现代英语语法串讲

现代英语语法串讲Main points of GrammarChapter One - The Structure of the English Sentence1. Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order:A text consists of one or more sentencesA sentence consists of one or more clausesA clause consists of one or more phrasesA phrase consists of one or more wordsA word consists of one or more morphemes2. Terms:(1) Morpheme: Morphemes are the minimal meaningful elements.(2) Free morpheme: A morpheme that can occur in isolation is termed a “free morpheme”.(3) Bound morphemes: A morpheme that can only occur in conjunction with at least one other morpheme is termed a “bound morpheme”(4) Root: A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.(5) Stem: A stem has to do with inflectional features and is the part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.(6) Base: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.3. Words are classified in terms of three factors：the environment, the internal structure, the meaning4. Words classesOpen classes: noun, adjective, adverb, verbClosed classes: determiner, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, auxiliaryMarginal classes: numerals, interjections5. Words in the open classes are determined on the basis of three criteria:meaning (semantic or notional angle), form (morphology), function (syntactic)6. the word-formations:(1) Affixation: Affixation is a kind of word-formation approach that it attaches a lesser morpheme. The general term includes: prefixes, infixes and suffixes.(2) Composition: A compound, the product of composition, is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.(3) Conversion: Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix.(4) Blending: Blending is a kind of word-formation that a new word is formed from parts of two other words.(5) Back-formation: Back-formation refers to a similar process only reversed.(6) Shortening: Shortening is a process whereby part of a word is clipped so that the originalword is shortened to a smaller word.(7) Acronyms: An acronym is a word coined by putting together the initial letters of a group of words.7. Phrases:(1) Definition: A phrase consists of one or more than one word, always with a head word which determines the class and the structured way of the phrase. It can be classified into five classes: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and preposition phrase.(2) Five phrase classes:Noun phrase: consists of a head word (a noun) and one or more optional modifiers. Adjective phrase: consists of an adj. as its head word and optional modifiers.Adverb phrase: consists of an adverb as its head word that can take optional modifiers. Prepositional phrase: consists of a proposition as its head word and optional postmodifiers. Verb phrase: the head of a verb phrase is the head verb or lexical verb. Verb phrase is divided into two types based on the forms: the finite verb phrase and the non-finite verb phrase.8. Clause:Two categories: main clause and subordinate clause9. Sentence:(1) Classes: According to different functions, a sentence can be a statement, a question, a command or an exclamation.(2) Seven basic clause patterns:SV: subject + verbe.g The solider has recovered.SVC: subject + verb + complemente.g I am happy.SVO: subject + verb + objectivee.g She forgot the key.SVOO: subject + verb + objective + objectivee.g He gave me a present.SVOC: subject + verb + objective + complemente.g He calls her little sister.SVA: subject + verb + adverbiale.g The sun rises each day.SVOA: subject + verb + objective + adverbiale.g China is a large country with a long history.Chapter Two Sentence Types1. Four major types of sentences and functions:(1) Declaration: giving information;(2) Interrogative: requiring information;(3) Imperative: requiring actions;(4) Ex clamation: expressing the speaker’s impression of something.2. assertion vs. non-assertion(1) assertive words: some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere, sometime(s), one or the other, still, already, as well, too(2) non-assertive words: any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere, ever, either, any more, any longer, yet, either(3) negative Words: no/none, no one, nobody, nothing, nowhere, never, neither, no more, no longer(4) Exercise: convert the sentence as demand:A. I have some news for you.non-assertive: I don’t have any news for you.negative: I have no news for you.B. There is someone waiting for you.non-assertive: There isn’t anybody waiting for you.negative: There is nobody waiting for you.3. Four major classes of question:(1) Yes-No question(2) WH-question(3) Alternative question(4) Tag question4. Two major types of alternative questions(1) YES-NO question: YES-NO question are so called because they can be answered by a simple “Yes” or “No”.(2) WH-question: T he term “WH-questions” covers all question that normally begin withWH-series of words, i.e. what, when, where, why, who(m), whose, which and how. They are sometimes called “information questions”.5. What is the difference of the tag question with the rising tone or falling tone?The tag can be spoken with a rising tone or a falling tone.