political environment, domestic social economic system and national economic development foundation and development goals of influence and restriction role. Must a country period of economic development strategy, economic development pattern should adapt and obey the period of international economic and political environment, domestic social economic system and the development of domestic economy based and development objectives, and with the international economic and political environment, domestic social economic system and the development of domestic economy foundation and development goals change constantly adjusted by due to the above, avoid the development of influence and restriction factor to changes in the economic and strategic decision making mistakes. International economic and political environment contains the international political environment and change period, international security environment and change, the international economic relations and its development trend, the international market dynamic and change trend and international economic relations theory and theories of the emergence, development, innovation and its role and influence. International economic and political environment is to develop export-oriented mode have to first consider the question, of course, international economic and political environment on import substitution industrialization is also a major influence. For the domestic social and economic system, main is to focus on this period of national economic system present situation and future trends and possible targets and related measures and policiesAnd regulations, etc. Domestic economic development foundation or refers to a country, including this situation of resource endowment, economic development at the stage and level, the domestic market product supply and demand relation and changes, economic structure and industrial technology present situation and upgrade of economic development tendency, and strategic goals and positioning, etc.Comprehensive national conditions, China's economic system, the international environment and the internal factors of economic and strategic consideration, theimplementation of import substitution and export-oriented combination of economic development strategy will be long-term choice of science, and in the process of continuously according to information feedback, promptly to economic development strategy and the corresponding economic model appropriate adjustments, innovation, taking the strain of the new situation hair and requirements.3.2 The applicable conditions strategic mode to implement step, multilayered composite strategyFor this problem, should be taken into account in import substitution type and export-led strategic advantage and applicable environment and conditions, and two strategic mutual stimulative effect. Generally speaking, should not a comparative advantage in the capital tech-intensive industry, continue to import substitution competency of strategy. Because our country is still more weak industrial base, and economic development, industrial development imbalance in foundation is bad, the industry in the field of production the durable alternative consumer products is necessary, shall continue in the durable consumer goods industries in implementing import substitution, achieved certain industrial scale and industrial level, its import substitution fields namely expanded to the consumer durables industry and basic industries and development to export-oriented industries. And in industry developing fast, technical level is higher, and even reached the international advanced level of industrial areas should implement durable consumer goods, and to replace export-driven economic development. Meanwhile, a comparative advantage in China within the labor-intensive industries in introducing foreign capital, continued through a series of measures to increase competitiveness, adopt of export encouraged policies implementation export-led strategy.3.3 The government should take the necessary compound protection policy and incentivesImplement complex strategic pattern, the government should take the necessary compound protection policy and incentives. As to the import substitution industry cultivation and the protection and promotion of the industrial level, export orientation industry support and encourage and promote the original import substitution industry upgrading and translatedinto export-oriented industries. Practice has proved, import substitution and export-oriented model smoothly with whether the implementation of its success, all need consistent with the condition, need corresponding policy means and tools, and forming a corresponding mechanism and play a role. Meanwhile, the hybrid strategy model selection and implementation should also be considered, fully mobilize the enthusiasm of different market subjects, coordinating all social economic subject, in all sectors of the economy and regional balance development, and continuing to inject new vitality into the economic development and power, make development, the innovation to become the aware behavior, make enterprises from different social economic subject parties bits, all levels play its internal power and vigor, form complex economic model effect.3.4 Should export orientation and comprehensive evaluation of import-substituted strategy modeFor import substitution and export-oriented strategy pattern appraisal, should combine two strategic mode the essential contents of the structure and the development conditions and environmental analysis scientific conclusions could be drawn. The same countries in different stages of development of implementing import-substituted strategy or export-oriented strategy in the allocation of resources when different emphasis. Import-substituted strategy emphasize development and use of domestic market resources, export orientation strategy emphasized in comparative advantage, emphasize the international division of labor, develop and utilize international market resources. These two ideas respectively expounds import-substituted strategy and export-oriented strategy thinking of the meaning, but he does not throw import-substituted strategy or export-oriented strategy paper tries to know, combined, evaluation and utilization, no comprehensive analysis of their interaction and mutual influence and consequences, because appear not too full. Only put import-substituted strategy and export-oriented strategy development strategic comprehensive up comprehensive analysis, by comparing to clear their respective advantages, suitable condition and selection weaknesses and negative effect, can achieve in the implementation developing its long, avoid its short, realize two strategy model of complementary and alternative, accomplished already fully develop domestic market, and develop international market; Made full use of domestic resources, and make full use of international resources.中文译文中国对外贸易模式研究本文联系实际阐明我国今后应积极实施进口替代和出口导向相结合的复合型战略模式的观点，并阐述了在选择和实施经济展战略模式时应考虑的问题。