(1) A tag with a rising tone, the question expresses the speaker’s neutral expectation of the hearer’s response and invites the hearer to verify the truth of the prop osition in the statement. It is a YES-NO question in function.(2) A tag question with a falling tone, the speaker asks for the hearer’s confirmation of the statement. It is like an exclamation.6. Exclamations(1) Two major types of exclamations: What-exclamations and How-exclamations(2) What-exclamation: what + a(n) + adj. + nounHow-exclamation: how + adj. + a(n) + noun(3) Exercises: Turn the following statements into exclamationA. It is a nice day!=> What a nice day (it is)!=> How nice a day (it is)!B. She is very beautiful.=> How beautiful she is!C. He has been working a long time.=> What a long time he’s been working!Chapter Three Noun and Noun Phrase (1): Noun and Number1. Analyze the internal structure of noun phrase.(1) Noun phrase consists of a head word of noun or pronoun, and one or more optional modifiers.(2) Structure: (premodification) + head word + (postmodification)(3) The head word of a noun phrase is a noun or pronoun, which can be modified by various premodifiers or postmodifiers from word to clause.(4) for example:the peoplethe old peoplethe ole people old and sickthe old people in the hospitalall the old people who are receiving treatment2. Noun classes:(1) Noun classes include proper nouns and common nouns.(2) Common nouns include countable nouns and mass nouns.(3) Countable nouns include concrete nouns and abstract nouns.(4) Mass nouns include concrete nouns and abstract nouns.3. Terms(1) Proper nouns: Proper nouns denote individual persons, places, etc. A proper noun normally begins with a capital letter, has no plural form and cannot occur after an article.(2) Mass nouns: Nouns cannot take plural are called mass nouns.(3) Collective noun: Collective nouns refer to a group of people, animal and things, which are usually countable.(4) Unit noun: Unit nouns are a very special class of words that are used to specify the quantities of the modified noun.(5) Plural invariables: Nouns are always occur in plural form.(6) Plural compounds: Three tendencies are at work in the inflection of compounds for plural: pluralize the last element, pluralize the first element and pluralize both the first and the last elements.(7) Singular invariables: Singular invariables are normally invariable singulars, Proper nouns and Mass nouns belong to Singular invariables.4. Number(1) Singular invariables: proper nouns and mass nouns(2) Plural invariables: names of tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal; some collective nouns, geographical names of mountain ranges, specials nouns ending in -s(3) Either case:(4) Exercise: physics, news, stationery, crowdSingular only: physics, news, stationeryBoth singular and plural: crowd5. Unit nouns(1) referring to the shapes of objects: a bar of candy, a blade of grass, a cake of ice(2) referring to the ways in which things are put together: a bunch of flowers/keys, a bundle of straw, a cluster of flowers/islands(3) referring to groups of people: an army of beggars, a band of musicians, a bench of examiners (4) referring to groups of animals: a brood of chickens, a cluster of ants, a flock of birds(5) referring to measurement: a foot of cloth, a kilo of flour(6) referring to containers: a bottle of milk, a bowl of rice, a bucket of water(7) referring to manners, states, etc: a display of courage, a fit of coughing, a flash of hopeExercise:1. Choose the appropriate forms in brackets:(1) The Browns (is, are) moving away on Saturday.(2) No one will fail to marvel at the (snow, snows) of the Himalayas.(3) We visited Niagara (Fall, Falls) last summer.(4) I hate to see you in such (a low spirit, low spirits).(5) My special thanks (goes, go) to Professor Brown, who read the dirst draft of this book and gave me a lot of invaluable (advice, advices).(6) He dug deep in his pocket only to produce two (pence, pennies).(7) There has been an increasing number of (man, men) teachers in primary schools in the past few years.(8) Your politics (seem, seems) to be at variance with mine.(9) The Chinese (is, are) an industrious people.(10) Turn left at the second (crossroad, crossroads).Chapter Four Noun and Noun Phrase: Determiner and Genitive1. Terms:(1) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the head word.(2) Double genitive, also referred to as the “post genitive”, is so called because it is a combination of the genitive and the of-phrase, suc h as a friend of my brother’s.2. Determiners and adjectives are different in many ways, what are they?(1) Determiners usually precede adjectives in premodification;(2) The choice of determiners is often determined by the head word but not that of adjectives;(3) Adjectives describe the head word by showing its characteristics, but determiners determine the head word by identifying or quantifying;(4) Adjectives can postmodify the head word, but not determiners;(5) Adjectives have comparative forms, inflectional or periphrastic, but not determiners.3. Co-occurrence of determiners:(1) Predeterminer + Central determiner + Postdeterminer(2) Key words for each group:Predeterminer: all, both, half, double, twice, three, times, one-third, two-thirds, what, sucha(an), manyCentral determiner: articles [a(n), the], demonstratives (this, that, these, those), possessives (my, your, his, etc), genitives (John’s, the boy’s etc), any, each, either, enough, every, neither, no, some, what, which(ever), whose(ever)Postdeterminer: cardinal numerals (one, two, three, etc), ordinal numerals (first, second, third, etc.), next, last, few (fewer, fewest), little(less, least), many, much (more, most), another, other, several, such(3) Attention: two predeterm iners or two central determiners can’t co-occur, while two postdeterminers can co-occur.4. Please list all the forms of genitives and give some examples:Possessive: Mary’s bookOf-phrase: the book of the classDouble genitive: a classmate of sister’s5. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice-versa?In principle, animate nouns, esp. referring to persons, can take genitive form, while inanimate nouns, esp. referring to lifeless objects, can take the form of of-phrase.6. What are the constrains that the double genitive is subject to?(1) the 2nd noun refers to persons, never to objects; e.g a friend of Tom’s(2) the 1st noun has indefinite reference and the 2nd noun is definitee.g a friend of my brother’s(3) the 1st noun can be modified by demonstrative or postmodified by a relative clause: e.g that/ the ideas of your sister’s7. What are generic reference and specific reference?Generic reference and specific reference are two uses of articles. Generic reference indicates the whole species or kind, while specific reference indicates one specific people or thing.Chapter Five Verb and Verb Phrase (1): Tense , Aspect and Future1. Analyze the structure of a verb phrase:(1) The overall structure of a verb phrase may be represented by the following formula:Premodification + Head word(2) Verb phrase is divided into two types: simple verb phrase and complex verb phrase2. Explain the relationship between tense and aspect.(1) Tense: refers to a systematic set of inflectional features that are related to time.There are two tenses: the present tense and the past tense:Aspect: reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to/ concerning time. There are two aspec t forms: the progressive aspect and the perfective aspect.(2) Tense points to temporal locations, and aspect marks the state of an action.3. What is the difference between tense and time?Time is a concept and tense is a grammar device. A particular tense form can express different temporal notions in different context.4. What implications does it have when simple present refers to the present? And it use in what situation?(1) It is suitable for the general timeless the general timeless statements or the expression of so-called eternal truths;(2) We can also include examples denoting the present existence or state of affairs;(3) The simple present is also commonly used to refer to something that is characterized by regular recurrence;(4) Another important use of the simple present with reference to the present time is found in the presentation of an event that happens simultaneously with speech.5. What does the simple past referring to the present is used to express?The simple past with reference to the present usually expresses the speaker’s attitude or hypothesis. The attitudinal use normally occurs in independent clauses expressing a less direct question, quest or suggestion and implying an overtone of politeness on the part of the speakers. The hypothetical use is typically found in dependent clauses, expressing something contrary to the given fact or to the speaker’s belief, expectation or assumption.6. What are typical semantic components of the present progressive?Some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive are: duration, simultaneity, temporariness, incompleteness, vividness, emphasis, etc.7. The specific semantic implication of future expression: （P125）will/ shallbe going tobe doingsimple presentwill be dongbe about to dobe to doChapter Six: Verb and Verb Phrase (2): Passive Voice and Subjunctive Mood1. There are four categories with finite form: tense, aspect, voice, and mood;Two voice forms: the unmarked active voice, marked passive voice; three mood forms: indicative, imperative, subjunctive2. What constraints does the passive voice have?(1) Grammatical(2) Semantic(3) Stylistic3. The points about Be-passive and Get-passiveBe-passive: (1) state (2) process (3) on who cause the event (4) stative verb (5) with by-agent Get-passive: (1)event (2) consequence (3) on what happens (4) dynamic verb (5) by-agent left out (6) with adverbial showing consequences lie: eventually, finally, as a result.4. What is pseudo-passive? What differences bare there between it regular passive?(1) It is passive in form but active in meaning(2) Its v-ed is adjectivalized(3) V-ed can be modified by ”very/so”, or occurred in comparative form;(4) Without by-agent(5) With other link verbs like: seem, look, etc.5. Where does passive occur?The structure chosen is often determined by the speaker’s point of view, by stylistic factors and, more often than not, by context that may require a particular ordering of information items in a sentence.6. Under what circumstances do we need to leave out the prepositional phrase of by + agent from a passive voice sentence?(1) The passive voice gives us the option of not mentioning agent;(2) it’s unnecessary to tell who the agent is;(3) wish to conceal the agent’s identity or to distance ourselves from our own action;(4) in accounts of processes and scientific experiments, we often use the passive voice to avoid mentioning the agent explicitly because the focus is on what happens and no t on who or what makes it happen.7. Subjunctive mood falls into 2 major types:(1) be-subjunctive mood(2) were-subjunctive moodMain Points of GrammarChapter 7 Verb and Verb Phrase (3): Model Auxiliaries1. What are the two major semantic categories of modal auxiliaries?According to the semantic categories, modal auxiliaries can be divided into two broad categories: predictive and no-predictive.2. Degree of possibility: (from low to high)mightmaycouldcanshouldought towouldwillmust3. Difference between can and may:(1) In the possibility sense, may is commonly used to refer to something that is actually possible, that is, it indicates that the possibility actually exists in real life. Can, generally expresses a different kind of possibility, one that exists in theory rather than in actuality. (2) May not indicates that it is possible that something is not the case. Can’t indicates the impossibility of a state of affairs and is the negative version of must in the predictive sense.(3) In questions, predictive may is rare, which is usually replaced by can.(4) May is marked for formality while can is preferred in informal situations.4. The differences between “should” and “ought to” in meaning:(1) As expressions of obligation should is more subjective on the basis of his judgment.(2) Ought to is more objective on the basis of moral and social principles(3) Ought to expresses warning, disagreement(4) Should offers friendly adviceExercises:1. They ____ the train yesterday, otherwise he will be here now.A. can have missedB. must have missedC. must missD. can miss答案：B2. They ____ here yesterday.A. can’t beB. must beC. mustn’t have beenD. can’t have been答案：D3. ___ you be happy!A. MayB. MustC. CanD. Would答案：A4. You ____ pay the money, but you ____ do so at once.A. needn’t ….mustB. need ……nee dC. must ……mustD. must ……needn’t答案：D5. ____ there be life on Mars?A. CanB. MustC. MayD. Should答案：A6. They ____ on the project for three weeks by now.A. will workB. will have been workingC. had been workedD. worked答案：B7. You’d t he parcel home. The shop have delivered it if you had asked.A. didn’t need to carryB. didn’t carryC. mustn’t have carriedD. needn’t have carried答案：D8. New machinery ____ arriving tomorrow.A. will beB. isC. areD. shall be答案：B9. ____ you have left your glasses at the office.A. ShouldB. WouldC. CouldD. Can答案：C10. My father ____ such a thing.A. cannot have saidB. might not have saidC. couldn’t sayD. must not have said答案：AChapter 8 Verb and Verb Phrase (4): Non-finite Verbs1. What are non-finite verbs?Non-finite verbs are so-called because they are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord. There are three types of non-finite verbs: infinitive, -ing participle and -ed participle.2. What is dangling participle?When the subject of a participle is not expressed, it is normally understood to be the subject of the main clause. We call this kind of participle dangling participle.Exercises:1. We hear her ____ the piano upstairs every evening.A. playsB. playingC. playedD. play答案：D2. ____ ask for help, she decided to work it out by herself.A. Rather thanB. More thanC. RatherD. No sooner than答案：A3. It’s not allowed ___ in the room.A. smokingB. to smokeC. smokeD. smoked答案：B4. I don’t mind ____ late at night.A. workB. workingC. to workedD. worked答案：B5. The food ____ rotten fast in such hot weather.A. getsB. is gettingC. will getD. will have got答案：A6. I will go home for a vacation as soon as I ___ my exams.A. finishB. will finishC. finishedD. had finished答案：A7. The bus came after I ___ for about half an hour.A. had been workedB. had been workingC. was waitingD. have waited答案：B8. He regretted ____ her the truth.A. having toldB. to have toldC. had toldD. to tell答案：AReplace the finite clauses in italics by non-finite constructions:9. I’m sure it’ll do you good if you admit that you made the mistake. => I’m sure it’ll do you good if you admit making the mistake. 10. Please advise me which I should choose:=> Please advise me which to choose.11. I only wish I could achieve half your success.=> I only wish to achieve half your success.12. I felt that my mind weight was lifted after he promised.=> I felt my mind weight lifted after he promised.13. Do you anticipate that there will be any real problem in getting support?=> Do you anticipate being any real problem in getting support?14. I remember that I posted the letter.=> I remember posting the letter.15. All the windows which were broken have been repaired.=> All the windows broken have been repaired.Chapter 9 Adjective Phrase and Comparison1. Analyze the structure of adj. phrase and syntactic feature of it:(1) The structure of adjective phrase:premodification + head word + postmodification(2) The premodification is often adv, and the post can be: adv, prep. phrase, finite clause, or non-finite clause.(3) Adjective phrase can serve as attributives and predictives:When it serves as attributives, adj. phrase occurs between a determiner and a noun, such as, a pretty girl.When it serves as predictive, adj. phrase can be a subject complement or an object complement.2. The semantic classification of adjective:Adjectives can be classified in terms of three scales: stative/dynamic, gradable/non-gradable, and inherent/non-inherent. Besides, adjectives bear other semantic features as well as restrictive/ non-restrictive and marked/unmarked.3. What are restrictive and non-restrictive adjective? Explain with examples.(1) A restrictive adj. helps identify the noun by describing its distinctive qualities; while a non-restrictive provides additional information which is usually not essential for the identif ication of the referent.(2)In “a fat woman”, “fat” is a restrictive adjective; it can identify the woman from those women who are not fat. In “my fat wife”, “fat” is a non-restrictive adjective, and it proves additionalinformation. “fat” can’t identify my wife from other women (You can’t say a f at woman must be wife.)4. Ordering of premodifying adjectives:Zone I: Intensifying adjectivesZone II: Gradable adjectivesZone III: Color adjectives and participlesZone IV: Denominal adjective5. Three degree of comparison:(1) positive degree: as….as…..(2) comparative degree: more…. than….(3) superlative degree: the most …….Exercises:1. I can give you copies of this book as many as you want.=> I can give you as many copies of the book as you can.2. You may have fresh water as much as you like from here.=> You may have as much fresh water as you like from here.3. Mr. White is a much more learned professor than his students.=> Mr. White is a professor much more learned than his students.4. He likes to order food more than he can eat.=>He likes to order more food than he can eat.5. We need people fewer than there are here.=> We need fewer people than there are here.6. They have done as twice as much work as us.=> They have done twice as much work as us.Chapter TenExercises:1. Michael has remarkable talent ____ basketball. (for)2. Many of them died ____ the disease. (of)3. He aimed his gun ____ me. (at)4. I have no objection ____ his staying in the library as long as he keeps silent. (to)5. ____the two books, she also brought a dictionary. (Besides)6. An objective law is independent ___ man’s will. (on)7. There is no exception ____ the rule. (to)8. She sat ____ the three children. (among)9. London is situated ___ the River Thames. (on)10. He came __ a car and backed ___ bus. (in, by)Chapter Eleven Coordination and Subordination1. Coordination: Coordination is realized by coordinators which join units at the same level.2. Subordination: Subordination, realized by subordinators, involves the linking of units at different levels so that they form a hierarchy. A subordinator introduces a subordinate clause which is attached to the main clause.Exercises:1. Come ___ have tea with us. (and)2. Give me five minutes ___ and I’ll finish the work. (or so)3. ____ they want a house, we would rather live in a flat. (White/Whereas)4. He never came ____ when he is in trouble. (except)5. I think it best ___ you should stay here. (that)6. I shall never forget the ___ New China was founded. (when)7. The reason ___ he did that was unacceptable. (why)8. Is there anything wrong in ___ I said. (what)9. ___ they went, they were warmly received. (Wherever)10. It was raining again, ___ is bad for our crops. (which)Chapter Twelve Relative Clause1. What are the differences between restrictive relative clause and non-restrictive relative? (1) The restrictive relative clause is an integral part of the noun phrase and gives essential information for the identification of what its antecedent refers to.(2) The non-restrictive relative clause merely offers additional information which is not needed to identify the person or thing we are talking about. Non-restrictive relative clauses often set off in wring by commas, and the clause can’t be introduced by “that” or “a zero relative pronoun).2. What is double relative clause?It is used to cover all the verb forms that express assumptions contrary to the given fact or not likely to be materialized, and becomes a far less important verbal category than was suggested.Exercises:1. He ___ laughs last laughs best. (who)2. He denied seeing the murder suspect, ____ turned out to be true. (which)3. This is the best biography ___ I have read of Churchill. (that)4. This is the place ____ they stayed for the night. (where)5. The woman about ___ we talked has just given birth to quintuples successfully. (whom)6. Combining sentences into one that contains a relative clause:My brother gave up smoking. That delighted his wife and children.=>My brother gave up smoking, which delighted his wife and children.Chapter Thirteen Adverbials1. Terms(1) Adjunt is a word or a group of words which we add to a clause to say something about the circumstances of an event or situation, for example, when, where or how it occurs.(2) Disjunct: Disjuncts convey a comment on the content of the clause to which they are peripherally attached.Exercises (for Chapter 13, 14, 15, 16 )。